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Encapsulating immobilized ureolytic bacteria

yields self-healing concrete apropos sustainable
transportation materials: a review
Roberto Rosario D1,2* and Marc John Viado3*
1Graduate School, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila, Philippines
2Design Science Incorporated Engineering Services, Bagumbayan, Quezon City, Philippines
3Bureau of Research and Standards, Department of Public Works and Highways, Quezon City,

Philippines

Abstract. Transportation networks must be resilient to withstand the effects

of climate change and natural calamities. Concrete infrastructure must
endure extreme weather, flooding, and seismic catastrophes better than
many other types of construction to guarantee the sustainability of
transportation services. Self-healing concrete is unquestionably the material
of the future that could address these issues. Researchers have discovered a
self-healing process in automatic repairing the concrete cracks up to 1.8 mm
width. This is made possible by ureolytic and non- ureolytic microorganisms
from Bacillus family that cause bacterial precipitation and production of
calcite that seal cracks, which could extend the serviceability of concrete.
Concrete structures can be restored, and damage prevented through different
self-healing mechanisms, such as microvascular healing, bacterial healing,
capsule-based healing, and autogenous repair. Research reveals that
concrete's capacity to repair itself is greatly enhanced by a mixture of self-
healing mechanisms. Moreover, the encapsulation of immobilized bacteria
with expanded clay, calcium alginate beads, or other porous materials that
can hold onto nutrients and bacteria for an extended period resulted in a
considerable improvement in the healing ratio. The main objective of this
study is to enumerate all the potential challenges and limitations of the recent
studies in self-healing concrete to draw a viable conclusion which is
necessary for establishing rules and testing procedures for up-scale
implementation.

1 Introduction
Transportation sustainability is a critical issue worldwide, encompassing environmental,
social, and economic considerations [1 - 3]. Congestion, greenhouse gas emissions, energy
consumption, infrastructure maintenance and durability, and the sustainability of materials
are all issues related to transportation sustainability. A longevity concrete infrastructure is
essential [4]. Substantial infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, and tunnels, must provide
vital roads that can handle high traffic volumes and reduce congestion. The transportation

* Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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industry dramatically increases greenhouse gas emissions by the use of fossil fuels [4, 5] and
accumulating maintenance costs over time around the globe. Fixing deteriorating roads,
bridges, and building systems, the US Government allotted a 1.2 trillion US dollar investment
in American infrastructure [6]. Reducing the demand for costly concrete structure
maintenance and repairs will significantly address these global challenges.
Concrete infrastructure can support sustainability by maximizing low-carbon materials or
adding cementitious resources like fly ash, slag, and polymers. In order to be sustainable, it
is imperative to maximize energy efficiency in transportation systems, which require
significant energy inputs. Smooth road surfaces created by the concrete infrastructure can
help reduce rolling resistance and enable fuel-efficient transportation [7 – 9]. Significant
difficulties arise from the deterioration of transportation infrastructure brought on by
elements including moisture, freeze-thaw cycles, and excessive loads [10]. Transportation
networks must be resilient to withstand the effects of climate change and natural calamities.
Because of its intrinsic strength and longevity, concrete infrastructure must endure extreme
weather, flooding, and seismic catastrophes better than many other types of construction,
assuring the continuity of transportation services [8, 10] Composite materials must be used
in concrete to dramatically cut generated waste and essential natural resources. Integrating
bacteria-induced self-healing [11] novel production techniques and alternative binders and
aggregates properties might lessen the need for frequent maintenance and repair, which
reduces costs and consumes less material [12], reduces associated emissions, and further
improves the sustainability of concrete infrastructure [13].
Concrete is the most prevalent type of construction material and the second most utilized
material in the world next to water [5, 14, 15]. Regardless of its significance, cracking in
concrete is ubiquitous because of its intrinsically brittle nature, suboptimal resistance to
strain, and the intrusion of adversarial gasses and liquids, which weaken the overall structure
and make it susceptible to breaking [5, 11, 16 –18]. Concrete cracking enables abrasive
substances to permeate the concrete, such as water, carbon dioxide (CO 2), chloride,
carbonate, or sulfate [19]. This leads to reinforcement corrosion, which poses a severe risk
to the stability of concrete structures [11, 16, 19]. Self-healing concrete is unquestionably the
material of the future[15] that could address these issues.
Self-healing concrete's primary method is to incorporate bacteria that would convert
solvent organic materials into implacable inorganic calcite crystals that seal the cracks [11,
15] and restore them to their former state, decreasing gaps, lowering upkeep expenses, and
increasing the strength and durability of concrete [5]. Inspired by nature, scientists have
developed self-healing concrete that can mend itself due to bacterial metabolism [17], which
could extend the serviceability of concrete and alleviate the deleterious repercussions of
concrete production on the environment [11].
This article intends to supplement the body of literary research that is already available.
The article evaluates, First, the various mechanisms of self-healing concrete; Secondly, the
types of bacteria that can precipitate carbon carbonate (CaCO 3) faster for repairing cracks;
Thirdly, evaluates encapsulation mechanisms that can hold and protect the bacteria from
outside intervention and harsh environment during the mixing process, Fourth, evaluates field
application and up-scale project incorporation self-healing mechanisms; Fifth, reiterates
advantages of self-healing mechanisms and extracts the challenges and limitations from the
recent studies to create viable solutions for further evaluation of application methodologies
and the development of guidelines, policies, and procedures in self-healing concrete; Finally
to draw conclusions which encourage future studies, to improve the self-healing mechanisms
enhancing healing effectiveness, durability, and compatibility with current concrete
materials.

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2 Methodology
This study aims to highlight the research topics of Self-healing Concrete related to
transportation sustainability. The author concentrated on articles published in the
ScienceDirect database that contained the keywords "Self-healing Concrete" AND
"Transportation" AND "Sustainability" which established 39 articles and underwent to Fit
latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) models to generate the possible research topics highlighted
in Figure 1.0. Other topics were generated from ResearchGate, SpringerLink, and other
databases to compile relevant cutting-edge research from 2018 – 2023; Search engines
identified 138 further papers, which were then processed to identify the pertinent published
research for this article.

Fig. 1. Generated topics from Matlab.

3 Self-Healing Mechanisms
Studies define self-healing as a material that can repair damage automatically and
independently without outside intervention [20]. Over the past 20 years, a significant increase
in the volume of scientific publications has led to a growing interest in self-healing materials.
One of these materials' most admirable qualities is its ability to self-regenerate its function
after being damaged by external mechanical loads [21]. Autogenous and autonomous healing
are the two common mechanisms for achieving self-healing [18, 20, 21]. Anhydrous binders
that produce subsequent hydration through water infiltration through micro-cracks enable
autogenous repair [18, 20]. Utilizing fibers, nanofillers, curing agents, and mineral
admixtures can enhance autogenous healing [20].
In contrast, using super absorbent polymer (SAP), micro hollow admixtures,
microorganisms, and encapsulated bacteria to achieve autonomous healing [20]. Because of
their effectiveness and sustainability, microorganisms like bacteria and fungi are used in the
most current and widely used method for autonomous concrete healing. Inducing calcium
carbonate to precipitate in micro fissures, bridging the microcracks' voids, and inhibiting
crack growth, these bacteria and fungi promote self-repairing [20]. This method stands out
because it has the potential to efficiently and decisively heal cracks while also being
environmentally beneficial [15]. Self-healing concrete relies on various mechanisms to repair

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cracks and restore structural integrity. These mechanisms include autogenous healing,
autonomous bacterial healing, encapsulation-based healing, and microvascular healing.

3.1 Autogenous Healing

When water is present near cracks, the autogenous healing shown in Fig. 2—a natural process
occurs in concrete. Water interacts with un-hydrated cement particles to process the
secondary hydration. During this evolution, Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel is created,
which aids in repairing the cracks and enhancing the concrete's structural stability, optimizing
the strength and longevity of concrete structures, Autogenous healing is caused by calcite
production in the crack [22], which can be measured by the rate of fracture closure produced
by constant hydration or carbonation [23]. It was demonstrated that cement-based
construction materials had the innate capacity to fill a 0.15 mm crack, by integrating ongoing
carbonation and hydration processes under perfect curing circumstances [24]. Additionally,
using discarded byproducts like rice husk and fly ash can enhance autogenous healing in
concrete [25]. Autogenous healing can boost concrete elements' ductility index, energy
absorption capacity, and flexural performance [26].

Fig. 2. Autogenous healing with expansive materials in cement and un-hydrated cement particles
[27].

3.2 Microbiologically Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP)

Microbiologically Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) mechanism, which mainly relies on

uncontaminated microbial activity, enhancing compressive strength and reducing cracking
caused by the concrete sample's rigidity, are two advantages of using the MICP approach [5].
Various bacterial species have been studied for their ability to induce self-healing in concrete.
This mechanism has demonstrated excellent possibilities for repairing cracks and enhancing
cementitious materials' general functionality and longevity. MICP comprises several intricate
biochemical processes that change depending on the various metabolic pathways [14]. The
survival and dormancy of the bacteria up till the creation of cracks should be guaranteed by
the concrete mix design and processes in this mechanism shown in Fig. 3. When concrete
cracks, water seeps in, reactivating microorganisms that have been dormant. Water causes
bacterial spores to germinate, promoting the bacteria's growth and metabolism. Bacteria
cause the prevalence of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) in the presence of calcium ions from
cementitious materials as they consume nutrients and generate metabolic wastes. Concrete's
continuity is restored, and the cracks are filled due to the precipitation process. Concrete
made with bacteria demonstrated development in mechanical and durability properties, non-

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pathogenic, and eco-friendly [12, 15, 28]. These bacteria have either ureolytic or non-
ureolytic attributes [14].

Fig. 3. SEM micrograph of MICP of B. licheniformis strain induced calcite crystals which can be seen
in (a) and (b) [29]

3.2.1 Ureolytic and Non- ureolytic bacteria

Ureolytic and non-ureolytic bacteria can generate the urea-consuming enzyme urease and
carry out ureolysis – urea-based chemical reactions [30]. By-products of these bacteria are
produced when they break down the urea in the concrete including ammonia and carbonates.
Calcium carbonate is created when ammonia combines with calcium ions in the concrete.
When the calcium carbonate precipitates and fills the cracks, it successfully seals them and
returns the concrete structure to its original integrity [30]. Researchers are closely examining
this environmentally compatible process known as organic induction [31]. Because the
Carbon dioxide (CO2) penetrates the concrete rapidly and transforms immediately to Calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) this method might enable maintaining high levels of concrete alkalinity
despite the carbonation process. As an outcome, the cracks and fissures self-healed due to
the carbonation process and the bacteria's enzyme reaction. These reactions safeguard the
concrete steel and could even strengthen the concrete's durability and characteristics [28 –
30].
Ureolytic bacteria have received more attention, driven by the fact that they precipitate
CaCO3 relatively faster than other species of bacteria [14]. Undoubtedly, the ureolytic
activity of the bacterial strain Bacillus could well be observed. It is well recognized for its
capacity to produce the urea hydrolysis enzyme urease [33, 34]. This strain can withstand the
concrete's high alkalinity, generating spores that can survive up to four (4) years without
nourishment or oxygen [15]. Moreover, these gram-positive aerobic spore-forming bacteria
possess thick-walled dormant cells and can remain viable for more than 200 years in a dry
environment [35].
On the contrary, concrete's self-healing property has been explored utilizing non-
ureolytic bacteria [16]. Non-reolytic is a gram-positive bacterium that can acquire Calcium
ions (Ca2+) and has a negative charge on the outer cell wall. However, because it does not
break down Urea, this bacterial species cannot precipitate CaCO3 on its own [36].
Consequently, calcium carbonate precursors were obligatory for these bacteria to initiate
CaCO3 precipitation [18]. Moreover, when varied carriers (such as light granules or
microcapsules) are utilized to keep the bacterial spores viable until the establishment of
cracks, the survivability of the spores is dramatically improved [14]. Successful
implementation of this strategy study has been carried out to augment the effectiveness of
self-healing by looking at bacterial and nourishment preferences, bacterium strategies for

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immobilization, or factors affecting CaCO3 precipitation [20]. The list of literatures was
reviewed and evaluated several types of bacteria in this study shown in Tables 1.0 and 2.0.

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Table 1. Non-Ureolytic Bacteria.

Bacteria Bacteria Characteristics and Origin of Calcium carbonate The maximum size of cracks Repetitive
Concentration per Bacteria precipitation precursor can be healed. Self-
sample Healing
Bacillus pumilus 2.9 × 1010 Cells/mL Excellent performance in a high Calcium Lactate solution (Ca (C3 1.08mm [18] Not
[18] Alkaline (pH) dense calcite H5 O3 ) [37] performed
production, generally situated in
soil, is a Gram-positive, rod- 80-g was mixed with 1000ml of
shaped, and endospore-forming distilled water. Autoclaved at 121
bacterial strain. [18] °C for 15 minutes [18]
Bacillus subtilis 105 Cells/mL [17] The bacterium was grown in a Fly-ash [17] 0.4mm[16] after 44 days Not
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specific mineral media (pH 10.0) performed

[17] 69% of tensile strength and 76%
compressive strength restoration
Bacteria can be readily cultivated [17].
and utilized safely to improve the

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strength properties of concrete 0.7 mm wide crack is completely
[17]. closed [17]
3.3 × 104 Cells/cm3 B. subtilis AP91 from Brazil [14]
[14] 20 μm [14] and a 31% increase
in Compressive strength
Bacillus cohni - Viable three months after casting, Expanded Perlite [14] 1.24mm in 28 days ( [14] Not
and they could metabolize the performed
provided organic nutrient source Sodium Silicate [16]
and consume oxygen in the
presence of water [14]
Bacillus - Can withstand In high alkali Alkaline Mineral [28]. Yeast Calcium cation Calcium(2+)- 2% Not
pseudofirmus conditions (pH10) [28] extract and other chemical [28] Created larger calcite but performed
solutions [28] did not heal the cracks.
Bacillus 5 Alkali-resistant soil bacterium Expanded clay-impregnated 0.46mm after 100 days [38] Not
1.7 x 10 Cells/mL
alkalinitriculus [38] [38] calcium lactate- (80 g/l), yeast performed
extract- (1 g/l) solution [38]
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Table 2. Ureolytic Bacteria.

Bacteria Bacteria Characteristics and Origin of Bacteria Admixture/s The maximum size of cracks can Repetitive
Concentration be healed using bacteria Self-
per sample Healing
Bacillus 105 Cells/mL It can precipitate calcium carbonate and seal Autonomous Healing 1.0 - 1.2mm [14] Not
sphaericus cracks in concrete. It can withstand high [14] performed
alkaline (pH 10-11) and calcium conditions,
is oxygen dependent, and can operate at low
temperatures [34]
Bacillus pasteurii 5×109 cells/ml Sporogenesis alkali-reluctant bacteria found Autonomous Healing 0.8mm in 90 days [37] Not
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[37] in soil from an alkaline lake (Wadi Natrun, performed

Egypt) [37]
Sporosarcina 106 cells/ml Gram-positive and endospore-forming, Urea-CaCl2 [38] Exhibited a 38% increase in Not
pasteurii [38] which is capable of precipitating carbonate compressive strength, higher performed
calcite [38] resistance against chloride

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penetration, and enhanced
permeability resistance [38]
Bacillus 30 ×105 It can withstand extreme environmental Autonomous Healing The highest grade of bio concrete's Not
megaterium cfu/ml[39] conditions due to its spore-forming compressive strength has improved performed
capabilities, such as heat and hydration by roughly 24%.[12] and flexural
[39]. strength increased significantly [39].
Bacillus 103 Cells/mL It can generate calcite precipitates at about Calcium Chloride Increased compressive strength Not
Licheniformis 30 °C, its optimum growth temperature. This (50ml) and Urea (20ml) (15%), split tensile strength performed
bacteria can withstand high pH (10-11)[40] per liter of water [40] (12.69%), and Flexural strength
(9.25%) [40]
Bacillus cibi 1.0x109 Cultivated from the customary fermented Autonomous Healing 0.5mm in 35 days [38] Not
cells/mL. fish dish from Korea, jeotgal yielded strain performed
JG-30T of Bacillus, which is Gram-variable, Improved compressive strength in 28
motile, endospore-forming, and halotolerant. days and showed the highest
[41] permeability of 85.04% compared to
conventional concrete [41]
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Tolerant non-ureolytic bacteria that can endure in high alkaline (pH) environments and
precipitate CaCO3 by using CaCO3 antecedent [14] demonstrated satisfactory healing of
concrete cracks between 0.01 - 1.8 mm [18]. Conversely, gram-positive ureolytic endospores
[37], which naturally precipitate CaCO3 exhibited (a 15% - 38%) increase in compressive
strength, higher resistance against chloride penetration, enhanced permeability resistance,
and showed a significant increase in tensile and flexural strength [37–39]. Bacillus subtilis
[17, 20], Sporosarcina pasteurii [37], and Lysinibacillus sphaericus [14] are frequently used
in self-healing concrete research. These bacteria produce urease and other naturally occurring
enzymes that stimulate the decomposition of Urea to release carbonate ions for calcium
carbonate deposition. Due to their robustness, ability to generate spores, and tolerance to
adverse environmental factors, these bacteria have exhibited promise in research on self-
healing concrete[37–40]. Sporosarcina pasteurii and Bacillus subtilis have been discovered
to increase the concrete's flexural strength, split tensile strength, compressive strength, and
water absorption. The ability of these bacteria to repair concrete cracks has been evaluated
through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to detect the formation of calcite precipitation
[20, 37, 41]. Indeed, Lysinibacillus sphaericus is an excellent bacterium for use in bacteria-
based self-healing concrete because of its strong alkaline endurance, calcium sensitivity,
oxygen reliance, and low-temperature versatility [36]. Researchers typically use particular
bacterial strains suitable for self-healing concrete applications. Adding bacteria directly while
mixing in the initial stages has always been the most affordable and straightforward delivery
mechanism. However, after the crack has formed, the proportion of bacterial spores that are
still alive is significantly impaired since they must endure a highly hostile environment and
strong mechanical compressive forces [14]. Studies have been conducted to improve the
bacteria's unique ability by nutrient addition to increasing bacteria's motility, bacteria
immobilization technique, and microencapsulation of bacteria using different carriers to
increase the bacterial viability in self-healing concrete.

3.3 Encapsulation Mechanism

Self-healing approaches have been developed, including sealing fissures with bacteria that
deposit calcium carbonate. However, bacterial viability is decreased when bacteria are
directly added to the cementitious mixture [42]. As a result, encapsulated bacteria have been
investigated as a viable solution. Researchers have investigated various encapsulation
strategies to shield the bacteria from hostile environments, enable their regulated release, and
guarantee their survivability inside the concrete analysed in Fig. 4. Numerous experimental
techniques can be used to measure the self-healing effectiveness of encapsulated
technologies, including quantifying fracture healing, recovering durability and mechanical
qualities, and assessing the healing agent characterization of precipitated crystals [42, 43].
Various crack apertures ranging from (5–400 μm) can be effectively self-healed using
encapsulation technology [20]. In the encapsulation mechanism, a low-viscosity restorative
agent that has been encapsulated releases in the area of harm when cracks are formed and
weakened capsules are destroyed, plugging in the damage and healing cracks [21] shown in
Fig. 5.

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Fig. 4. Microscopic analysis of the bacterial activity shown by hydrogel-encapsulated bacteria [44].

Fig. 5. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles encapsulation of Bacillus subtilis induced Automatic sealing of
concrete cracks [45].
In self-healing concrete, encapsulation strategies for bacteria entail using protective
materials or matrices to contain and retain the bacteria until they are triggered in response to
crack formation. These encapsulation methods are essential for preserving the bacteria's
viability, controlled release, and long-term functionality [41, 42]. Diatomaceous earth,
lightweight aggregates (expanded clay), ceramsites, calcium alginate beads, and polymeric
capsules are examples of encapsulation techniques [42], reiterated in Table 3.0.

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Table 3. Encapsulation Materials and Methods.

Encapsulating Origin/Components The maximum size of cracks References
Material that can be healed based on
studies
Diatomaceous Due to their cylindrical 0.527 mm, demonstrated a [47]
earth shape and large pore compressive strength recovery
capacity, these diatoms have of 63.93%.
solid mechanical strength
and natural filtration and
absorption capacities [46].

60% (w/v) (g of DE per mL

of sol.)
Lightweight It is a perforated product with
aggregates a mostly potato-shaped pore
(expanded clay) structure; The matrix's [48]
workability, chlorine
penetration, thermal
insulation, and fire resistance
were all improved by the
addition of LECA
(Lightweight Expanded Clay
Aggregates) 100% healing of fissures was
obtained. Maximum width
was 0.46 mm, healed after [49]
1-4 mm diameter size 100 days.

0.541 mm, demonstrated a

compressive strength recovery
of 65.91% [47]
50g LWA per 10 mL of
solution/sample
Ceramsite It has holes that have a 15% After submerging in a NaOH [48]
water absorption rate. Acetic solution, ceramsite
acid (CH3COOH) and performed better throughout
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) germination.
were employed to synthesize
a solution during the pre-
treatment.
Bacteria were loaded onto
sizes ranging from 4.75 to 6
mm.
Calcium alginate Calcium chloride and They observed higher [14]
beads calcium lactate coagulate compressive strength
solution was manually recovery.
injected into a bacterial
sodium alginate solution with The release of nutrients and
6
6.1 × 10 CFU/mL to bacterial spores resulted in the
produce the capsule formation of magnesium-
containing particles that are based minerals and the
150 μm. stimulation of CaCO3
precipitations (in and on the
surface of the bacteria-based
beads).

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Capsule Calcium nitrate - a mineral The maximum crack that was [30]
Polymerization antecedent, along with other healed had a width of
nutrients like yeast extract approximately 970 mm. It has
and urea, was added to the demonstrated permeability
concrete mix. regeneration.

A promising method of self-healing concrete is capsule-based healing with embedded

healing agents. These methods safeguard the bacteria from adverse environmental factors,
enable their controlled release, and guarantee their survival inside the concrete. Studies
demonstrated higher compressive strength recovery and healing capacity [47] than
autogenous healing. This technique permits the immobilization of bacteria, increasing their
resiliency and extending their lifespan by integrating microcapsules that contain healing
agents and nutrients. Studies have shown very promising rehabilitation and crack closure
leading toward the sustainability of concrete structures. For greater use in building and
transportation projects, research has now been made to improve capsule design, healing agent
selection, and practical implementation [12, 30, 42, 47]. The structure and extent of the
healing agent, the fissures size, and morphology are just a few of the variables that
significantly harm how well self-healing concrete-containing capsules perform. To overcome
and enhance encapsulation constraints, biomimetic microvascular healing has been proposed
as an enhanced technique for liquid-based self-healing [24].

3.4 Microvascular healing

Concrete contains a network of hollow tubes or channels that function as a self-healing

mechanism called microvascular healing [24]. The healing treatments, such as liquids or gels,
can be carried to the site of injury or cracks through these tubes, which function as
microvascular networks shown in Fig. 6. This method has several benefits, including the
ability to distribute healing agents to particular areas, the potential for recurrent healing
cycles, and the capacity to customize the healing agents to certain types of damage[24, 50,
51]. During membrane operation, it was discovered that this healing mechanism restored the
disrupted membrane's water permeation and particle rejection efficiency to its pre-damage
state [42]. Once adequately ruptured, a 3D tetrahedral (TET) microvascular network acts as
a repository that can absorb a significant volume of healing agent with a crack width of 0.35
mm, and the study successfully demonstrated repeated damage repair [24]. Another
microvascular pipe employing Cyanoacrylate Adhesive (CA) demonstrated a more excellent
strength recovery of up to 90% [24]. The microvascular network's pipes were successfully
filled with the polyurethane (PU) employed as a healing agent. The healing solution filled
the fissures and sealed the damaged areas after application, deterring dissemination and
diminishing permeability [24]. A possible method for self-healing concrete is microvascular
healing through a network of hollow tubes. When the bacteria and nutrients are supplied from
an external source, there is a theoretically negligible limit on the quantity of damaged
material that might have been restored in these systems, which is a significant advantage [14].
This mechanism facilitates autonomous crack repair and restoration by including channels
for healing agent transfer. However, tube diameter, distribution, connection, and
compatibility with the concrete matrix are all variables in the design and optimization of the
microvascular network. Another important consideration is the choice of the healing agents
and even how they work with the concrete and network. To successfully include
microvascular healing into concrete building procedures, practical implementation elements
such as mix design, manufacturing processes, and quality control must be taken into account.
Studies are currently being designed to improve the durability and sustainability of
microvascular healing for use in a broader range of concrete infrastructure applications.

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Fig. 6. Microvascular network studied in Cardiff University using polymer tendons (PET) as catalyst
in tube-based induce self-healing mechanism [52] .
Research has shown that a combination of these mechanisms significantly increases the
healing capacity of concrete. Encapsulated bacteria using expanded clay or other porous
material which can hold the nutrients and other chemicals, immobilizing bacillus subtilis, and
adding nutrients raised the healing ratio of 47-83% compared to the healing ratio of (33-38%)
without encapsulation [14]. The majority of research has been done on mortar samples at
laboratory-size specimens because self-healing components are expensive. Any self-healing
material's ultimate objective should be to show that it can mend itself in the broader scope.
However, field application presents significant challenges for increasing the production of
self-healing materials.

4 Field Application of Self-healing Concrete

The use of self-healing concrete will not only lead to cost savings but also an improvement
in environmental performance due to lowering the Carbon dioxide (CO2) footprint. The EN
1990 Eurocode [53], however, mandates that full-scale demonstrations of the performance of
a unique type of concrete must come before its conventional application to show that it is
safe and functional [50].Some of the more upscale self-healing concrete projects are
presented in Table 4.0.
A concrete waste-water treatment tank made of prefabricated components by the Dutch
company BestCon, which measures 7.00 x 2.50 x 0.15 m, was built in March 2016 at a test
site in Simpelveld and used in August 2016. After operating for more than three years, as of
September 2019, benchmark and self-healing components have not displayed any indications
of cracking, other degradation, or damage [54]. Therefore, despite being entirely functional
for three years, no conclusions can be made about the potential advantages of adopting self-
healing concrete in this particular application yet [54]. The most substantial available
evidence indicates that the inclusion of the healing agent as a concrete admixture has not had
any adverse effects [54], similar to those observations on the irrigation canal [55], parking
and garage [56], and vertical wall. Researchers [57] for the restoration and extension of the
Mangdao River ship lock chamber also concluded the responsiveness of mixing microbial
healing agents with regular concrete. Laboratory tests showed, the microbial self-healing
agent had no discernible impact on the workability of the concrete mixture or the strength of
the hardened concrete. Concrete's regular engineering use requirements are unaffected by
including microbial healing agents [57]. In application done in a lock chamber [57], after 65
days, the self-healing concrete's surface fractures had filled in significantly more than the
fissures on the standard concrete's surface, which had not yet been healed. After 120 days of
pouring, the lock chamber was ready for usage, and the microbial self-healing concrete

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finished successfully healing the early cracks in the concrete before the backwater was
navigable [57].
Table 4. Field Application of Self-Healing Concrete in Various Projects.
Project name Location Self-healing Results References
Mechanism
Part (3m) of Andean Microencapsulation In 5 months of [55]
Irrigation canal highlands of observation,
(July 2014) Tungurahua Calcium lactate and non- scientists have not
(Ecuador) ureolytic bacterial (B. discovered any
cohnii) spores were indications of
inseminated in situ into deterioration or
expanded clay (EC) damage.
particles.

Parking and The bacteria- Microvascular healing Water leakage was [56]
garage based healing (Liquid-based) significantly reduced
technique has after treatment with
also been Combination of sodium the bacteria-based
manually silicate, sodium method.
applied to gluconate, and
freeze-thaw- alkaliphilic bacteria
damaged
concrete
pavement. The silicate-based
substance sodium silicate
ensures that the system
has an alkaline pH and
that a gel forms inside
the fracture.
Concrete Simpelveld, Microencapsulation Four (4) years after [54]
waste-water The casting, scientists
treatment Netherlands The pelleted agent was have discovered no
tanks (7.00 x applied to the concrete at indications of
2.50 x 0.15m) a dose of 10 kg/m3 and deterioration or
(2016) contained B. cohnii degeneration.
spores, yeast extract, and
calcium lactate.
Vertical Wall United Microvascular healing BBSHC samples [14]
(2015) Kingdom were obtained from
As the growing the wall to test
substrate, individual B. whether the bacterial
pseudofirmus non- spores were still
ureolytic bacterium alive after six
spores were implanted months. The mixing
into expanded perlite method seems to
(EP) particles (yeast have had no effect
extract and calcium on the spores, who
acetate). continued to live.

Restoration and Yang Zhou MICP The surface of the [14, 57]
extension of City, Jiangsu crack showed a
the Mangdao China B. mucilaginous spores
River ship lock (from China Center of

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chamber (180 Industrial Culture noticeable amount of

× 23 × 4 m) Collection, CICC), CaCO3.
sucrose, yeast extract,
and calcium nitrate were The bacteria had
introduced directly to a finished sealing the
25 MPa commercial early fissures in the
concrete (6.8 kg of concrete surface four
healing agent per m3 of [4] months after the
concrete) initial casting,
allowing the water
channel to be
reactivated.

Only a few processes for improving the self-healing ability of concrete have been
evaluated for up-scale projects and applied to prototype capacity in field experiments, despite
several mechanisms being examined under lab settings. Scaling up the production of self-
healing materials poses many challenges. These difficulties include the expensive cost of the
self-healing compounds (bacteria spores, nutrients, and carriers), the difficulty of monitoring
the concrete structure over an extended period, and the necessity for highly humid settings
for their activation and preservation [14].
Considering greater use in construction projects, research is currently being done to
better self-healing mechanisms. Transportation sustainability can be increased while
reducing the environmental impact of creating and maintaining concrete infrastructure using
self-healing mechanisms. Ongoing research aims to optimize self-healing mechanisms,
including capsule-based healing, microvascular healing, and bacterial-based healing, for
broader application in construction projects [12, 42, 47]

5 Self-healing Concrete Advantages

Numerous environmental advantages of self-healing concrete support ecological
compatibility and sustainability of transportation.

5.1 Extended Service Life of Concrete

The use of encapsulated bacteria in self-healing concrete has several benefits, including
preventing the bacteria from being exposed to harmful environmental factors, regulating the
bacterium's release, and maintaining the bacteria's viability inside the concrete[41], [42].
Hollow fibers, microchannels, and microcapsules have all been used in the exploration of
microvascular healing [24, 50, 51]. Delivering healing compounds to particular places inside
the concrete matrix has shown promise when using microcapsules. By taking care of cracks
and reducing deterioration's impacts [58]. Significant environmental advantages of self-
healing concrete include higher durability, reduced need for regular maintenance and material
use, lower carbon footprint, and increased energy efficiency. The ability of concrete to self-
heal can minimize the environmental impact of producing concrete, which decreases resource
extraction and wastage [12, 58, 59].

5.2 Improved Durability

By preventing the ingress of water, chemicals, and toxic materials through fissures, self-
healing concrete improves the longevity and performance of structures. As a result, there will
be less chance for concrete to deteriorate, harmful microorganisms to proliferate, and steel

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reinforcing to corrode. Self-healing concrete reduces the need for early replacements by
extending the lifespan of infrastructure, which lessens the environmental effect of
construction, demolition, and disposal [12, 13].

5.3 Enhanced Energy Efficiency

Self-healing concrete components can improve energy efficiency in the transportation

industry's infrastructure. Self-healing concrete contributes to preserving the smoothness and
functionality of roads, bridges, and other transportation components by preserving the
structural integrity of concrete constructions [12, 13]. As a result, the fuel efficiency of
vehicles will be increased, rolling resistance will be decreased, and energy used for
transportation operations will be decreased.

6 Challenges and limitations

Self-healing concrete has a vast potential for developing concrete materials' sustainability,
but it also has some issues and restrictions that must be resolved shown below.

6.1 Efficiency and Reliability

Concrete's self-healing mechanisms' efficiency and reliability might change based on

variables like the size, width, and environmental circumstances of the cracks. In the case of
severe cracks or structural damage, self-healing could not be effective. Further study and
verification are also required for the long-term performance and durability of self-healing
systems to guarantee their effectiveness over the service life of concrete structures [15, 16,
19, 24]

6.2 Repetitive self-healing and strength recovery

Self-healing mechanisms' strength recovery should always be encouraged and given the
utmost attention in most studies to ensure the longevity of concrete structures. Furthermore,
as concrete receives stress and is fatigued repeatedly, which causes repeated cracks, repetitive
concrete self-healing must be considered.

6.3 Compatibility and Integration

Integrating self-healing mechanisms into concrete mixtures and construction practices
requires careful consideration of compatibility with existing materials and processes. The
selection of healing agents, encapsulation materials, and their interactions with cementitious
materials should be optimized to ensure proper dispersion, activation, and long-term stability.
Compatibility issues between self-healing mechanisms and other additives or admixtures
used in concrete production need to be addressed [20, 21, 35, 60, 61]

6.4 Cost and Implementation

Integrating self-healing mechanisms into concrete might be costly and is a significant
challenge. The price of self-healing concrete might increase significantly if more complex
ingredients are included in the manufacturing process, including microcapsules or bacteria.
For self-healing technology to be widely used, cost-effective production methods and
scalability are essential.

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6.5 Maintenance and Monitoring

Since self-healing systems strive to reduce as frequently as the cost of maintenance is

required, periodic monitoring and inspection are still recommended to make sure the self-
healing mechanism is effective. For proactive maintenance planning, it is crucial to establish
effective monitoring techniques and procedures to detect cracks and evaluate the efficiency
of the healing process[11, 14, 15, 17, 20–22, 24, 56, 57].

6.6 Environmental Considerations

Self-healing concrete benefits the environment. However, using and discarding self-healing
substances like bacteria or microcapsules could impact the environment. Self-healing
concrete's entire environmental impact should be thoroughly assessed, considering the life
cycle analysis of the materials and manufacturing processes.

6.7 Up-scale project for wider application

Full-scale tests and performances must be reviewed and carefully observed before their
conventional implementation to prove that a unique mechanism of self-healing concrete is
safe and effective, although field tests provided the most significant evidence that applying
the healing agent to concrete as an admixture had no adverse effects [51]. Further up-scale
applications should be thoroughly evaluated to reach the most robust conclusion in using
these processes for mass manufacturing,

6.8 Standardization and Codes

Creating established rules, testing procedures, and standardized guidelines is necessary for
integrating self-healing mechanisms into concrete infrastructure. The widespread use and
application of self-healing concrete in construction projects may be hampered by the absence
of established standards and acceptance criteria [13, 53, 54].

7 Conclusion
Self-healing concrete has much potential as a long-term preservation of concrete
infrastructure. The various self-healing mechanisms, including microvascular healing,
bacterial healing, capsule-based healing, and autogenous healing, offer distinctive methods
for restoring and preventing damage in concrete structures. Studies reveal that a combination
of self-healing mechanisms significantly improves concrete's potential to recover itself. The
healing ratio was significantly improved by encapsulating bacteria with expanded clay,
calcium alginate beads, or other porous materials, which can store nutrients and bacteria for
a long period. Moreover, immobilizing ureolytic and non-ureolytic bacteria from the Bacillus
family– which can precipitate CaCO3 naturally and provide nutrients such as yeast and
calcium lactate during encapsulation, safeguard the spores and extends the lifespan of
bacteria. Self-healing concrete has numerous environmental advantages, including a longer
service life, less need for maintenance and materials, a less carbon footprint, increased
durability, and higher energy efficiency. Self-healing concrete minimizes the need for
repeated maintenance, resource consumption, and replacement by repairing cracks and
damage independently. It minimizes the environmental impact of construction, lowers waste
generation, and preserves the infrastructure.

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Self-healing concrete, however, also has drawbacks and restrictions. These include the
efficiency and dependability of self-healing mechanisms, compatibility, and integration with
current materials and processes, economic considerations, the requirement for continuing
maintenance and monitoring, and the creation of defined standards and codes of practice.
Further study, creation, cooperation, and improvements in self-healing mechanisms are
required to manage these challenges.
Further study is required to improve the self-healing mechanisms used in concrete. In
order to enhance healing effectiveness, durability, and compatibility with current concrete
materials; this entails researching new healing agents, encapsulating materials, and delivery
systems. It is possible to determine the ideal mixtures and dosage levels by looking at the
interactions between healing agents and cementitious materials at wider-scale applications.
Moreover, extensive performance testing and validation are essential to ensure self-healing
concrete efficiency and long-term viability. Consistent testing methodologies and acceptance
criteria must be developed to evaluate the healing potential, “fracture-closure” effectiveness,
and durability of self-healing systems under varied environmental conditions and stressors;
long-term field investigations and monitoring initiatives can shed light on how self-healing
concrete continues to perform in scalable projects. The main goal of future studies should be
to develop specific design standards that consider the existence of self-healing mechanisms
and their influence on structural behavior, performance, and service life. Taking care of
concerns with the design mix, application methods, and compatibility with other construction
materials and procedures must be thoroughly studied. In addition, Progressive maintenance
and management of self-healing concrete structures can be facilitated by developing
advanced monitoring tools, such as non-destructive testing techniques, sensor technologies,
and data-driven approaches. Ensuring the long-term performance and effectiveness of self-
healing mechanisms entails creating automated systems for crack detection, healing agent
replenishment, and condition assessment.
Researchers may create more resilient, long-lasting, and environmentally friendly
transportation infrastructure by overcoming these obstacles and developing self-healing
concrete. A more sustainable and effective future transportation system may result from using
self-healing concrete in the design, construction, and maintenance of our roads, bridges, and
other transportation infrastructure.

The authors would like to extend thier heartfelt gratitude to all those who contributed to the completion
of this research endeavour. The Design Science Inc. Engineering Services family, headed by Mr.
Leonardo Enriquez and Department of Public Works and Highways, Bureau of Research and Standards
(DPWH) headed by Engr. Reynaldo Faustino for their insightful feedback, continuous guidance, and
unwavering dedication, played a pivotal role in shaping the direction and quality of this study. The
authors’ gratitude extends to core groups, for their input, encouraged the authors to explore new
perspectives and refine their approach. Finally, the authors would like to express heartfelt gratitude to
their friends and families for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout their journey.
Their patience, understanding, and belief have been a constant source of their motivation.

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