Arabs and Muslims in the Media Race and Representation
after 9/11
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Arabs and Muslims in the Media
CRITICAL CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
General Editors: Sarah Banet-Weiser and Kent A. Ono
Dangerous Curves: Latina Bodies in the Media Isabel Molina-Guzmán
The Net Effect: Technology, Romanticism, Capitalism Thomas Streeter
Our Biometric Future: The Pursuit of Automated Facial Perception Kelly
A. Gates
Critical Rhetorics of Race Edited by Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono
Circuits of Visibility: Gender and Transnational Media Cultures Edited by
Radha S. Hegde
Commodity Activism: Cultural Resistance in Neoliberal Times Edited by
Roopali Mukherjee and Sarah Banet-Weiser
Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11
Evelyn Alsultany
Visualizing Atrocity: Arendt, Evil, and the Optics of Thoughtlessness Valerie
Hartouni
Arabs and Muslims in the Media
Race and Representation after 9/11
Evelyn Alsultany
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS
New York and London
www.nyupress.org
© 2012 by New York University
All rights reserved
References to Internet Websites (URLs) were accurate at the time of
writing. Neither the author nor New York University Press is responsible for
URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Alsultany, Evelyn.
Arabs and Muslims in the media : race and representation after 9/11 /
Evelyn Alsultany.
p. cm. — (Critical cultural communication)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8147-0731-9 (cl : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-8147-0732-6 (pb : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-8147-2917-5 (ebook)
ISBN 978-0-8147-3814-6 (ebook)
1. Arabs on television. 2. Muslims on television. 3. Stereotypes (Social
psychology) on television. 4. Television programs—United States—History
—
21st century. I. Title.
PN1992.8.A7A58 2012
305.6′970973—dc23 2011051502
New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their
binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use
environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent
possible in publishing our books.
Manufactured in the United States of America
c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
p 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
For my father, Kamal Ali Alsultany 1941–2011
In the idealized desire for national unity served up nightly on evening cable
and network newscasts, new actors—this time Arabs, Palestinians, Islamic
fundamentalists—have quickly become the bodies and cultures that the
logic of race marks as different and therefore potentially threatening to the
national order. Television’s role in this process is absolutely central, for it is
television that makes these images and representations of difference
meaningful, legible, and familiar.
—Herman Gray, Watching Race
Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 Challenging the Terrorist Stereotype
2 Mourning the Suspension of Arab American Civil Rights
3 Evoking Sympathy for the Muslim Woman
4 Regulating Sympathy for the Muslim Man
5 Selling Muslim American Identity
Epilogue
Notes
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
Acknowledgments
This book began at Stanford University where I was fortunate to work with
and learn from exceptional scholars. David Palumbo-Liu, Akhil Gupta, and
Cherríe Moraga advised and challenged me, believing in my project on
Arab Americans even before the current renaissance in the field. Jackie
Armijo-Hussein, Ahmad Dallal, Purnima Mankekar, Paula Moya, and
Renato Rosaldo encouraged me to pursue my interests. Monica Moore and
Jan Hafner at Modern Thought and Literature provided invaluable
administrative and moral support. My colleagues were both supportive and
inspirational. I thank Lisa Arellano, Yael Ben-zvi, Julia Carpenter, Raul
Coronado Jr., Manishita Dass, Eman Desouky, Maya Dodd, Nicole
Fleetwood, Vida Mia Garcia, Mishuana Goeman, Shona Jackson, Jackie
Jenkins, Steven Lee, Bakirathi Mani, Allegra McLeod, Hilton Obenzinger,
Marcia Ochoa, Flavio Paniagua, Beth Piatote, Sarah Ramirez, Rola Razek,
Helle Rytkonen, Richard Simpson, Nirvana Tanoukhi, Lisa B. Thompson,
Kyla Wazana Tompkins, Tim’m T. West, and Michelle Zamora. I am
especially grateful to mis compañeras Madgalena Barrera and Marisol
Negrón. It is difficult to find the words to acknowledge Ebony Coletu, who
accompanied me throughout my years at Stanford. Ebony gave me
meticulous feedback, pushing me to think in new ways, dazzling me with
her brilliance and her friendship.
This project has been directly and indirectly shaped by several key
mentors. Dorothy Duff Brown has counseled me through my years as an
assistant professor. I would not have completed this book with my sanity
intact had it not been for our many conversations over the past few years
and her encouragement, guidance, and wisdom. The mentorship of M.
Jacqui Alexander, Drucilla Cornell, Penny Eckert, and Cherríe Moraga has
had a lasting impact. Penny Von Eschen’s mentorship and support have
been a source of sustenance. Jack G. Shaheen’s work has been foundational
and inspirational. I am moved by his support and faith in me. As for Melani
McAlister, it is an embarrassment of riches that she has read three versions
of this manuscript and offered her close engagement, feedback, and support.
Her belief in the project and targeted feedback were instrumental to its
fruition.
Ella Shohat has read the full manuscript in its various forms, providing
extensive feedback. She has also given me emotional support, guidance,
and friendship for over a decade and is an inspiration and tremendous
influence on my work.
I have been fortunate to be surrounded by many wonderful colleagues at
the University of Michigan: Paul Anderson, Catherine Benamou, Stephen
Berry, Bruce Conforth, Maria Cotera, Matthew Countryman, Julie Ellison,
Amal Fadlallah, Jonathan Freedman, Mary Freiman, Colin Gunckel, Sandra
Gunning, Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof, Judy Gray, June Howard, Mary C.
Kelley, Scott Kurashige, Larry LaFountain-Stokes, Jayati Lal, Emily
Lawsin, Lora Lempert, Richard Meisler, Victor Mendoza, Tiya Miles,
Marlene Moore, Susan Najita, Silvia Pedraza, Brooklyn Posler, Daniel
Ramirez, Tabitha Rohn, Damon Salesa, Sarita See, Amy Stillman, Gustavo
Verdesio, Alan Wald, Michael Witgen, and Magdalena Zaborowska. In
particular, I thank Matthew Briones, Philip Deloria, Vince Diaz, Greg
Dowd, Kristin Hass, Nadine Naber, Yeidy Rivero, Andrea Smith, Amy
Stillman, and Penny Von Eschen for either participating in my manuscript
workshop or providing comments on my manuscript. They challenged me
to make this the best book possible. I especially thank Kristin and Penny for
their close and constructive engagement with multiple iterations of the
manuscript. I am also grateful for support and comments from my writing
group: Lori Brooks, Anthony Mora, and Amy Carroll. Amy’s insightful
feedback and camaraderie have shaped some of the key ideas in this book.
I am fortunate to have a community of Arab and Muslim American
Studies colleagues and friends: Rabab Abdulhadi, Sawsan Abdulrahim,
Wadad Abed, Nasrine Shah-Aboushakra, Devon Akmon, Barbara Aswad,
Moulouk Berry, Leila Buck, Louise Cainkar, Christina Dennaoui, Carol
Fadda-Conrey, Jonathan Friedlander, Reem Gibriel, Randa Jarrar, John
Karam, Sylvia Chan-Malek, Joan Mandell, Khaled Mattawa, Joe Namy,
Rola Nashef, Junaid Rana, Huda and Jeff Rosen, Therese Saliba, May
Seikaly, Matthew Stiffler, William Youmans, and Kathy Zarur. I am
honored to be in such good company, and would especially like to thank
Thomas Abowd, Deborah Al-Najjar, Anan Ameri, Salah Hassan, Amira
Jarmakani, Sunaina Maira, and Steven Salaita for their support and
friendship. Amira and Steven also gave vital feedback on parts of the
manuscript.
It has been a pleasure to work with bright and wonderful research
assistants, many of whom are the next generation of cutting edge scholars:
Ryah Aqel, Rabia Belt, Monika Raj, Mejdulene Shomali, Emily Rosengren,
Lani Teves, and Eliot Truesdell. The passionate work of graduate students
Yamil Avivi, Sarah Gothie, Andrew McBride, Hannah Noel, Wendy Sung,
and Rachel Afi Quinn is infectious. Rachel has also been a kind source of
encouragement.
Eric Zinner has been a fantastic editor who has believed and advocated
for this project from the beginning. I thank series editors Sarah Banet-
Weiser and Kent A. Ono for their interest and support. I am also grateful to
Ciara McLaughlin for her assistance along the way. This project also
benefited from feedback from anonymous readers. I am grateful to
freelance editor David Lobenstine for his painstakingly detailed work. It
was a challenging and enriching experience to develop my writing and
ideas with David’s feedback, and it undoubtedly made this a better work. I
also thank copy editor Sheila Berg and production editor Tim Roberts. For
financial support, I thank the Program in American Culture, Office for Vice
President for Research, LSA Dean’s Office, and the Center for International
and Comparative Studies at the University of Michigan.
I am indebted to many friends for emotional support. Nadine Naber has
been my dear friend, colleague, and co-conspirator. She read different
versions of the manuscript and helped me develop as a scholar and writer.
We have spent countless hours together writing our respective books and
collaborating on other projects. The impact of her solidarity is
immeasurable both professionally and personally. Kathryn Babayan and
Rima Hassouneh nourished me with food and friendship. I could always
count on them for emotional support and to remind me of life beyond
writing. I am grateful to other friends in Ann Arbor, Deirdre de la Cruz,
Shazia Iftkhar, Osman Khan, and Atef Said, who make Ann Arbor feel like
home. Dahlia Petrus conducted extensive and meticulous research for me
from which I could probably write multiple books. She has offered me her
invaluable support and friendship. It has been such good fortune to
commiserate with someone about media representations of Arabs and
Muslims who is equally passionate about it.
I am appreciative of my dear friends and family who believed in me
before I believed in myself and who are still an important part of my life:
Joseph Battle, Michael Bobbitt, Christianne and Helen Cejas, Erskine
Childers, Vivia and Stratos Costalas, Amber Donell, Elena Fiallo, Litsa
Flores, Catherine Groves, Sandra Hanna, Anya Hurwitz, Florencia Masri,
Nichole Diaz Mendoza, Douglas Pineda, Lavinia Pinto, Solade Rowe,
Shahid Siddiqui, Brad Verebay, and Juan Carlos Sobrino. I thank Fernando
Rodriguez, Anita, Lourdes, and Leonor Garcia, and Gilda Rodriguez for
their support. I am grateful to my ladies who anchor me in life: Mireille
Abelin, Elif Bali, Nacisse Demeksa, Mona El-Ghobashy, Vanessa Primiani,
and Lauren Rosenthal. Mireille and Mona have shared this journey with me
while on their own parallel paths. Mireille reminds me every day of how far
I’ve come. Mona breathes each minute detail with me, and there is nothing
like having her accompany me for each play-by-play. Her friendship has
enhanced this book and my life. Christine Burmeister-Guivernau is my
biggest cheerleader. She celebrates my accomplishments no matter how
small and has encouraged me each step of the way while also lending her
scrupulous editorial services.
People often laugh at me when I acknowledge my pets, but those of you
who live with animals understand how they contribute to one’s emotional
well-being on a day-to-day level. I offer my thanks to Nubian, Zeeza, and
Monaluna for enriching my life and for keeping me sane. My husband,
Benefo Ofosu-Benefo, has seen me through this project from its inception
to this finished book. His faith in me has been unyielding and has carried
me through. He has provided the calm and comfort needed to write this
book and has also shared in the outrage and enthusiasm that fill its pages.
I am blessed with a supportive family. I thank Sara, Kwadwo (aka Papa,
1935–2011), Nana, and Osei Ofosu-Benefo for their belief in me. For
always being there, thanks to Martha Jaramillo, Maria Jimenez, Steven
Cuevas, and Jimmy and Fatima Chavez. Thanks to my brother, Fabian, for
dreaming big with me. I could always count on my parents for love and
support. They encouraged me throughout this process even when they
didn’t understand why I chose this difficult path. From my mother, Maggie,
I have learned the commitment required to complete a project like this.
This book is dedicated to my father who is the ultimate inspiration for
this project. As a child, witnessing all the assumptions and stereotypes he
was confronted with as an Arab Muslim in the United States made me
painfully aware of the politics of culture. My father passed away as this
book went into production. This is for you, Dad.
Introduction
JACK BAUER (COUNTER TERRORISM UNIT AGENT): How long have
you been planning this operation? Two years? Five years? Ten? All
this planning for one day. You do realize that if all the reactors melt
down, hundreds of thousands of people will die?
DINA ARAZ (TERRORIST): Every war has casualties.
JACK BAUER: These people do not know about your war. These
people are innocent.
DINA ARAZ: No one is innocent.
JACK BAUER: You really believe that?
DINA ARAZ: As strongly as you believe in what you believe. So I
won’t waste your time or mine trying to explain something you can
never understand.
—24, “Day 4: 3–4 p.m.”
REVEREND CAMDEN (TO NEIGHBORS): I know everyone is
boycotting that party tonight because they think the Duprees are
French, but they’re not. The Duprees are from Glen Oak.
NEIGHBOR 1: Well, that’s good to know.
REV. CAMDEN: And they’re Muslim. [Long pause by neighbors.] I
had to see it with my own eyes.
NEIGHBOR 2: See what?
REV. CAMDEN:Prejudice, narrow mindedness … racism.
—7th Heaven, “Getting to Know You”
On September 11, 2001, nineteen Arab Muslim men hijacked four airplanes
and flew them into two of the greatest icons of power in the United States—
the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Nearly three thousand people
were killed. In response, the U.S. government, under President George W.
Bush, initiated the self-proclaimed War on Terror—a military, political, and
legal campaign targeting Arabs and Muslims both in the United States and
around the world.
After this tragic event, and amid growing U.S. American1 rancor toward
the Arab world and violence against individuals with brown skin, I was
surprised to find an abundance of sympathetic portrayals of Arabs and
Muslims on U.S. television. My surprise was twofold. First, at such an
opportune moment for further stereotyping—a moment of mourning, fear,
trauma, anger, and presumably justifiable racism against the entire Arab and
Muslim population—this wave of sympathetic representations seemed both
unprecedented and unlikely. Demonizing the enemy is so common during
times of war—a brief list, just over the last century, would include the
Japanese during World War II and the Russians during the Cold War—I
assumed that 9/11/012 and the War on Terror would ignite the blanket
demonization of all Arabs and Muslims. Second, given that the U.S. media
has stereotyped and misrepresented Arabs and Muslims for over a century,
with very few exceptions, I couldn’t believe that sympathetic portrayals
would appear during such a fraught moment.3
Like many others in the days and weeks (and then months and years)
after September 11, I remained glued to my television. I watched the
endless clips of the planes crashing, of the towers falling, of people pressing
photos of the missing toward the news cameras, of the photos of the
nineteen Arab Muslim men responsible for the attack. I grieved for all those
who lost loved ones and simultaneously grieved in anticipation for the
backlash that was to come against us as Arabs and Muslims. In the midst of
the flurry of news reports, my amazement grew. I watched President Bush
reassure Americans, taking pains to distinguish between Arabs and Muslim
“friends” and “enemies.” He stated, “The enemy of America is not our
many Muslim friends; it is not our many Arab friends. Our enemy is a
radical network of terrorists, and every government that supports them.”4 I
watched news reporters interview Arab and Muslim Americans, seemingly
eager to include their perspectives on the terrorist attacks, careful to point
out their experiences with hate crimes.5 I watched dozens of TV dramas in
which Arab and Muslim Americans were portrayed as the unjust target of
hate crimes.
Certainly, xenophobia and outright racism flourished on the airwaves;
the pundits of FOX News were always a reliable source of antagonism. At
the same time, a slew of TV dramas cashed in on the salacious possibilities
of Arab or Muslim terrorist threats and assured viewers with depictions of
the U.S. government’s heroic efforts to combat this new, pulse-quickening
terrorism. These shows, from network and cable channels alike, include—
but are not limited to—24, Sleeper Cell, NCIS, JAG, The Grid, The Agency,
LAX, Threat Matrix. The series 24, from which the first of this chapter’s
epigraphs is drawn, is a culture-shaping action drama centered on Jack
Bauer, the ubiquitous counterterrorism agent who, season after season,
races against the clock to disrupt terrorist plots in the United States. Amid
his debate with Dina Araz, Bauer subverts a nuclear attack by apparent
“Middle Easterners” partially orchestrated by the Araz family, which has
lived in the United States for years, secretly conspiring with others to attack
this country and murder hundreds of thousands of innocent Americans. The
reasons for these attempts are never fully explained, leaving open two
opposed possibilities: we don’t need a reason—isn’t terrorism what Arabs
and/or Muslims do, after all?—or any such rationale would be
incomprehensible to Americans.
Often, however, these very same TV dramas narrated stories about
innocent Arab and Muslim Americans facing unjust post–September 11
hatred. In the years after the attacks, shows as diverse as The Practice,
Boston Public, Law and Order, Law and Order SVU, NYPD Blue, 7th
Heaven, The Education of Max Bickford, The Guardian, and The West Wing
all featured Arab and Muslim Americans as hardworking, often patriotic,
victims. The second epigraph, for example, is from an episode of 7th
Heaven, a family drama about Reverend Camden and his wife and their
seven children. In this episode, a Muslim American family moves to the
neighborhood and the Camden family plans a party to welcome them. The
other neighbors decide to boycott the party because they erroneously
assume the new residents are French, and since France did not support the
U.S. government’s decision to invade Iraq as part of the War on Terror, they,
like many Americans, are boycotting anything and everything French.6
