RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

SYLLABUS
III Year- VI Semester: B.Tech. (Information Technology)

6IT4-05: Artificial Intelligence

Credit: 2 Max. Marks: 100(IA:20, ETE:80)

2L+0T+0P End Term Exam: 2 Hours
SN Contents Hours

1 Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course. 01

2 Introduction to AI and Intelligent agent: Different Approach of

AI, Problem Solving : Solving Problems by Searching, Uninformed
search, BFS, DFS, Iterative deepening, Bi directional search, Hill 01
climbing, Informed search techniques: heuristic, Greedy search,
A* search, AO* search, constraint satisfaction problems.

3 Game Playing: Minimax, alpha-beta pruning, jug problem, chess

07
problem, tiles problem

4 Knowledge and Reasoning: Building a Knowledge Base:

Propositional logic, first order logic, situation calculus. Theorem
Proving in First Order Logic. Planning, partial order planning. 07
Uncertain Knowledge and Reasoning, Probabilities, Bayesian
Networks.

5 Learning: Overview of different forms of learning, Supervised base

learning: Learning Decision Trees, SVM, Unsupervised based 07
learning, Market Basket Analysis, Neural Networks.

6 Introduction to Natural Language Processing: Different issue

05
involved in NLP, Expert System, Robotics.

Total 28

Syllabus of 3rd Year B. Tech. (IT) for students admitted in Session 2017-18 onwards. Page 6
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management &Gramothan, Jaipur

COURSE: Object Oriented Programming(3IT4-06)

Course Outcomes PSO

Bloom's
PO Indicators Indicators
Level
Upon successful completion of this course, students should be able to:

3IT4-06.1 Describe the Object Oriented Programming paradigm 3 1.3.1, 1.4.1, 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.1, 1.1.3,2.1.1,2.1.2,
with the concept of objects and classes 2.2.2, 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 2.1.3,
6.1.1,6.2.1,9.1.1,9.1.2,9.2.1,9.2.2,9.2 3.1.1,3.1.2,3.1.3
.3,9.2.4,9.3.1,
10.1.1,10.1.2,11.1.1,11.1.2,11.2.1,1
1.2.1,11.3.1,11.3. 12.1.1, 12.1.2,
12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1

3IT4-06.2 1.3.1, 1.4.1, 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.1, 1.1.3,2.1.1,2.1.2,

Explain the memory management techniques using 2.2.2, 2.4.2, , 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.2.2, 2.1.3,
5.3.1, 3.1.1,3.1.2,3.1.3
constructors, destructors and pointers. 6.1.1,6.2.1,9.1.1,9.1.2,9.2.1,9.2.2,9.2
2, 6
.3,9.2.4,9.3.1,
10.1.1,10.1.2,11.1.1,11.1.2,11.2.1,1
1.2.1,11.3.1,11.3, 12.1.1, 12.1.2,
12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
3IT4-06.3 Classify and demonstrate the various Inheritance 3,4 1.1.3,2.1.2
techniques. 1.3.1, 1.4.1, 2.1.1,2.1.2,2.1.3,
2.2.1, 2.2.2, 5.1.1, 5.2.1

3IT4-06.4 Understand how to apply polymorphism techniques 1.3.1, 1.4.1, 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.1,
on the object oriented problem. 2.2.2, 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 1.1.3,2.1.1,2.1.2,
4,3
6.1.1,6.2.1,9.1.1,9.1.2,9.2.1,9.2.2,9.2 2.1.3,
.3,9.2.4,9.3.1, 10.1.1,10.1.2, 3.1.1,3.1.2,3.1.3
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management &Gramothan, Jaipur
11.1.1,11.1.2,11.2.1,11.2.1,11.3.1,1
1.3, 12.1.1, 12.1.2, 12.2.1, 12.2.2,
12.3.1
3IT4-06.5 Summarize the exception handling mechanism, file 1.3.1, 1.4.1, 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.1, 1.1.3,2.1.1,2.1.2,
handling techniques and Use of generic programming 2.2.2, 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 2.1.3,
6.1.1,6.2.1,9.1.1,9.1.2,9.2.1,9.2.2,9.2 3.1.1,3.1.2,3.1.3
in Object oriented programming 4 .3,9.2.4,9.3.1,
10.1.1,10.1.2,11.1.1,11.1.2,11.2.1,1
1.2.1,11.3.1,11.3.2,12.1.1, 12.1.2,
12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1

CO-PO/PSO Mapping: Formulation and Justification

The CO-PO/PSO mapping is based on the correlation of course outcome (CO) with Program Outcome Indicators. These indicators are
the breakup statements of broad Program Outcome statements.
The correlation is calculated as the number of correlated indicators of a PO/PSO mapped with CO divided by total indicators of a PO/PSO.
The calculated value represents the correlation level between a CO & PO/PSO. Detailed formulation and mathematical representation can
be seen below in equation 1:

Input: COi: The ith course outcome of the course

POj: The jth Program Outcome
Ijk: The kth indicator of the jth Program Outcome
〈 (Ijk, COi): level of CO-PO mapping

=1, if, 0<〈 <0.33

 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management &Gramothan, Jaipur
=2, if, 0.33≥〈<0.66

=3, if, 0.66 ≥〈< 1

𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡( 𝜆(𝐼𝑗𝑘 , 𝐶𝑂𝑖 ))

𝛼 (𝐼𝑗𝑘 , 𝐶𝑂𝑖 ) =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑘 , 𝑃𝑂𝑗 )

⎣: Degree of correlation

CO-PO/PSO Mapping

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO 1 PSO 2 PSO 3

CO1 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 3

CO2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 3

CO3 3 2 2 2 2

CO4 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 3

CO5 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 3

Name of Faculty:-Ms.Shalini Singhal

(Signature)

Verified by Course Coordinator Verified by Verification and Validation Committee, DPAQIC

Signature Signature
(Name: …………………..) (Name: …………………....)
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Unit1
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
What is Artificial Intelligence?

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of
making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks and how humans learn, decide, and work while
trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent
software and systems.

Philosophy of AI

While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to wonder,
“Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in machines that
we find and regard high in humans.

Goals of AI

 To Create Expert Systems − the systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand, think,learn,

and behave like humans.
 Replicate human intelligence
 Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
 An intelligent connection of perception and action
 Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
 Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
Page | 1
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial defines
"man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-madethinking power."

So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can behave
like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning, reasoning,and
solving problems

With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work, despite that you
can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is the
awesomeness of AI.

It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per Greek myth, there were
Mechanical men in early days which can work and behave like humans.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the importance of AI and why
should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world
problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google
Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where
survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

What Contributes to AI?

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer Science,
Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the
development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and
problem solving.
Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent system.

Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

A computer program without AI A computer program with AI can

can answer the specific answer the generic questions it is
questions it is meant to solve. meant to solve.

AI programs can absorb new

modifications by putting highly
Modification in the program
independent pieces of information
leads to change in its
together. Hence you can modify even a
structure.
minute piece of information of program
without affecting its structure.
Modification is not quick and
easy. It may lead to affecting Quick and Easy program
the program adversely. modification.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
What is AI Technique?

In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −

 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
 It keeps changing constantly.
AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that −

 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.
AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is equipped with.

Applications of AI

AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where
machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
 Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer that understands
natural language spoken by humans.
 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special
information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the
users.
 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the
computer. For example,
o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial information or
map of the areas.

o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored
portrait made by forensic artist.

 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the
language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle
different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold,
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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
etc.

 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on
paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convertit
into editable text.
 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors
to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement,
 sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory,
to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can
adapt to the new environment.

History of AI

Here is the history of AI during 20th century −

Year Milestone /
Innovation

1923 Karel Čapek play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in
London, first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.

1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and

1950 published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of

1956
the first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can

1964
understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems
correctly.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that

1965
carries on a dialogue in English.

Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,

1969
equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the

1973
Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.

1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was

built.

1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.

Major advances in all areas of AI −

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning

 Case-based reasoning
 Multi-agent planning
1990
 Scheduling
 Data mining, Web Crawler
 natural language understanding and translation
 Vision, Virtual Reality
 Games

1997 The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry
Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays

2000 Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad
explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high
accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI
systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times
with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb,
exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI
technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.

o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car which
can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural
language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of
maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot
work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more
dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI
machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

Task Classification of AI

The domain of AI is classified into Formal tasks, Mundane tasks, and Expert tasks.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Task Domains of Artificial Intelligence

Mundane (Ordinary) Tasks Formal Tasks Expert Tasks

Perception  Mathematics  Engineering

 Geometry  Fault Finding
 Computer Vision  Logic  Manufacturing
 Speech, Voice  Integration and  Monitoring
Differentiation

Natural Language Games Scientific Analysis

Processing
 Go
 Understanding  Chess (Deep Blue)
 Language Generation  Ckeckers
 Language Translation

Common Sense Verification Financial Analysis

Reasoning Theorem Proving Medical Diagnosis

Planing Creativity

Robotics

 Locomotive

Humans learn mundane (ordinary) tasks since their birth. They learn by perception, speaking, using
language, and locomotives. They learn Formal Tasks and Expert Tasks later, in that order.

For humans, the mundane tasks are easiest to learn. The same was considered true before trying to

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
implement mundane tasks in machines. Earlier, all work of AI was concentrated in the mundane task
domain.

Later, it turned out that the machine requires more knowledge, complex knowledge representation, and
complicated algorithms for handling mundane tasks. This is the reason why AI work is more
prospering in the Expert Tasks domain now, as the expert task domain needs expert knowledge
without common sense, which can be easier to represent and handle.

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main categorization
which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which
explain the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:

o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The most
common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.

o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specifictask.
Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its
limits.

o Apple Series a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined range of

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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functions.

o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach
combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.

o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site,self-
driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiencylike
a human.

o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think like a
human by its own.

o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can performany
task as perfect as a human.

o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.

o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and time to
develop such systems.

3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an
outcome of general AI.

o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.

o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems in

real is still world changing task.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.(chess playing expert system)
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can
store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other
information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to
interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts
and improvement for developing such AI machines.

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 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

AI: Agents and Environment

An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act in their
environment. The environment may contain other agents.

What are Agent and Environment?

An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon thatenvironment
through effectors.
 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin parallel to the
sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and various
motors and actuators for effectors.
 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Agent Terminology

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Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how successful an agentis.
 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence of percepts.
 Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.
 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

Rationality

Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having good sense of judgment.
Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon what the agent has perceived.
Performing actions with the aim of obtaining useful information is an important part of rationality.

What is Ideal Rational Agent?

An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected actions to maximize its
performance measure, on the basis of −

 Its percept sequence

 Its built-in knowledge base
Rationality of an agent depends on the following −
 The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.
 Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
 The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
 The actions that the agent can carry out.
A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means the action that causes the
agent to be most successful in the given percept sequence. The problem the agent solves is characterized
by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).

The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Agent’s structure can be viewed as −

 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

 Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
 Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
Simple Reflex Agents

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 They choose actions only based on the current percept.
 They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current precept.
 Their environment is completely observable.
Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action.

Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an internal state.
Model − knowledge about “how the things happen in the world”.
Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current state depending on percept
history.
Updating the state requires the information about −
 How the world evolves.

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 How the agent’s actions affect the world.

Goal Based Agents

They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is more flexible than reflex
agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is explicitly modeled, thereby allowing for
modifications.
Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

Utility Based Agents

They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.

Goals are inadequate when −
 There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.
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 Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood of success
against the importance of a goal.

The Nature of Environments

Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to keyboard input, database,
computer file systems and character output on a screen.
In contrast, some software agents (software robots or soft bots) exist in rich, unlimited softbots domains.
The simulator has a very detailed, complex environment. The software agent needs to choose from a
long array of actions in real time. A soft bot designed to scan the online preferences ofthe customer and
show interesting items to the customer works in the real as well as an artificial
environment.
The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment, in which one real and other
artificial agent are tested on equal ground. This is a very challenging environment as it is highly difficult
for a software agent to perform as well as a human.

Turing Test
The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with Turing Test.
Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test. Out of the two persons, one plays the
role of the tester. Each of them sits in different rooms. The tester is unaware of who is machine and who
is a human. He interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both intelligences, to which he
receives typed responses.
This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine machine’s response from the human
response, then the machine is said to be intelligent.
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Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −
 Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly defined, states of the
environment, the environment is discrete (For example, chess); otherwise it is continuous (For
example, driving).
 Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the complete state of the
environment at each time point from the percepts it is observable; otherwise it is only partially
observable.
 Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is acting, then it is static;
otherwise it is dynamic.
 Single agent / Multiple agents − the environment may contain other agents which may be of the
same or different kind as that of the agent.
 Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent’s sensory apparatus can have access to the complete
state of the environment, and then the environment is accessible to that agent.
 Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is completely
determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then the environment is
deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.
 Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists of the agent
perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just on the episode itself.
Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the previous episodes. Episodic
environments are much simpler because the agent does not need to think ahead.

Problem Solving
Problem:

A problem, which can be caused for different reasons, and, if solvable, can usuallybe
solved in a number of different ways, is defined in a number of different ways.

To build a system or to solve a particular problem we need to do four things:

 Define the problem precisely. This definition must include precise specification of what the
initial situation will be as well as what final situations constitute acceptable solutions to the
problem
 Analyze the problem
 Isolate and represent the task knowledge that is necessary to solve the problem
 Choose the best solving technique and apply it to the particular problem.

Defining the Problem as a State Space Search

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Problem solving = Searching for a goal state

It is a structured method for solving an unstructured problem. This approach consists of number of
states. The starting of the problem is “Initial State” of the problem. The last point in the problem is
called a “Goal State” or “Final State” of the problem.

State space is a set of legal positions, starting at the initial state, using the set of rulesto
move from one state to another and attempting to end up in a goal state.

Searching Algorithm

Search Algorithm Terminologies:

o Search: Searching is a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a given search

space. A search problem can have three main factors:
a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions, which a system may
have.
b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns whether the goal
state is achieved or not.
o Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The root of the
search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial state.
o Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
o Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as a transition
model.
o Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
o Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal node.
o Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

Properties of Search Algorithms:

 Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return a solutionif

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at least any solution exists for any random input.
 Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best solution (lowest
path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is said to be an optimal solution.
 Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to complete itstask.

 Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point during the search,as
the complexity of the problem.

Types of search algorithms

Based on the search problems we can classify the search algorithms into uninformed (Blindsearch)
search and informed search (Heuristic search) algorithms.

Uninformed/Blind Search:

The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as closeness, the location of the
goal. It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes information about how to traverse the tree andhow
to identify leaf and goal nodes. Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is searched without
any information about the search space like initial state operators and test for the goal, so it is also called
blind search.It examines each node of the tree until it achieves the goal node.

It can be divided into five main types:

o Breadth-first search
o Uniform cost search
o Depth-first search
o Iterative deepening depth-first search
o Bidirectional Search

Informed Search

Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search, problem information is
available which can guide the search. Informed search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than
an uninformed search strategy. Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.

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A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but guaranteed to find agood
solution in reasonable time.

Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in another way.An

example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.

1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search
3. AO* Search

Uninformed Search Algorithms

Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates in brute force- way.
Uninformed search algorithms do not have additional information about state or search spaceother
than how to traverse the tree, so it is also called blind search.

Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:

1. Breadth-first Search
2. Depth-first Search
3. Depth-limited Search
4. Iterative deepening depth-first search
5. Uniform cost search
6. Bidirectional Search

1. Breadth-first Search:

o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph. This
algorithm searches breadth wise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first search.
o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor nodeat
the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
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Advantages:

o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists. If there are more than one solutions
for a given problem, then BFS will provide theminimal solution which requires the least
number of steps.

Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memoryto
expand the next level.

o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

Example:

In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS algorithm from the root
node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse in layers, so it will follow the path which is shown
by the dotted arrow, and the traversed path will be:

1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---- >K

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Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of nodes
traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest solution and b is a node at
every state.

T (b) = 1+b2+b3+. + bd= O (bd)

Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of frontier which is
O(bd).

Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some finite depth, thenBFS
will find a solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the node.

2. Depth-first Search:

o Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each path to

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its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.

o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

Note: Backtracking is an algorithm technique for finding all possible solutions using recursion.

Advantage:

o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path from
root node to the current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right
path).

Disadvantage:

o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of
finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.

Example:

In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow the orderas:

Root node--->Left node ---- > right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after traversing E, itwill backtrack the
tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and then
G, and here it will terminate as it found goal node.

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Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will expand every
node within a limited search tree.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by the
algorithm. It is given by:

T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +. .............. + nm=O(nm)

Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d (Shallowest
solution depth)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node, hence space
complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).

Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of steps or highcost
to reach to the goal node.

3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined limit. Depth-
limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first search. In this algorithm,the
node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes further.
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Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
o Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.

Advantages:

Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

Disadvantages:

o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.

o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

Example:

Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above the depth-limit.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ). Space

Complexity: Space complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b×ℓ).

Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and it is also not optimal evenif
ℓ>d.

4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:

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Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or graph. This algorithm
comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost
search is to find a path to the goal node which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform- cost search
expands nodes according to their path costs form the root node. It can be used to solve any graph/tree
where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by
the priority queue. It gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is
equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the same.

Advantages:

o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost is chosen.

Disadvantages:

o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned about path
cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.

Example:

Completeness:

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Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find it.

Time Complexity:

Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to the goal node. Then the
number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1, as we start from state 0 and end to C*/ε.

Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search is O(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

Space Complexity:
The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity of Uniform-cost searchis
O(b1 + [C*/ε]).

Optimal:

Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only selects a path with the lowest path cost.

5. Iterative deepening depth-first Search:

The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This search algorithm
finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing the limit until a goal is found.

This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps increasing thedepth
limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.

This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and depth-first
search's memory efficiency.

The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large, and depth ofgoal
node is unknown.

Advantages:

o It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search and memory
efficiency.

Disadvantages:

o The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.

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Example:

Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth-first search. IDDFS algorithm performs
various iterations until it does not find the goal node. The iteration performed by the algorithm is given
as:

1'st Iteration---- > A

2'nd Iteration--- > A, B, C
3'rd Iteration ----- >A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration ----- >A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.

Completeness:

This algorithm is complete is if the branching factor is finite.

Time Complexity:

Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case time complexity is O(bd).

Space Complexity:

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The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).

Optimal:

IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non- decreasing function of the depth of the node.
6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:
Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state called as forward-
search and other from goal node called as backward-search, to find the goal node. Bidirectional search
replaces one single search graph with two small subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial
vertex and other starts from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect each other.

Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.Advantages:

o Bidirectional search is fast.

o Bidirectional search requires less memory

Disadvantages:

o Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

o In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.

Example:

In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This algorithm divides one
graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in the forward direction and starts

from goal node 16 in the backward direction.

The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

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Completeness: Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both searches.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS is O(bd).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of bidirectional search is O(bd).

Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.

Informed (Heuristic) Search Algorithms

To solve large problems with large number of possible states, problem-specific knowledge needs to be
added to increase the efficiency of search algorithms.

The uninformed search algorithms which looked through search space for all possible solutions of the
problem without having any additional knowledge about search space. But informed search algorithm
contains an array of knowledge such as how far we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal
node, etc. This knowledge help agents to explore less to the search space and find more efficiently thegoal
node.

The informed search algorithm is more useful for large search space. Informed search algorithm uses the
idea of heuristic, so it is also called Heuristic search.

Heuristics function: Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed Search, and it finds the most
promising path. It takes the current state of the agent as its input and produces the estimation of how
close agent is from the goal. The heuristic method, however, might not always give the best solution, but
it guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time. Heuristic function estimates how close a state is
to the goal. It is represented by h(n), and it calculates the cost of an optimal path between the pair of
states. The value of the heuristic function is always positive.

Pure Heuristic Search

It expands nodes in the order of their heuristic values. It creates two lists, a closed list for the already
expanded nodes and an open list for the created but unexpanded nodes.
In each iteration, a node with a minimum heuristic value is expanded, all its child nodes are created and
placed in the closed list. Then, the heuristic function is applied to the child nodes and they are placed in
the open list according to their heuristic value. The shorter paths are saved and the longer ones are
disposed.

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In the informed search we will discuss three main algorithms which are given below:

o Best First Search Algorithm(Greedy search)

o A* Search Algorithm
o AO* Search Algorithm
Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search):

Greedy best-first search algorithm always selects the path which appears best at that moment. It is the
combination of depth-first search and breadth-first search algorithms. It uses the heuristic function and
search. Best-first search allows us to take the advantages of both algorithms. With the help of best- first
search, at each step, we can choose the most promising node. In the best first search algorithm, we
expand the node which is closest to the goal node and the closest cost is estimated by heuristic function,
i.e.

f(n)= g(n).

Were, h(n)= estimated cost from node n to the goal.

The greedy best first algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.

Best first search algorithm:

o Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list.
o Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty, Stop and return failure.
o Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of h(n), and
places it in the CLOSED list.
o Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n.
o Step 5: Check each successor of node n, and find whether any node is a goal node or not. If any
successor node is goal node, then return success and terminate the search, else proceed toStep
6.
o Step 6: For each successor node, algorithm checks for evaluation function f(n), and then check
if the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node has not been in bothlist, then
add it to the OPEN list.
o Step 7: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:
o Best first search can switch between BFS and DFS by gaining the advantages of both the
algorithms.

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o This algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages:
o It can behave as an unguided depth-first search in the worst case scenario.
o It can get stuck in a loop as DFS.
o This algorithm is not optimal.
Example:

Consider the below search problem, and we will traverse it using greedy best-first search. At each
iteration, each node is expanded using evaluation function f(n)=h(n) , which is given in the below
table.

In this search example, we are using two lists which are OPEN and CLOSED Lists. Following are the
iteration for traversing the above example.

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Expand the nodes of S and put in the CLOSED list

 Initialization: Open [A, B], Closed [S]

 Iteration 1: Open [A], Closed [S, B]
 Iteration 2: Open [E, F, A], Closed [S, B]
: Open [E, A], Closed [S, B, F]
 Iteration 3: Open [I, G, E, A], Closed [S, B, F]
: Open [I, E, A], Closed [S, B, F, G]

Hence the final solution path will be: S----> B----->F ------ > G

Time Complexity: The worst case time complexity of Greedy best first search is O(bm).

Space Complexity: The worst case space complexity of Greedy best first search is O(bm). Where, m is
the maximum depth of the search space.

Complete: Greedy best-first search is also incomplete, even if the given state space is finite.

Optimal: Greedy best first search algorithm is not optimal.

2.) A* Search Algorithm:

A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search. It uses heuristic function h(n), and cost
to reach the node n from the start state g(n). It has combined features of UCS and greedy best- first
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search, by which it solve the problem efficiently. A* search algorithm finds the shortest path through the
search space using the heuristic function. This search algorithm expands less search tree and provides
optimal result faster. A* algorithm is similar to UCS except that it uses g(n)+h(n) insteadof g(n).

In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach the node. Hence we can
combine both costs as following, and this sum is called as a fitness number.

At each point in the search space, only those node is expanded which have the lowest value of f(n),
and the algorithm terminates when the goal node is found.
Algorithm of A* search:

Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation function (g+h), if
node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For each
successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not then compute evaluation
function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the back pointerwhich
reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

o A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.
o This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

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Disadvantages:
o It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and approximation.
o A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.
o The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes in the
memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.

Example:
In this example, we will traverse the given graph using the A* algorithm. The heuristic value of all
states is given in the below table so we will calculate the f(n) of each state using the formula f(n)= g(n)
+ h(n), where g(n) is the cost to reach any node from start state.
Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.
Algorithm of A* search:

Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation function (g+h), if
node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For each
successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not then compute evaluation
function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the back pointerwhich
reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

o A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.
o This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

Disadvantages:
o It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and approximation.
o A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.
o The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes in the
memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.
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Example:
In this example, we will traverse the given graph using the A* algorithm. The heuristic value of all
states is given in the below table so we will calculate the f(n) of each state using the formula f(n)= g(n)
+ h(n), where g(n) is the cost to reach any node from start state.
Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.
o The efficiency of A* algorithm depends on the quality of heuristic.
o A* algorithm expands all nodes which satisfy the condition f(n)<="" li="">

Complete: A* algorithm is complete as long as:

o Branching factor is finite.

o Cost at every action is fixed.

Optimal: A* search algorithm is optimal if it follows below two conditions:

o Admissible: the first condition requires for optimality is that h(n) should be an admissible
heuristic for A* tree search. An admissible heuristic is optimistic in nature.
o Consistency: Second required condition is consistency for only A* graph-search.

If the heuristic function is admissible, then A* tree search will always find the least cost path.

Time Complexity: The time complexity of A* search algorithm depends on heuristic function, and the
number of nodes expanded is exponential to the depth of solution d. So the time complexity is O(b^d),
where b is the branching factor.

Space Complexity: The space complexity of A* search algorithm is O(b^d)

3.) AO* Search Algorithm:

Our real-life situations can’t be exactly decomposed into either AND tree or OR tree but is always a
combination of both. So, we need an AO* algorithm where O stands for ‘ordered’. AO* algorithm
represents a part of the search graph that has been explicitly generated so far. AO*
algorithm is given as follows:

 Step-1: Create an initial graph with a single node (start node).

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 Step-2: Transverse the graph following the current path, accumulating node that has not yet
been expanded or solved.
 Step-3: Select any of these nodes and explore it. If it has no successors then call this value-
FUTILITY else calculate f'(n) for each of the successors.
 Step-4: If f'(n) =0, then mark the node as SOLVED.
 Step-5: Change the value of f'(n) for the newly created node to reflect its successors by
back propagation.
 Step-6: Whenever possible use the most promising routes; if a node is marked as SOLVEDthen
mark the parent node as SOLVED.

 Step-7: If the starting node is SOLVED or value is greater than FUTILITY then stop else repeat from
Step-2.

Hill Climbing Algorithm

o Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously moves in the direction of
increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the mountain or best solution to the problem. It
terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor has a higher value.
o Hill climbing algorithm is a technique which is used for optimizing the mathematical problems.One
of the widely discussed examples of Hill climbing algorithm is Traveling-salesman Problem in
which we need to minimize the distance traveled by the salesman.
o It is also called greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate neighbor state and not
beyond that.
o A node of hill climbing algorithm has two components which are state and value.
o Hill Climbing is mostly used when a good heuristic is available.
o In this algorithm, we don't need to maintain and handle the search tree or graph as it only keepsa
single current state.

Features of Hill Climbing:

Following are some main features of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

o Generate and Test variant: Hill Climbing is the variant of Generate and Test method. The
Generate and Test method produce feedback which helps to decide which direction to move in

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the search space.
o Greedy approach: Hill-climbing algorithm search moves in the direction which optimizes thecost.
o No backtracking: It does not backtrack the search space, as it does not remember the previous
states.

State-space Diagram for Hill Climbing:

The state-space landscape is a graphical representation of the hill-climbing algorithm which is showing a
graph between various states of algorithm and Objective function/Cost.

On Y-axis we have taken the function which can be an objective function or cost function, and state-
space on the x-axis. If the function on Y-axis is cost then, the goal of search is to find the global
minimum and local minimum. If the function of Y-axis is Objective function, then the goal of the search
is to find the global maximum and local maximum.

Different regions in the state space landscape:

Local Maximum: Local maximum is a state which is better than its neighbor states, but there is also
another state which is higher than it.

Global Maximum: Global maximum is the best possible state of state space landscape. It has the highest
value of objective function.

Current state: It is a state in a landscape diagram where an agent is currently present.

Flat local maximum: It is a flat space in the landscape where all the neighbor states of current states have
the same value.

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Shoulder: It is a plateau region which has an uphill edge.

Types of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

o Simple hill Climbing:

o Steepest-Ascent hill-climbing:
o Stochastic hill Climbing:

1. Simple Hill Climbing:

Simple hill climbing is the simplest way to implement a hill climbing algorithm. It only evaluates the
neighbor node state at a time and selects the first one which optimizes current cost and set it as a
current state. It only checks it's one successor state, and if it finds better than the current state, then
move else be in the same state. This algorithm has the following features:

o Less time consuming

o Less optimal solution and the solution is not guaranteed
Algorithm for Simple Hill Climbing:
o Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and Stop.
o Step 2: Loop Until a solution is found or there is no new operator left to apply.
o Step 3: Select and apply an operator to the current state.
o Step 4: Check new state:
a. If it is goal state, then return success and quit.
b. Else if it is better than the current state then assign new state as a current state.
c. Else if not better than the current state, then return to step2.
o Step 5: Exit.

2. Steepest-Ascent hill climbing:

The steepest-Ascent algorithm is a variation of simple hill climbing algorithm. This algorithm examines
all the neighboring nodes of the current state and selects one neighbor node which is closest to the goal
state. This algorithm consumes more time as it searches for multiple neighbors

Algorithm for Steepest-Ascent hill climbing:

o Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and stop, else make
current state as initial state.
o Step 2: Loop until a solution is found or the current state does not change.
a. Let SUCC be a state such that any successor of the current state will be better than it.
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b. For each operator that applies to the current state:
a. Apply the new operator and generate a new state.
b. Evaluate the new state.
c. If it is goal state, then return it and quit, else compare it to the SUCC.
d. If it is better than SUCC, then set new state as SUCC.
e. If the SUCC is better than the current state, then set current state to SUCC.
o Step 5: Exit.

3. Stochastic hill climbing:

Stochastic hill climbing does not examine for all its neighbor before moving. Rather, this search
algorithm selects one neighbor node at random and decides whether to choose it as a current state or
examine another state.

Problems in Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1. Local Maximum: A local maximum is a peak state in the landscape which is better than each of its
neighboring states, but there is another state also present which is higher than the local maximum.
Solution: Backtracking technique can be a solution of the local maximum in state space landscape.
Create a list of the promising path so that the algorithm can backtrack the search space and explore other
paths as well.

1. Plateau: A plateau is the flat area of the search space in which all the neighbor states of the currentstate
contains the same value, because of this algorithm does not find any best direction to move. A hill-
climbing search might be lost in the plateau area.

Solution: The solution for the plateau is to take big steps or very little steps while searching, to solve the
problem. Randomly select a state which is far away from the current state so it is possible that the
algorithm could find non-plateau region.

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2. Ridges: A ridge is a special form of the local maximum. It has an area which is higher than its
surrounding areas, but itself has a slope, and cannot be reached in a single move.

Solution: With the use of bidirectional search, or by moving in different directions, we can improve this
problem.

Simulated Annealing:

A hill-climbing algorithm which never makes a move towards a lower value guaranteed to be incomplete
because it can get stuck on a local maximum. And if algorithm applies a random walk, by moving a
successor, then it may complete but not efficient. Simulated Annealing is an algorithm which yields
both efficiency and completeness.

In mechanical term Annealing is a process of hardening a metal or glass to a high temperature then
cooling gradually, so this allows the metal to reach a low-energy crystalline state. The same process isused
in simulated annealing in which the algorithm picks a random move, instead of picking the best move. If
the random move improves the state, then it follows the same path. Otherwise, the algorithm follows the
path which has a probability of less than 1 or it moves downhill and chooses another path.

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Constraint Satisfaction Problems

Previous search problems:

 Problems can be solved by searching in a space of states

 state is a “black box” – any data structure that supports successor function, heuristic function,
and goal test – problem-specific

Constraint satisfaction problem

 states and goal test conform to a standard, structured and simple representation
 general-purpose heuristic

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Game Playing

Searches in which two or more players with conflicting goals are trying to explore the same searchspace
for the solution, are called adversarial searches, often known as Games.

Games are modeled as a Search problem and heuristic evaluation function, and these are the twomain
factors which help to model and solve games in AI.

Types of Games in AI:

Deterministic Chance Moves

Perfect Chess, Checkers, go, Backgammon,

information Othello monopoly

Imperfect Battleships, blind, tic- Bridge, poker,

information tac-toe scrabble, nuclear war

o Perfect information: A game with the perfect information is that in which agents can look into
the complete board. Agents have all the information about the game, and they can see each other
moves also. Examples are Chess, Checkers, Go, etc.
o Imperfect information: If in a game agents do not have all information about the game and not
aware with what's going on, such type of games are called the game with imperfect information,

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such as tic-tac-toe, Battleship, blind, Bridge, etc.

o Deterministic games: Deterministic games are those games which follow a strict pattern and set
of rules for the games, and there is no randomness associated with them. Examples are chess,
Checkers, Go, tic-tac-toe, etc.
o Non-deterministic games: Non-deterministic are those games which have various unpredictable
events and has a factor of chance or luck. This factor of chance or luck is introduced by either
dice or cards. These are random, and each action response is not fixed. Such games are also
called as stochastic games. Example: Backgammon, Monopoly, Poker, etc.

Mini-Max Algorithm

o Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in decision-making and

game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player assuming that opponent is also playing
optimally.
o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
o Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess, Checkers, tic-tac- toe, go,
and various tow-players game. This Algorithm computes the minimax decision for the current
state.
o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called MIN.
o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while they get the
maximum benefit.
o Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will select the maximized
value and MIN will select the minimized value.
o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the exploration of the
complete game tree.
o The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of the tree, then
backtrack the tree as the recursion.

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Pseudo-code for Min-Max Algorithm:

1. function minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer) is

2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, false)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva,eva) //gives Maximum of the values
10.return maxEva
11.

12. else // for Minimizer player

13. minEva= +infinity
14. for each child of node do
15. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, true)
16. minEva= min(minEva, eva) //gives minimum of the values
17. return minEva

Initial call:

Minimax(node, 3, true)

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Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

o The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example. Below we have
taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-player game.
o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called Minimizer.
o Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get the minimum
possible score.
o This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way through the leaves to
reach the terminal nodes.
o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value and backtrack
the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps involved in solving the two-
player game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the utility function to get
the utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree diagram, let's take A is the initial state of the tree.
Suppose maximizer takes first turn which has worst-case initial value =- infinity, and minimizer will take
next turn which has worst-case initial value = +infinity.

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Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞, so we will compare
each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer and determines the higher nodesvalues. It will
find the maximum among the all.

o For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with +∞, and willfind
the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

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o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

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Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes value and find
the maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4 layers, hence we reach
immediately to the root node, but in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if exist), in thefinite
search tree.
o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing optimally.
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o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time complexity of Min-Max
algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the game-tree, and m is the maximum depth of
the tree.
o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar to DFS whichis
O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex games such as
Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge branching factor, and the player has lots of choices to
decide. This limitation of the minimax algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning whichwe
have discussed in the next topic.

Alpha-Beta Pruning
o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an optimization
technique for the minimax algorithm.
o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it has to
examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the exponent, but we
can cut it to half. Hence there is a technique by which without checking each node of the game
tree we can compute the correct minimax decision, and this technique is called pruning. This
involves two threshold parameter Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha- beta
pruning. It is also called as Alpha-Beta Algorithm.
o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not only prune the
tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
o The two-parameter can be defined as:
a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.
b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.

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o The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move as the standard
algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really affecting the final decision but
making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these nodes, it makes the algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

α>=β

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.

o The Min player will only update the value of beta.
o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes instead of valuesof
alpha and beta.
o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Pseudo-code for Alpha-beta Pruning:

1. function minimax(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer) is

2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node

4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, False)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva, eva)

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10. alpha= max(alpha, maxEva)

11. if beta<=alpha
12. break
13. return maxEva14.
15. else // for Minimizer player
16. minEva= +infinity
17. for each child of node do
18. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, true)
19. minEva= min(minEva, eva)
20. beta= min(beta, eva)
21. if beta<=alpha
22. break
23. return minEva

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of Alpha-beta pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞ and β= +∞,these
value of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the
same value to its child D.

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Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is compared with
firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn of Min,Now
β= +∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at nodeB now α=

-∞, and β= 3.

In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the values ofα= -
∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.
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Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current value of
alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3, where α>=β, sothe
right successor of E will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and the value at node E will be 5.

Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A, the value of
alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values
now passes to right successor of A which is Node C. At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will
be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and max(3,0)= 3, and
then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains 3, but the node value of F will
become 1.

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Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of beta will
be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and again it satisfies
the condition α>=β, so the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the algorithm will not
compute the entire sub-tree G.

Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3. Following is the
final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and nodes which has never
computed. Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this example.

Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

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The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which each node is
examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

o Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does not prune any of the leaves of
the tree, and works exactly as minimax algorithm. In this case, it also consumes more time
because of alpha-beta factors, such a move of pruning is called worst ordering. In this case, the
best move occurs on the right side of the tree. The time complexity for such an order is O(bm).
o Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when lots of pruning happens in
the tree, and best moves occur at the left side of the tree. We apply DFS hence it first searchleft of
the tree and go deep twice as minimax algorithm in the same amount of time. Complexity in ideal
ordering is O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

o Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.
o Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try order: captures first,then
threats, then forward moves, backward moves.
o We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

Water Jug Problem

In the water jug problem, we are provided with two jugs: one having the capacity to hold 3 gallons of
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water and the other has the capacity to hold 4 gallons of water. There is no other measuring equipment
available and the jugs also do not have any kind of marking on them. So, the agent’s task here is to fill the
4-gallon jug with 2 gallons of water by using only these two jugs and no other material. Initially, both our
jugs are empty.

So, to solve this problem, following set of rules were proposed:

Production rules for solving the water jug problem

Here, let x denote the 4-gallon jug and y denote the 3-gallon jug.

Initial Final state

S.No Condition Description of action taken
State
.

1. (x,y) If x<4 (4,y) Fill the 4 gallon jug completely

2. (x,y) if y<3 (x,3) Fill the 3 gallon jug completely

3. (x,y) If x>0 (x-d,y) Pour some part from the 4 gallon jug

4. (x,y) If y>0 (x,y-d) Pour some part from the 3 gallon jug

5. (x,y) If x>0 (0,y) Empty the 4 gallon jug

6. (x,y) If y>0 (x,0) Empty the 3 gallon jug

(4, y-[4- Pour some water from the 3 gallon jug to fill
7. (x,y) If (x+y)<7
x]) the four gallon jug

Pour some water from the 4 gallon jug

8. (x,y) If (x+y)<7 (x-[3-y],y)
to fill the 3 gallon jug.

9. (x,y) If (x+y)<4 (x+y,0) Pour all water from 3 gallon jug to the 4 gallon
jug

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10. (x,y) if (x+y)<3 (0, x+y) Pour all water from the 4 gallon jug to the 3
gallon jug

The listed production rules contain all the actions that could be performed by the agent in transferring the
contents of jugs. But, to solve the water jug problem in a minimum number of moves, following set of
rules in the given sequence should be performed:

Solution of water jug problem according to the production rules:

S.No. 4 gallon jug contents 3 gallon jug contents Rule followed

1. 0 gallon 0 gallon Initial state
2. 0 gallon 3 gallons Rule no.2
3. 3 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9
4. 3 gallons 3 gallons Rule no. 2
5. 4 gallons 2 gallons Rule no. 7
6. 0 gallon 2 gallons Rule no. 5
7. 2 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9

On reaching the 7th attempt, we reach a state which is our goal state. Therefore, at this state, our
problem is solved.

Tiles Problem 1

Black and White Sliding Tiles Problem:

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There are 7 tiles, 3 are white and 3 are black and there is a white space in the middle. All the black tiles
are placed left and all the white tiles are placed right. Each of the white or black tiles can move tothe blank
space and they can hope over one or two tiles to reach the blank space.

1. Analyze the state-space of the problem.

2. Propose a heuristic for this problem to move all the white tiles left to all the while tiles, the
position of the blank space is not important.

Initial State:

TILES: BBB WWW

Goal State:
TILES: WWW BBB

Assumptions

 Heuristics for Black Tile = tile-distance to the first white tile to its right
 Heuristics for White Tile = tile-distance to the first black tile to it's left * -1
 We will run the script as long as we will have a non zero value for a tile.
 If any black tile does not contain any white tile to its left then that tile will have Zero Heuristics
 If any white tile does not contain any black tile to its right then that tile will have Zero Heuristics
 We will have a selector value initially set as White.
 For each iteration, we will change the value to black and white and so no.
 Depending on the selector we will choose that colored tile with the highest tile says, Tile X.
 X will be moved to the blank space.
 If the tile jumps to its next tile the cost:= 1 if hop one tile then cost:= 2 if jumps 2 tiles then cost:=3.

Algorithm:

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1. Selector:= white
2. Foreach black tile b
3. do h(b):= tile-distance to the first white tile to its right
4. Foreach white tile w
5. do h(w):= tile-distance to the first black tile to its left * -1
6. While any tile has a non-zero h value
7. Do
8. If selector:= white then,
9. Select the while-tile with the highest h value, say X
10. If the h(X):= 0 and it does not have the blank space to its left then,
11. Select another while-tile with the next-highest h value, say X
12. Selector := black
13. Else
14. Select the black-tile with the highest h value, say X
15. If the h(X):= 0 and it does not have the blank space to its left then,
16. Select another black-tile with the next-highest h value, say X
17. Selector:= white
18. If X and the blank space is in 2-tiles distance then,
19. Move X to the blank space and record the cost
20. Foreach black tile b
21. do h(b):= tile-distance to the first white tile to its right
22. Foreach white tile w
23. do h(w):= tile-distance to the first black tile to it's left * -1
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24. End while

Tiles Problem 2

 8 puzzle problem
 Given a 3×3 board with 8 tiles (every tile has one number from 1 to 8) and one empty space. The
objective is to place the numbers on tiles to match final configuration using the empty space. We can
slide four adjacent (left, right, above and below) tiles into the empty space. For
example,

1. DFS (Brute-Force)
We can perform a depth-first search on state space (Set of all configurations of a given problem i.e.all
states that can be reached from the initial state) tree.

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In this solution, successive moves can take us away from the goal rather than bringing closer. The search
of state space tree follows the leftmost path from the root regardless of the initial state. An answer node
may never be found in this approach.

2. BFS (Brute-Force)
We can perform a Breadth-first search on the state space tree. This always finds a goal state nearestto the
root. But no matter what the initial state is, the algorithm attempts the same sequence of moves like DFS.

3. Branch and Bound

The search for an answer node can often be speeded by using an “intelligent” ranking function,also
called an approximate cost function to avoid searching in sub-trees that do not contain an answer node.
It is similar to the backtracking technique but uses BFS-like search.
There are basically three types of nodes involved in Branch and Bound
1. Live node is a node that has been generated but whose children have not yet been generated.
2. E-node is a live node whose children are currently being explored. In other words, an E-node isa
node currently being expanded.
3. Dead node is a generated node that is not to be expanded or explored any further. All childrenof a
dead node have already been expanded.
Cost function:
Each node X in the search tree is associated with a cost. The cost function is useful for determiningthe
next E-node. The next E-node is the one with the least cost. The cost function is defined as

C(X) = g(X) + h(X) where

g(X) = cost of reaching the current node from the rooth(X)

= cost of reaching an answer node from X.

Ideal Cost function for 8-puzzle Algorithm:

We assume that moving one tile in any direction will have 1 unit cost. Keeping that in mind, wedefine a
cost function for the 8-puzzle algorithm as below:

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c(x) = f(x) + h(x) where

f(x) is the length of the path from root to x (the number of moves so far) and

h(x) is the number of non-blank tiles not in their goal position (the number of mis -placed tiles).There

are at least h(x) moves to transform state x to a goal state

Complete Algorithm:

/* Algorithm LCSearch uses c(x) to find an answer node

*LCSearch uses Least() and Add() to maintain the listof live
nodes
*Least() finds a live node with least c(x), deletesit
from the list and returns it
* Add(x) adds x to the list of live nodes
* Implement list of live nodes as a min-heap */
struct list_node
{
list_node *next;
// Helps in tracing path when answer is foundlist_node *parent;
float cost;
}
algorithm LCSearch(list_node *t)
{
// Search t for an answer node
// Input: Root node of tree t
// Output: Path from answer node to rootif (*t
is an answer node)
{
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print(*t);return;
}
E = t; // E-node

Initialize the list of live nodes to be empty;while

(true)
{
for each child x of E
{
if x is an answer node
{
print the path from x to t;
return;
}
Add (x); // Add x to list of live nodes;
x->parent = E; // Pointer for path to root
}

if there are no more live nodes

{
print ("No answer node");
return;
}
// Find a live node with least estimated cost
E = Least();

// The found node is deleted from the list of

// live nodes
}
}

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Unit - 3

Knowledge and Reasoning

Building a Knowledge Base

1. Prepositional Logic:

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made
by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It
is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:

a) It is Sunday.
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we
can useany symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also
called avalid sentence.
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions
such as"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not
propositions.

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Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a) Atomic Propositions
b) Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of

asingle proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or
false.

Example:

a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining
simpler oratomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example:

a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible
scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the
representation of these combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are
the truth table for all logical connectives:

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Truth table with three propositions:

We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is
made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

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Precedence of connectives:

Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or
logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem.
Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said
to be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each
other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In
below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is
Equivalent to B

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Properties of Operators :

o Commutativity:
o P Q= Q P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
o (P Q) R= P (Q R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o Identity element:
o P True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
o Distributive:
o P (Q ∨ R) = (P Q) ∨ (P R).
o P ∨ (Q R) = (P ∨ Q) (P ∨ R).
o DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) (¬Q).
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties
or logical relationships.
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First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It isan extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
conciseway.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
First- order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the
objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship between those
objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in
the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus,
......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or
n-anyrelation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-
order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write
statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

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Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives , ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:

o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These
sentences areformed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a
sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, , term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:

o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms
together in astatement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the
subjectof the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

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Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantificationspecifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope
of thevariable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the

statementwithin its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an

inverted A.If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.

Example:

All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

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∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:

Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within
itsscope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with
apredicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'

Example:

Some boys are intelligent.

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∃x: boys(x) intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:

o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.

o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and .

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

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Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly. In this question the predicate is

"fly(bird)."And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2. Every man respects his parent. In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where
x=man, and y= parent. Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as
follows:
∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket. In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys,
and y= game. Since there are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented
as:
∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science. In this question, the predicate is
"like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject. Since there are not all students, so we
will use ∀ with negation, so following representation for
this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics. In this question, the predicate is "failed(x,
y)," where x= student, and y= subject. Since there is only one student who failed in
Mathematics, so we will use following
representation for this:
∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∀ (y) [¬(x==y) student(y) → ¬failed
(x, Mathematics)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two
types ofvariables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the
scopeof the quantifier.
Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs within

the scope of the quantifier.
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Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

Situation Calculus:
The idea behind situation calculus is that (reachable) states are definable in terms of the
actions required to reach them. These reachable states are called situations. What is true
in a situation can be defined in terms of relations with the situation as an argument.
Situation calculus can be seen as a relational version of the feature-based representation
of actions.
Here we only consider single agents, a fully observable environment, and deterministic
actions.Situation calculus is defined in terms of situations. A situation is either
 init, the initial situation, or
 do(A,S), the situation resulting from doing action A in situation S, if it is possible to
do action A in situation S.

Example 14.1: Consider the domain of Figure 3.1. Suppose in the initial situation, init, the
robot,Rob, is at location o109 and there is a key k1 at the mail room and a package at
storage. do(move(rob,o109,o103), init)
is the situation resulting from Rob moving from position o109 in situation init to position
o103.In this situation, Rob is at o103, the key k1 is still at mail, and the package is at
storage.
The situation
do(move(rob,o103,mail),

do(move(rob,o109,o103),

init))

is one in which the robot has moved from position o109 to o103 to mail and is currently at
mail.
Suppose Rob then picks up the key, k1. The resulting situation is

do(pickup(rob,k1),

do(move(rob,o103,mail),

do(move(rob,o109,o103),

init))

In this situation, Rob is at position mail carrying the key k1.

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A situation can be associated with a state. There are two main differences between
situations andstates:
 Multiple situations may refer to the same state if multiple sequences of actions lead to
the same state. That is, equality between situations is not the same as equality
between states.
 Not all states have corresponding situations. A state is reachable if a sequence of
actions exists that can reach that state from the initial state. States that are not
reachable do not have a corresponding situation.

Some do(A,S) terms do not correspond to any state. However, sometimes an agent must
reason about such a (potential) situation without knowing if A is possible in state S, or if S
is possible.
Example 14.2: The term do(unlock(rob,door1),init) does not denote a state at all, because it
is not possible for Rob to unlock the door when Rob is not at the door and does not have the
key.

A static relation is a relation for which the truth value does not depend on the situation;
that is, its truth value is unchanging through time. A dynamic relation is a relation for which
the truth value depends on the situation. To represent what is true in a situation, predicate
symbols denoting dynamic relations have a situation argument so that the truth can
depend on thesituation. A predicate symbol with a situation argument is called a fluent.
Example 14.3: The relation at(O,L,S) is true when object O is at location L in situation S.
Thus, at is a fluent.
The atom
at(rob,o109,init)

is true if the robot rob is at position o109 in the initial situation. The atom
at(rob,o103,do(move(rob,o109,o103), init))

is true if robot rob is at position o103 in the situation resulting from rob moving
fromposition o109 to position o103 from the initial situation. The atom
at(k1,mail,do(move(rob,o109,o103), init))

is true if k1 is at position mail in the situation resulting from rob moving from position
o109 toposition o103 from the initial situation.

A dynamic relation is axiomatized by specifying the situations in which it is true. Typically,

thisis done inductively in terms of the structure of situations.

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 Axioms with init as the situation parameter are used to specify what is true in the
initial situation.
 A primitive relation is defined by specifying when it is true in situations of
the form do(A,S) in terms of what is true in situation S. That is, primitive relations are
defined in terms of what is true at the previous situation.
 A derived relation is defined using clauses with a variable in the situation argument.
The truth of a derived relation in a situation depends on what else is true in the same
situation.
 Static relations are defined without reference to the situation.

Example 14.4: Suppose the delivery robot, Rob, is in the domain depicted in Figure 3.1.
Rob is at location o109, the parcel is in the storage room, and the key is in the mail room.
The followingaxioms describe this initial situation:
at(rob,o109,init).
at(parcel,storage,init).
at(k1,mail,init).

The adjacent relation is a dynamic, derived relation defined as follows:

adjacent(o109,o103,S).
adjacent(o103,o109,S).
adjacent(o109,storage,S).
adjacent(storage,o109,S)
adjacent(o109,o111,S).
adjacent(o111,o109,S).
adjacent(o103,mail,S).
adjacent(mail,o103,S).
adjacent(lab2,o109,S).
adjacent(P1,P2,S)←
between(Door,P1,P2)
unlocked(Door,S).

Notice the free S variable; these clauses are true for all situations. We cannot omit the S
because which rooms are adjacent depends on whether a door is unlocked. This can
change from situationto situation.
The between relation is static and does not require a situation variable:
between(door1,o103,lab2).

We also distinguish whether or not an agent is being carried. If an object is not being
carried, we say that the object is sitting at its location. We distinguish this case because an
object being carried moves with the object carrying it. An object is at a location if it is sitting
at that location or is being carried by an object at that location. Thus, at is a derived
relation:
at(Ob,P,S)←
sitting_at(Ob,P,S).

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at(Ob,P,S)←
carrying(Ob1,Ob,S)𝖠
at(Ob1,P,S).

Note that this definition allows for Rob to be carrying a bag, which, in turn, is carrying a book.

The precondition of an action specifies when it is possible to carry out the action. The
relation poss(A,S) is true when action A is possible in situation S. This is typically a derived
relation.
Example 14.5: An agent can always put down an object it is carrying:
poss(putdown(Ag,Obj),S)←
carrying(Ag,Obj,S).

For the move action, an autonomous agent can move from its current position to an
adjacentposition:
poss(move(Ag,P1,P2)z←
autonomous(Ag)
adjacent(P1,P2,S)sitting_at(Ag,P1,S)
.

The precondition for the unlock action is more complicated. The agent must be at the
correct sideof the door and carrying the appropriate key:
poss(unlock(Ag,Door,S)←
autonomous(Ag)
between(Door,P1,P2)
at(Ag,P1,S)
opens(Key,Door)
carrying(Ag,Key,S).

We do not assume that the between relation is symmetric. Some doors can only open one
way.

We define what is true in each situation recursively in terms of the previous situation and of
what action occurred between the situations. As in the feature-based representation of
actions, causal rules specify when a relation becomes true and frame rules specify when
a relation remains true.
Example 14.6: The primitive unlocked relation can be defined by specifying how different
actions can affect its being true. The door is unlocked in the situation resulting from an
unlock action, as long as the unlock action was possible. This is represented using the
following causal rule:
unlocked(Door,do(unlock(Ag,Door),S))←
poss(unlock(Ag,Door),S).

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Suppose the only action to make the door locked is to lock the door. Thus, unlocked is true
in a situation following an action if it was true before, if the action was not to lock the door,
and if theaction was possible:
unlocked(Door,do(A,S))←
unlocked(Door,S)
A≠lock(Door)
poss(A,S).

This is a frame rule.

Example 14.7: The carrying predicate can be defined as

follows.An agent is carrying an object after picking up the
object:
carrying(Ag,Obj,do(pickup(Ag,Obj),S))

←
poss(pickup(Ag,Obj),S).

The only action that undoes the carrying predicate is the putdown action. Thus, carrying is
true after an action if it was true before the action, and the action was not to put down the
object. Thisis represented in the frame rule:
carrying(Ag,Obj,do(A,S))

←
carrying(Ag,Obj,S)
poss(A,S)
A ≠putdown(Ag,Obj).

Example 14.8: The atom sitting_at(Obj,Pos,S1) is true in a situation S1 resulting

fromobject Obj moving to Pos, as long as the action was possible:
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,do(move(Obj,Pos0,Pos),S))←
poss(move(Obj,Pos0,Pos),S).

The other action that makes sitting_at true is the putdown action. An object is sitting at the
location where the agent who put it down was located:
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,do(putdown(Ag,Obj),S))←
poss(putdown(Ag,Obj),S)
at(Ag,Pos,S).

The only other time that sitting_at is true in a (non-initial) situation is when it was true in the
previous situation and it was not undone by an action. The only actions that undo
sitting_at is a move action or a pickup action. This can be specified by the following frame
axiom:
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,do(A,S) ) ←

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poss(A,S)
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,S) A≠move(Obj,Pos,Pos1)
∀Pos1

∀Ag A≠pickup(Ag,Obj) .

Note that the quantification in the body is not the standard quantification for rules. This
can berepresented using negation as failure:
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,do(A,S))←poss(A,S)

sitting_at(Obj,Pos,S)
∼move_action(A,Obj,Pos)
∼pickup_action(A,Obj) .
move_action(move(Obj,Pos,Pos1),Obj,Pos).
pickup_action(pickup(Ag,Obj),Obj).

These clauses are designed not to have a free variable in the scope of the negation.

Example 14.9: Situation calculus can represent more complicated actions than can be
represented with simple addition and deletion of propositions in the state description.
Consider the drop_everything action in which an agent drops everything it is carrying. In
situation calculus, the following axiom can be added to the definition of sitting_at to say
that everything the agent was carrying is now on the ground:
sitting_at(Obj,Pos,do(drop_everything(Ag) ,S) )←
poss(drop_everything(Ag),S)
at(Ag,Pos,S)
carrying(Ag,Obj,S) .

A frame axiom for carrying specifies that an agent is not carrying an object
aftera drop_everything action.
carrying(Ag,Obj,do(A ,S) ) ←
poss(A,S)
carrying(Ag,Obj,S)
A ≠drop_everything(Ag)
A ≠putdown(Ag,Obj).

The drop_everything action thus affects an unbounded number of objects.

Situation calculus is used for planning by asking for a situation in which a goal is true.
Answer extraction is used to find a situation in which the goal is true. This situation can be
interpreted as a sequence of actions for the agent to perform.
Example 14.10: Suppose the goal is for the robot to have the key k1. The following query
asks for a situation where this is true:
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? carrying(rob,k1,S).
This query has the following answer:
S=do(pickup(rob,k1),

do(move(rob,o103,mail),

do(move(rob,o109,o103),

init))).

The preceding answer can be interpreted as a way for Rob to get the key: it
movesfrom o109 to o103, then to mail, where it picks up the key.
The goal of delivering the parcel (which is, initially, in the lounge, lng) to o111 can be
askedwith the query
? at(parcel,o111,S).

This query has the following answer:

S=do(move(rob, o109, o111),

do(move(rob, lng, o109),

do(pickup(rob, parcel),

do(move(rob, o109, lng), init)))).

Therefore, Rob should go to the lounge, pick up the parcel, go back to o109, and then go to
o111.

Using the top-down proof procedure on the situation calculus definitions is very inefficient,
because a frame axiom is almost always applicable. A complete proof procedure, such as
iterative deepening, searches through all permutations of actions even if they are not
relevant to the goal.

Theoram Proving in First Order Logic

Resolution

Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e.,
proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the
year 1965.

Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a
conclusion of those statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions.
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Resolution is a single inference rule which can efficiently operate on the conjunctive
normal form or clausal form.

Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a
unit clause.

Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is

said tobe conjunctive normal form or CNF.

The resolution inference rule:

The resolution rule for first-order logic is simply a lifted version of the propositional rule.
Resolution can resolve two clauses if they contain complementary literals, which are
assumed to be standardized apart so that they share no variables.

Where li and mj are complementary literals.

This rule is also called the binary resolution rule because it only resolves exactly two literals.

Example:

We can resolve two clauses which are given below:

[Animal (g(x) V Loves (f(x), x)] and [ Loves(a, b) V Kills(a, b)]

Where two complimentary literals are: Loves (f(x), x) and Loves (a, b)

These literals can be unified with unifier θ= [a/f(x), and b/x] , and it will generate a
resolventclause:

[Animal (g(x) V Kills(f(x), x)].

Steps for Resolution:

1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.
2. Convert FOL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
4. Draw resolution graph (unification).

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To better understand all the above steps, we will take an example in which we will
applyresolution.

Example:
a. John likes all kind of food.
b. Apple and vegetable are food
c. Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
d. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
e. Harry eats everything that Anil eats.Prove by resolution that:
f. John likes peanuts.

Step-1: Conversion of Facts into FOL

In the first step we will convert all the given statements into its first order logic.

Step-2: Conversion of FOL into CNF

In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as CNF form makeseasier
for resolution proofs.

o Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite

a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ [eats(x, y) Λ ¬ killed(x)] V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)

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f. ∀x¬ [¬ killed(x) ] V alive(x)

g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀x ∀y ¬ eats(x, y) V killed(x) V food(y)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
e. ∀x ¬killed(x) ] V alive(x)
f. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
g. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Rename variables or standardize variables
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀y ∀z ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀w¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
e. ∀g ¬killed(g) ] V alive(g)
f. ∀k ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
g.

likes(John,Peanuts
).
o Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination. In this step, we will
eliminate existential quantifier ∃, and this process is known as Skolemization. But
in this example problem since there is no existential quantifier so all the statements
will remain same in this step.
o Drop Universal quantifiers. In this step we will drop all universal quantifier since
all the statements are not implicitly quantified so we don't need it.
. ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple)

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b. food(vegetables)
c. ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts)
e. alive(Anil)
f. ¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
g. killed(g) V alive(g)
h. ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
i. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Distribute conjunction over disjunction ¬. This step will not make any change
in thisproblem.

Step-3: Negate the statement to be proved

In this statement, we will apply negation to the conclusion statements, which will be written
as
¬likes(John, Peanuts)

Step-4: Draw Resolution graph:

Now in this step, we will solve the problem by resolution tree using substitution. For the
aboveproblem, it will be given as follows:

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Hence the negation of the conclusion has been proved as a complete contradiction with the given

set of statements.

Explanation of Resolution graph:

o In the first step of resolution graph, ¬likes(John, Peanuts) , and likes(John, x) get
resolved(canceled) by substitution of {Peanuts/x}, and we are left with ¬
food(Peanuts)
o In the second step of the resolution graph, ¬ food(Peanuts) , and food(z) get
resolved (canceled) by substitution of { Peanuts/z}, and we are left with ¬ eats(y,
Peanuts) V killed(y) .
o In the third step of the resolution graph, ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) and eats (Anil, Peanuts)
get resolved by substitution {Anil/y}, and we are left with Killed(Anil) .
o In the fourth step of the resolution graph, Killed(Anil) and ¬ killed(k) get resolve
by substitution {Anil/k}, and we are left with ¬ alive(Anil) .
o In the last step of the resolution graph ¬ alive(Anil) and alive(Anil) get resolved.

Planning: the task of coming up with a sequence of actions that will achieve a goal Search-
based problem-solving agent Logical planning agent Complex/large scale problems?
For the discussion, we consider classical planning environments that are fully observable,
deterministic,finite, static and discrete (in time, action, objects and effects)

Partial Order Planning

The forward and regression planners enforce a total ordering on actions at all stages of the
planning process. The CSP planner commits to the particular time that the action will be
carried out. This means that those planners have to commit to an ordering of actions that
cannot occur concurrently when adding them to a partial plan, even if there is no particular
reason to put one action before another.

The idea of a partial-order planner is to have a partial ordering between actions and only
commit to an ordering between actions when forced. This is sometimes also called a non-
linear planner, which is a misnomer because such planners often produce a linear plan.

A partial ordering is a less-than relation that is transitive and asymmetric. A partial-

order plan is a set of actions together with a partial ordering, representing a "before"
relation on actions, such that any total ordering of the actions, consistent with the partial
ordering, will solve the goal from the initial state. Write act0 < act1 if action act0 is before
action act1 in the partial order. This means that action act0 must occur before action act1.

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An action, other than start or finish, will be in a partial-order plan to achieve a precondition
of an action in the plan. Each precondition of an action in the plan is either true in the initial
state, and so achieved by start, or there will be an action in the plan that achieves it.
We must ensure that the actions achieve the conditions they were assigned to achieve. Each
precondition P of an action act1 in a plan will have an action act0 associated with it
such that act0 achieves precondition P for act1. The triple act0,P,act1 is a causal link.
The partial order specifies that action act0 occurs before action act1, which is written as
act0 < act1. Anyother action A that makes P false must either be before act0 or after act1.

Informally, a partial-order planner works as follows: Begin with the actions start and finish
and the partial order start < finish. The planner maintains an agenda that is a set of
P,A pairs, where A is an action in the plan and P is an atom that is a precondition of A
that must be achieved. Initially the agenda contains pairs G,finish , where G is an atom
that must be true in the goal state.

At each stage in the planning process, a pair G,act1 is selected from the agenda, where
P is a precondition for action act1. Then an action, act0, is chosen to achieve P. That action
is either already in the plan - it could be the start action, for example - or it is a new action
that is added to the plan. Action act0 must happen before act1 in the partial order. It adds a
causal link that records that act0 achieves P for action act1. Any action in the plan that
deletes P must happen either before act0 or after act1. If act0 is a new action, its
preconditions are added to the agenda, and the process continues until the agenda is empty.

This is a non-deterministic procedure. The "choose" and the "either ...or ..." form
choices thatmust be searched over. There are two choices that require search:
 which action is selected to achieve G and
 whether an action that deletes G happens before act0 or after act1.
 non-deterministic procedure

Uncertain Knowledge and

Reasoning

Uncertainty:

Till now, we have learned knowledge representation using first-order logic and
propositional logic with certainty, which means we were sure about the predicates. With
this knowledge representation, we might write A→B, which means if A is true then B is
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true, but consider a situation where we are not sure about whether A is true or not then we
cannot express this statement, this situation is called uncertainty.

So to represent uncertain knowledge, where we are not sure about the predicates, we
need uncertain reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.
Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors
3. Equipment fault
4. Temperature variation
5. Climate change.

Probabilistic reasoning:

Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the concept

of probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic reasoning, we
combine probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.

We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle the

uncertainty that is the result of someone's laziness and ignorance.

In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is not
confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some situations," "A match
between two teams or two players." These are probable sentences for which we can
assume that it will happenbut not sure about it, so here we use probabilistic reasoning.

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.

o When specifications or possibilities of predicates becomes too large to handle.
o When an unknown error occurs during an experiment.

In probabilistic reasoning, there are two ways to solve problems with uncertain knowledge:

o Bayes' rule
o Bayesian Statistics
o As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before
understanding probabilistic reasoning, let's understand some common terms:
o Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will
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occur. It is the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. The
value of probability always remains between 0 and 1 that represent ideal
uncertainties.

0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.

P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.

P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.

We can find the probability of an uncertain event by using the below formula.

o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

o P(¬A) + P(A) = 1.

Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.

Sample space: The collection of all possible events is called sample space.

Random variables: Random variables are used to represent the events and objects in
the realworld.

Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed before

observingnew information.

Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence or

information hastaken into account. It is a combination of prior probability and new
information.

Conditional probability:

Conditional probability is a probability of occurring an event when another event has

alreadyhappened.

Let's suppose, we want to calculate the event A when event B has already occurred,
"theprobability of A under the conditions of B", it can be written as:

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Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a and B

P(B)= Marginal probability of B.

If the probability of A is given and we need to find the probability of B, then it will be given as:

It can be explained by using the below Venn diagram, where B is occurred event, so
sample space will be reduced to set B, and now we can only calculate event A when event B is
already occurred by dividing the probability of P(A⋀B) by P( B ).

Example:

In a class, there are 70% of the students who like English and 40% of the students who
likes English and mathematics, and then what is the percent of students those who like
English alsolike mathematics?

Solution:
Let, A is an event that a student likes
MathematicsB is an event that a student likes
English.
Hence, 57% are the students who like English also like Mathematics.

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Bayesian Networks

Bayesian belief network is key computer technology for dealing with probabilistic events
and tosolve a problem which has uncertainty. We can define a Bayesian network as:

"A Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model which represents a set of

variables andtheir conditional dependencies using a directed acyclic graph."

It is also called a Bayes network, belief network, decision network, or Bayesian model.

Bayesian networks are probabilistic, because these networks are built from a
probabilitydistribution, and also use probability theory for prediction and
anomaly detection.

Real world applications are probabilistic in nature, and to represent the relationship
betweenmultiple events, we need a Bayesian network. It can also be used in various
tasks including prediction, anomaly detection, diagnostics, automated insight,
reasoning, timeseries prediction, and decision making under uncertainty.

Bayesian Network can be used for building models from data and experts opinions,
and itconsists of two parts:

o Directed Acyclic Graph

o Table of conditional probabilities.

The generalized form of Bayesian network that represents and solve decision problems
underuncertain knowledge is known as an Influence diagram.

A Bayesian network graph is made up of nodes and Arcs (directed links), where:

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o Each node corresponds to the random variables, and a variable

canbe continuous or discrete.
o Arc or directed arrows represent the causal relationship or conditional probabilities
between random variables. These directed links or arrows connect the pair of nodes
in thegraph.
These links represent that one node directly influence the other node, and if there is
no directed link that means that nodes are independent with each other
o In the above diagram, A, B, C, and D are random variables represented
bythe nodes of the network graph.
o If we are considering node B, which is connected with node A by a
directedarrow, then node A is called the parent of Node B.
o Node C is independent of node A.

The Bayesian network has mainly two components:

o Causal Component
o Actual numbers

Each node in the Bayesian network has condition probability distribution P(Xi |Parent(Xi)
), which determines the effect of the parent on that node.

Bayesian network is based on Joint probability distribution and conditional probability. So

let's first understand the joint probability distribution:

Joint probability distribution:

If we have variables x1, x2, x3,....., xn, then the probabilities of a different combination of
x1, x2, x3.. xn, are known as Joint probability distribution.

P[x1, x2, x3,....., xn], it can be written as the following way in terms of the joint probability
distribution.

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2, x3,. , xn]

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2|x3,....., xn]. P[xn-1|xn]P[xn].

In general for each variable Xi, we can write the equation as:

P(Xi|Xi-1,. , X1) = P(Xi |Parents(Xi ))

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Explanation of Bayesian network:

Let's understand the Bayesian network through an example by creating a directed acyclic
graph:

Example: Harry installed a new burglar alarm at his home to detect burglary. The alarm
reliably responds at detecting a burglary but also responds for minor earthquakes. Harry has
two neighbors David and Sophia, who have taken a responsibility to inform Harry at work
when they hear the alarm. David always calls Harry when he hears the alarm, but
sometimes he got confused with the phone ringing and calls at that time too. On the other
hand, Sophia likes to listen to high music, so sometimes she misses to hear the alarm. Here
we would like to compute the probability of Burglary Alarm.

Problem:

Calculate the probability that alarm has sounded, but there is neither a burglary, nor
an earthquake occurred, and David and Sophia both called the Harry.

Solution:

o The Bayesian network for the above problem is given below. The network structure
is showing that burglary and earthquake is the parent node of the alarm and directly
affecting the probability of alarm's going off, but David and Sophia's calls depend
on alarm probability.
o The network is representing that our assumptions do not directly perceive the
burglary and also do not notice the minor earthquake, and they also not confer
before calling.
o The conditional distributions for each node are given as conditional probabilities
table or CPT.
o Each row in the CPT must be sum to 1 because all the entries in the table represent
an exhaustive set of cases for the variable.
o In CPT, a boolean variable with k boolean parents contains 2K probabilities. Hence,
if there are two parents, then CPT will contain 4 probability values

List of all events occurring in this network:

o Burglary (B)
o Earthquake(E)
o Alarm(A)

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o David Calls(D)
o Sophia calls(S)

We can write the events of problem statement in the form of probability: P[D, S, A, B, E],
can rewrite the above probability statement using joint probability distribution:

P[D, S, A, B, E]= P[D | S, A, B, E]. P[S, A, B, E]

=P[D | S, A, B, E]. P[S | A, B, E]. P[A, B, E]

= P [D| A]. P [ S| A, B, E]. P[ A, B, E]

= P[D | A]. P[ S | A]. P[A| B, E]. P[B, E]

= P[D | A ]. P[S | A]. P[A| B, E]. P[B |E]. P[E]

Let's take the observed probability for the Burglary and earthquake
component:
P(B= True) = 0.002, which is the probability of burglary.
P(B= False)= 0.998, which is the probability of no burglary.
P(E= True)= 0.001, which is the probability of a minor earthquake
P(E= False)= 0.999, Which is the probability that an earthquake not
occurred.We can provide the conditional probabilities as per the below
tables:

Conditional probability table for Alarm A:

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The Conditional probability of Alarm A depends on Burglar and earthquake:

B E P(A= True) P(A= False)

True True 0.94 0.06

True False 0.95 0.04

False True 0.31 0.69

False False 0.001 0.999

Conditional probability table for David Calls:

The Conditional probability of David that he will call depends on the probability of Alarm.

A P(D= True) P(D= False)

True 0.91 0.09

False 0.05 0.95

Conditional probability table for Sophia Calls:

The Conditional probability of Sophia that she calls is depending on its Parent Node "Alarm."

A P(S= True) P(S= False)

True 0.75 0.25

False 0.02 0.98

From the formula of joint distribution, we can write the problem statement in the
form ofprobability distribution:

P(S, D, A, ¬B, ¬E) = P (S|A) *P (D|A)*P (A|¬B ^ ¬E) *P (¬B) *P (¬E).

= 0.75* 0.91* 0.001* 0.998*0.999

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= 0.00068045.

Hence, a Bayesian network can answer any query about the domain by using
Joint distributions.

The semantics of Bayesian Network:

There are two ways to understand the semantics of the Bayesian network, which is given
below:

1. To understand the network as the representation of the Joint probability

distribution. It is helpful to understand how to construct the network.
2. To understand the network as an encoding of a collection of conditional
independence statements.

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Unit - 4

Concepts of Learning
Learning is the process of converting experience into expertise or knowledge.
Learning can be broadly classified into three categories, as mentioned below, based on the
nature of the learning data and interaction between the learner and the environment.

 Supervised Learning
 Unsupervised Learning
 Semi-supervised Learning
Similarly, there are four categories of machine learning algorithms as shown below −

 Supervised learning algorithm

 Unsupervised learning algorithm
 Semi-supervised learning algorithm
 Reinforcement learning algorithm
However, the most commonly used ones are supervised and unsupervised learning.

Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is commonly used in real world applications, such as face and speech
recognition, products or movie recommendations, and sales forecasting. Supervised learning
can be further classified into two types - Regression and Classification.
Regression trains on and predicts a continuous-valued response, for example predicting real
estate prices.
Classification attempts to find the appropriate class label, such as analyzing
positive/negative sentiment, male and female persons, benign and malignant tumors, secure
and unsecure loans etc.
In supervised learning, learning data comes with description, labels, targets or desired
outputs and the objective is to find a general rule that maps inputs to outputs. This kind of
learning data is called labeled data. The learned rule is then used to label new data with
unknown outputs.
Supervised learning involves building a machine learning model that is based on labeled
samples. For example, if we build a system to estimate the price of a plot of land or a house
based on various features, such as size, location, and so on, we first need to create a
database and label it. We need to teach the algorithm what features correspond to what

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prices. Based on this data, the algorithm will learn how to calculate the price of real estate
using the values of theinput features.
Supervised learning deals with learning a function from available training data. Here, a
learning algorithm analyzes the training data and produces a derived function that can be
used for mapping new examples. There are many supervised learning algorithms such as
Logistic Regression, Neural networks, Support Vector Machines (SVMs), and Naive Bayes
classifiers.
Common examples of supervised learning include classifying e-mails into spam and not-
spam categories, labeling webpages based on their content, and voice recognition.

Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning is used to detect anomalies, outliers, such as fraud or defective

equipment, or to group customers with similar behaviors for a sales campaign. It is the
opposite of supervised learning. There is no labeled data here.
When learning data contains only some indications without any description or labels, it is up
to the coder or to the algorithm to find the structure of the underlying data, to discover hidden
patterns, or to determine how to describe the data. This kind of learning data is called
unlabeleddata.
Suppose that we have a number of data points, and we want to classify them into several
groups. We may not exactly know what the criteria of classification would be. So, an
unsupervised learning algorithm tries to classify the given dataset into a certain number of
groups in an optimum way.
Unsupervised learning algorithms are extremely powerful tools for analyzing data and for
identifying patterns and trends. They are most commonly used for clustering similar input into
logical groups. Unsupervised learning algorithms include Kmeans, Random Forests,
Hierarchical clustering and so on.

Semi-supervised Learning
If some learning samples are labeled, but some other are not labeled, then it is semi-
supervised learning. It makes use of a large amount of unlabeled data for training and a
small amount of labeled data for testing. Semi-supervised learning is applied in cases
where it is expensive to acquire a fully labeled dataset while more practical to label a small
subset. For example, it often requires skilled experts to label certain remote sensing
images, and lots of field experiments to locate oil at a particular location, while acquiring
unlabeled data is relatively easy.

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Reinforcement Learning:

Here learning data gives feedback so that the system adjusts to dynamic conditions in order
to achieve a certain objective. The system evaluates its performance based on the feedback
responses and reacts accordingly. The best known instances include self-driving cars and
chess master algorithm AlphaGo.

Decision Trees

o Decision Tree is a Supervised learning technique that can be used for both
classification and Regression problems, but mostly it is preferred for solving
Classification problems. It is a tree-structured classifier, where internal nodes
represent the features of a dataset, branches represent the decision rules and each
leaf node represents the outcome.
o In a Decision tree, there are two nodes, which are the Decision Node and Leaf
Node. Decision nodes are used to make any decision and have multiple branches,
whereas Leaf nodes are the output of those decisions and do not contain any further
branches.
o The decisions or the test are performed on the basis of features of the given dataset.
o It is a graphical representation for getting all the possible solutions to a
problem/decision based on given conditions.
o It is called a decision tree because, similar to a tree, it starts with the root node,
whichexpands on further branches and constructs a tree-like structure.
o In order to build a tree, we use the CART algorithm, which stands for
Classificationand Regression Tree algorithm.
o A decision tree simply asks a question, and based on the answer (Yes/No), it further
splitthe tree into subtrees.
o Below diagram explains the general structure of a decision tree:

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There are various algorithms in Machine learning, so choosing the best algorithm for the
givendataset and problem is the main point to remember while creating a machine learning
model. Below are the two reasons for using the Decision tree:

o Decision Trees usually mimic human thinking ability while making a decision, so it
iseasy to understand.
o The logic behind the decision tree can be easily understood because it shows a tree-
likestructure.

Decision Tree Terminologies

 Root Node: Root node is from where the decision tree starts. It represents the
entiredataset, which further gets divided into two or more homogeneous sets.
 Leaf Node: Leaf nodes are the final output node, and the tree cannot be
segregatedfurther after getting a leaf node.
 Splitting: Splitting is the process of dividing the decision node/root node into sub-
nodesaccording to the given conditions.
 Branch/Sub Tree: A tree formed by splitting the tree.
 Pruning: Pruning is the process of removing the unwanted branches from the tree.
 Parent/Child node: The root node of the tree is called the parent node, and other
nodesare called the child nodes.

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Working

In a decision tree, for predicting the class of the given dataset, the algorithm starts from the
rootnode of the tree. This algorithm compares the values of root attribute with the record (real
dataset) attribute and, based on the comparison, follows the branch and jumps to the next
node.

For the next node, the algorithm again compares the attribute value with the other sub-nodes
andmove further. It continues the process until it reaches the leaf node of the tree. The
complete process can be better understood using the below algorithm:

o Step-1: Begin the tree with the root node, says S, which contains the complete dataset.
o Step-2: Find the best attribute in the dataset using Attribute Selection Measure (ASM).
o Step-3: Divide the S into subsets that contains possible values for the best attributes.
o Step-4: Generate the decision tree node, which contains the best attribute.
o Step-5: Recursively make new decision trees using the subsets of the dataset created
in step -3. Continue this process until a stage is reached where you cannot further
classifythe nodes and called the final node as a leaf node.

Example: Suppose there is a candidate who has a job offer and wants to decide whether he
should accept the offer or Not. So, to solve this problem, the decision tree starts with the root
node (Salary attribute by ASM). The root node splits further into the next decision node
(distancefrom the office) and one leaf node based on the corresponding labels. The next
decision node further gets split into one decision node (Cab facility) and one leaf node. Finally,
the decision node splits into two leaf nodes (Accepted offers and Declined offer). Consider the
below diagram:

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SVM (Support Vector Machine)

A Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a discriminative classifier formally defined by a separating

hyperplane. In other words, given labeled training data (supervised learning), the algorithm
outputs an optimal hyperplane which categorizes new examples. In two dimentional space
this hyperplane is a line dividing a plane in two parts where in each class lay in either side.

Support vector machines (SVMs) are powerful yet flexible supervised machine learning
algorithms which are used both for classification and regression. But generally, they are used
in classification problems. In 1960s, SVMs were first introduced but later they got refined in
1990. SVMs have their unique way of implementation as compared to other machine learning
algorithms. Lately, they are extremely popular because of their ability to handle multiple
continuous and categorical variables.

Working of SVM

An SVM model is basically a representation of different classes in a hyper plane in

multidimensional space. The hyper plane will be generated in an iterative manner by SVM so
that the error can be minimized. The goal of SVM is to divide the datasets into classes to find a
maximum marginal hyper plane (MMH).

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The followings are important concepts in SVM −

 Support Vectors − Data points that are closest to the hyper plane is called support
vectors. Separating line will be defined with the help of these data points.
 Hyper plane − As we can see in the above diagram, it is a decision plane or space
whichis divided between a set of objects having different classes.
 Margin − It may be defined as the gap between two lines on the closet data points of
different classes. It can be calculated as the perpendicular distance from the line to the
support vectors. Large margin is considered as a good margin and small margin is
considered as a bad margin.
The main goal of SVM is to divide the datasets into classes to find a maximum marginal hyper
plane (MMH) and it can be done in the following two steps −
 First, SVM will generate hyper planes iteratively that segregates the classes in best way.
 Then, it will choose the hyper plane that separates the classes correctly.
 It is a strong data classifier. The support vector machine uses two or more labelled
classesof data. It separates two different classes of data by a hyper plane. The data
points based on their position according to the hyper plane will be put in separate
classes. In addition, an important thing to note is that SVM in Machine Learning always
uses graphs to plot the data. Therefore, we will be seeing some graphs in the article.
Now, let’s learn some more stuff.
 Parts of SVM in Machine Learning

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To understand SVM mathematically, we have to keep in mind a few important terms. These
terms will always come whenever you use the SVM algorithm. So let’s start looking at them
oneby one.

1. Support Vectors
Support vectors are special data points in the dataset. They are responsible for the
construction ofthe hyperplane and are the closest points to the hyperplane. If these points
were removed, the position of the hyperplane would be altered. The hyperplane has decision
boundaries around it.
And, the support vectors help in decreasing and increasing the size of the boundaries. They
arethe main components in making an SVM. We can see the picture for this.

The yellow and green points here are the support vectors. Red and blue dots are separate
classes. The middle dark line is the hyperplane in 2-D and the two lines alongside the
hyperplane are thedecision boundaries. They collectively form the decision surface.

2. Decision Boundaries
Decision boundaries in SVM are the two lines that we see alongside the hyperplane. The
distancebetween the two light-toned lines is called the margin. An optimal or best hyperplane
form when the margin size is maximum. The SVM algorithm adjusts the hyperplane and its
marginsaccording to the support vectors.

3. Hyperplane

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The hyperplane is the central line in the diagram above. In this case, the hyperplane is a
linebecause the dimension is 2-D. If we had a 3-D plane, the hyperplane would have
been a 2-Dplane itself. There is a lot of mathematics involved in studying the hyperplane.
We will be looking at that. But, to understand a hyperplane we need to imagine it first.
Imagine there isa feature space (a blank piece of paper). Now, imagine a line cutting
through it from the center. That is the hyperplane. The math equation for the hyperplane
is a linear equation.
a0 + a1x1 + a2x2 + ……. + anxn
This is the equation. Here a0 is the intercept of the hyperplane. Also, a1 and a2 define the first
and second axes respectively. X1 and X2 are for two dimensions. Let us assume that the
equationis equal to E. So if the data points lie beneath the hyperplane then E<0. If they are
above it, the E>=0. This is how we classify data using a hyperplane.

In any ML method, we would have the training and testing data. So here we have n*p matrix
which has n observations and p dimensions. We have a variable Y, which decides in which
classthe points would lie. So, we have two values 1 and -1. Y can only be these two values in
any case. If Y is 1 then data is in class 1. If Y is -1 then data is in class -1.

Working of SVM

For this, let us compare the working of SVM and other classifiers for better understanding. Let
us talk about SVMs and perceptrons. Perceptrons and other classifiers focus on all the points
thatare present in the data. For these classifiers, the focus is more on just separating the
complex points and adjusting the dividing line.

Perceptrons are made by taking one point at a time and fixing the dividing line accordingly.
When all the complex points are separated, the perceptron algorithm stops. This is the end of
theprocess for these classifiers, as they do not improve the position of the dividing line. So,
findingthe optimal dividing line is not what the perceptron does.

Whereas, the case with SVM is a little different. In this, the algorithm only focuses on the points
that are complex to separate and it ignores the rest of the points. The algorithm finds the
points that are closest to each other. It then draws a line between them. The dividing line
would be optimal if it is perpendicular to the line connecting the points.

The best part is that two different classes are formed on either side of the line. Whatever new
point enters the dataset, it won’t be affecting the hyperplane. The only points that would affect
the hyperplane are the support vectors. The hyperplane won’t allow the data from both classes
tomix in most cases. Also, the hyperplane can adjust itself by maximizing the size of its margin.
The margin is the space between the hyperplane and the decision boundaries. This is how
theSVM in Machine Learning works.
Pros and Cons of SVM in Machine Learning

Now, let’s discuss the advantages and disadvantages of SVM in Machine Learning.

Pros of SVM in Machine Learning

 SVMs have better results in production than ANNs do.

 They can efficiently handle higher dimensional and linearly inseparable data. They are

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quitememory efficient.
 Complex problems can be solved using kernel functions in the SVM. This comes under
thekernel trick which is a big asset for SVM.
 SVM works well with all three types of data (structured, semi-structured and unstructured).
 Over-fitting is a problem avoided by SVM. This is because SVM has
regularisationparameters and generalization in its models.
 There are various types of kernel functions for various decision functions.
 We can add different kernel functions together to achieve more complex hyperplanes.
Cons of SVM in Machine Learning

 Choosing a kernel function is not an easy task (especially a good one).

 The tuning of SVM parameters is not easy. Their effect on the model is hard to see.
 SVM takes a lot of time for training with large datasets.
 It is hard to predict the final model as there can be a lot of minute changes. So,
recalibratingthe model each time is not a solution.
 If there are more features than samples in the data, the model will give a poor performance.

Supervised and Unsupervised Learning

Supervised learning

Supervised learning as the name indicates the presence of a supervisor as a teacher.

Basicallysupervised learning is a learning in which we teach or train the machine using data
which is well labeled that means some data is already tagged with the correct answer. After
that, the machine is provided with a new set of examples(data) so that supervised learning
algorithm analyses the training data(set of training examples) and produces a correct
outcome from labeled data.
For instance, suppose you are given a basket filled with different kinds of fruits. Now the first
step is to train the machine with all different fruits one by one like this:


If shape of object is rounded and depression at top having color Red then it will be
labeledas –Apple.
 If shape of object is long curving cylinder having color Green-Yellow then it will
belabeled as –Banana.

Now suppose after training the data, you have given a new separate fruit say Banana from
basket and asked to identify it.

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Since the machine has already learned the things from previous data and this time have to
useit wisely. It will first classify the fruit with its shape and color and would confirm the fruit
name as BANANA and put it in Banana category. Thus the machine learns the things from
training data(basket containing fruits) and then apply the knowledge to test data(new fruit).
Supervised learning classified into two categories of algorithms:

 Classification: A classification problem is when the output variable is a category, such

as“Red” or “blue” or “disease” and “no disease”.
 Regression: A regression problem is when the output variable is a real value, such
as“dollars” or “weight”.
Supervised learning deals with or learns with “labeled” data.Which implies that some data is
already tagged with the correct answer.

Types:-

 Regression
 Logistic Regression
 Classification
 Naive Bayes Classifiers
 K-NN (k nearest neighbors)
 Decision Trees
 Support Vector Machine

Advantages:-

 Supervised learning allows collecting data and produce data output from the
previousexperiences.
 Helps to optimize performance criteria with the help of experience.
 Supervised machine learning helps to solve various types of real-world
computationproblems.

Disadvantages:-

 Classifying big data can be challenging.

 Training for supervised learning needs a lot of computation time.So,it requires a lot
oftime.

Unsupervised learning
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Unsupervised learning is the training of machine using information that is neither classified
norlabeled and allowing the algorithm to act on that information without guidance. Here the
task of machine is to group unsorted information according to similarities, patterns and
differences without any prior training of data.
Unlike supervised learning, no teacher is provided that means no training will be given to the
machine. Therefore machine is restricted to find the hidden structure in unlabeled data by
our-self.
For instance, suppose it is given an image having both dogs and cats which have not seen
ever.

Thus the machine has no idea about the features of dogs and cat so we can’t categorize it
in dogs and cats. But it can categorize them according to their similarities, patterns, and
differences i.e., we can easily categorize the above picture into two parts. First first may
contain all pics having dogs in it and second part may contain all pics having cats in it.
Hereyou didn’t learn anything before, means no training data or examples.
It allows the model to work on its own to discover patterns and information that was
previously undetected. It mainly deals with unlabelled data.
Unsupervised learning classified into two categories of algorithms:

 Clustering: A clustering problem is where you want to discover the inherent groupings
inthe data, such as grouping customers by purchasing behavior.
 Association: An association rule learning problem is where you want to discover rules
thatdescribe large portions of your data, such as people that buy X also tend to buy Y.
Types of Unsupervised Learning:-

Clustering

1. Exclusive (partitioning)
2. Agglomerative
3. Overlapping
4. Probabilistic

Clustering Types:-

1. Hierarchical clustering
2. K-means clustering
3. Principal Component Analysis
4. Singular Value Decomposition

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5. Independent Component Analysis

Market Basket Analysis

Market basket analysis is a data mining technique used by retailers to increase sales by
betterunderstanding customer purchasing patterns. It involves analyzing large data sets,
such as purchase history, to reveal product groupings, as well as products that are likely to
be purchased together.

The adoption of market basket analysis was aided by the advent of electronic point-of-sale
(POS) systems. Compared to handwritten records kept by store owners, the digital records
generated by POS systems made it easier for applications to process and analyze large
volumesof purchase data.

Implementation of market basket analysis requires a background in statistics and data

science,as well as some algorithmic computer programming skills. For those without the
needed technical skills, commercial, off-the-shelf tools exist.

One example is the Shopping Basket Analysis tool in Microsoft Excel, which analyzes
transaction data contained in a spreadsheet and performs market basket analysis. The items
to be analyzed must be related by a transaction ID. The Shopping Basket Analysis tool then
creates two worksheets: the Shopping Basket Item Groups worksheet, which lists items that
arefrequently purchased together, and the Shopping Basket Rules worksheet, which shows
how items are related (For example, purchasers of Product A are likely to buy Product B).

Types of market basket analysis

There are two types of market basket analysis:

1. Predictive market basket analysis: This type considers items purchased in sequence
to determine cross-sell.

2. Differential market basket analysis: This type considers data across different stores,
as wellas purchases from different customer groups during different times of the day,
month or year. If a rule holds in one dimension (like store, time period or customer

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group), but does not hold in the others, analysts can determine the factors responsible for
the exception.These insights can lead to new product offers that drive higher sales.
Algorithms associated with market basket analysis

In market basket analysis, association rules are used to predict the likelihood of products
being purchased together. Association rules count the frequency of items that occur together,
seeking to find associations that occur far more often than expected.

Algorithms that use association rules include AIS, SETM and Apriori. The Apriori algorithm is
commonly cited by data scientists in research articles about market basket analysis and is
used to identify frequent items in the database, then evaluate their frequency as the datasets
are expanded to larger sizes.

The arules package for R is an open source toolkit for association mining using the R
programming language. This package supports the Apriori algorithm, along with other mining
algorithms, including arulesNBMiner, opusminer, RKEEL and RSarules.

Examples of market basket analysis

The Amazon website employs a well-known example of market basket analysis. On a

product page, Amazon presents users with related products, under the headings of
“Frequently bought together” and “Customers who bought this item also bought.”

Market basket analysis also applies to bricks-and-mortar stores. If analysis showed that
magazine purchases often include the purchase of a bookmark (which could be considered
anunexpected combination, since the consumer did not purchase a book), then the book
store might place a selection of bookmarks near the magazine rack.

Benefits of market basket analysis

Market basket analysis can increase sales and customer satisfaction. Using data to
determine that products are often purchased together, retailers can optimize product
placement, offer special deals and create new product bundles to encourage further sales of
these combinations.
These improvements can generate additional sales for the retailer, while making the shopping
experience more productive and valuable for customers. By using market basket analysis,
customers may feel a stronger sentiment or brand loyalty toward the company.

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Unit - 5

Natural Language Processing

Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent
systems using a natural language such as English.
Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot to
perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based clinical
expert system,etc.
The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural languages
humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −

 Speech
 Written Text

Components of NLP:

There are two components of NLP as given −

1. Natural Language Understanding (NLU)

Understanding involves the following tasks –
 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.
 Analysing different aspects of the language.
2. Natural Language Generation (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of
natural language fromsome internal representation.
It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.
 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful
phrases,setting tone of the sentence.
• Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence
structure. The NLU is harder than NLG.

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Difficulties in NLU:
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.
It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity –

 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.

 For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb?
 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.
 For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he
lifteda beetle that had red cap?
 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima
went toGauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?
 One input can mean different meanings.
 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology:

 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.
 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.
 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining
thestructural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words
intomeaningful phrases and sentences.
 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and
howthe interpretation of the sentence is affected.
 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretationof the next sentence.
 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP:

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There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words. Lexicon
of a language means the collection of words and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis is
dividingthe whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words.
 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence for grammar
and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the words. The
sentence suchas “The school goes to boy” is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.

 Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning from the text.
The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic structures and
objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as “hot ice-
cream”.
 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of the
sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the meaning of immediately
succeedingsentence.
 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it actually
meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world
knowledge.

Implementation Aspects of Syntactic Analysis

There are a number of algorithms researchers have developed for syntactic analysis, but we

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consideronly the following simple methods −

 Context-Free Grammar
 Top-Down Parser

Let us see them in detail -

 Context-Free Grammar
It is the grammar that consists rules with a single symbol on the left-hand side of the
rewrite rules.Let us create grammar to parse a sentence −

“The bird pecks the grains”

Articles (DET) − a | an | the

Nouns − bird | birds | grain | grains

Noun Phrase (NP) − Article + Noun | Article + Adjective + Noun

= DET N | DET ADJ N
Verbs − pecks | pecking | pecked

Verb Phrase (VP) − NP V | V NP

Adjectives (ADJ) − beautiful | small | chirping
The parse tree breaks down the sentence into structured parts so that the computer can
easily understand and process it. In order for the parsing algorithm to construct this parse
tree, a set of rewrite rules, which describe what tree structures are legal, need to be
constructed.
These rules say that a certain symbol may be expanded in the tree by a sequence of
other symbols. According to first order logic rule, if there are two strings Noun Phrase
(NP) and Verb Phrase (VP), then the string combined by NP followed by VP is a
sentence. The rewrite rules for the sentence are as follows −

S → NP VP
NP → DET N | DET ADJ N
VP → V NP

Lexocon −
DET → a | the
ADJ → beautiful | perching
N → bird | birds | grain | grains
V → peck | pecks | pecking
The parse tree can be created as shown −

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Now consider the above rewrite rules. Since V can be replaced by both, "peck" or "pecks",
sentences such as "The bird peck the grains" can be wrongly permitted. i. e. the subject-verb
agreement error isapproved as correct.
Merit − The simplest style of grammar, therefore widely used one.

Demerits −
 They are not highly precise. For example, “The grains peck the bird”, is a syntactically
correct according to parser, but even if it makes no sense, parser takes it as a correct
sentence.
 To bring out high precision, multiple sets of grammar need to be prepared. It may require
a completely different sets of rules for parsing singular and plural variations, passive
sentences,etc., which can lead to creation of huge set of rules that are unmanageable.

Top-Down Parser
Here, the parser starts with the S symbol and attempts to rewrite it into a sequence of terminal
symbols that matches the classes of the words in the input sentence until it consists entirely of
terminalsymbols.
These are then checked with the input sentence to see if it matched. If not, the process is
started over again with a different set of rules. This is repeated until a specific rule is found
which describes the structure of the sentence.
Merit − It is simple to implement.

Demerits −

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 It is inefficient, as the search process has to be repeated if an error occurs.

 Slow speed of working.

Expert Systems

Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.

What are Expert Systems?

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particulardomain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems:

 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems: The expert systems are capable of −

 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem.
They are incapable of −
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge

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Components of Expert Systems: The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
Let us see them one by one briefly –

Knowledge Base

It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge.

Knowledge is required to exhibit intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon
thecollection of highly accurate and precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the
taskdomain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as
knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base:

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.

 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers

andscholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of

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evaluation,and guessing.
Knowledge representation:
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
formof IF-THEN-ELSE rules.

Knowledge Acquisition:
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy
of theinformation stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN- ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.

Inference Engine

Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a
correct,flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
fromthe knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular
case.To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following
strategies −

 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces

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theoutcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
sharemarket status as an effect of changes in interest rates.

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding
out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

User Interface

User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task
domain. The user ofthe ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may
appear in the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface:

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.

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Expert Systems Limitations:

No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require
significant development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include
–
 Limitations of the technology
 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs

Applications of Expert System:

The following table shows where ES can be applied.

Application Description

Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from

Medical Domain
observed data, conduction medical operations on
humans.
Comparing data continuously with observed system or
Monitoring Systems with prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring
in long petroleum pipeline.
Process Control Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.
Systems

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions,

Finance/Commerce stock market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo
scheduling.

Expert System Technology:

There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies include −

 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment

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includeshardware and tools. They are −

o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.
o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming
(LISP)and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).
o Large databases.

 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.
o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.

o They provide rapid prototyping

o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference design.

 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides
the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −
o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for
creating an expert system.
o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology,
Mumbai in1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.

Development of Expert Systems: General Steps:

The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −

Identify Problem Domain

 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.

Develop the Prototype

From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.

Test and Refine the Prototype

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 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies inperformance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including
endusers, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
Maintain the System
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.

Benefits of Expert Systems:

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.

 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.

Robotics
Robotics is a domain in artificial intelligence that deals with the study of creating intelligent
andefficient robots.

What are Robots?

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Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

Objective:

Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving, modifying the
physical properties of object, destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower from
doing repetitivefunctions without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.

What is Robotics?

Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical

Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots.

Aspects of Robotics:

 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a

particulartask.
 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robotdoes something.

Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program:

Here is the difference between the two −

AI Programs Robots

They usually operate in They operate in real physical world

computer- stimulated worlds.

The input to an AI program is in Inputs to robots is analog signal in the form

symbols and rules. of speech waveform or images

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They need general purpose They need special hardware with sensors
computers to operate on. and effectors.

Robot Locomotion:

Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment.
There arevarious types of locomotions −

 Legged
 Wheeled
 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
 Tracked slip/skid

Legged Locomotion
 This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating walk, jump, trot,
hop, climb up or down, etc.
 It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is suited for rough as
well as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it consume more
power for a wheeled locomotion. It is little difficult to implement because of stability
issues.
 It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has multiple legs then
leg coordination is necessary for locomotion.
The total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of lift and release events for each of the
totallegs) a robot can travel depends upon the number of its legs.
If a robot has k legs, then the number of possible events N = (2k-1)!.
In case of a two-legged robot (k=2), the number of possible events is N = (2k-1)! = (2*2-1)! = 3! =
6.Hence there are six possible different events −

 Lifting the Left leg

 Releasing the Left leg
 Lifting the Right leg
 Releasing the Right leg

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 Lifting both the legs together

 Releasing both the legs together

In case of k=6 legs, there are 39916800 possible events. Hence the complexity of robots is
directlyproportional to the number of legs.

 Wheeled Locomotion

It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little easy to implement as

there are less stability issues in case of more number of wheels. It is power efficient as
compared to leggedlocomotion.

 Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact
 Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering joint.
 Swedish 45o and Swedish 90o wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the contact point,
aroundthe wheel axle, and around the rollers.
 Ball or spherical wheel − Omnidirectional wheel, technically difficult to implement.

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Slip/Skid Locomotion
In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot is steered by moving the tracks with
different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because of large contact
area of track and ground.

Components of a Robot:

Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or
pneumatic power sources.
 Actuators − They convert energy into movement.
 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.
 Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.
 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.
 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robotsare equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment. A
tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human fingertips.

Computer Vision:

This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays vital role in
thedomains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.
Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information from a
single image or an array of images. This process involves development of algorithms to
accomplish automatic visual comprehension.

Hardware of Computer Vision System

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This involves −

 Power supply
 Image acquisition device such as camera
 A processor
 A software
 A display device for monitoring the system
 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

Tasks of Computer Vision

 OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to convert

scanneddocuments into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.
 Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature, which enables to
read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It is used to let a user access
the software on correct match.
 Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end cars such as
BMW, GM, and Volvo.
 Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to camera as in
position of tumor in human’s body.

Application Domains of Computer Vision

 Agriculture
 Autonomous vehicles
 Biometrics
 Character recognition
 Forensics, security, and surveillance
 Industrial quality inspection
 Face recognition
 Gesture analysis
 Geoscience
 Medical imagery
 Pollution monitoring
 Process control

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 Remote sensing
 Robotics
 Transport

Applications of Robotics:

The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −

 Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color coating,
drilling, polishing, etc.
 Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones during war.
A robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and Development Organization
(DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening objects safely.
 Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests
simultaneously, rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing complex
surgeries such as brain tumors.
 Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater drones
used for ocean exploration are to name a few.
 Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie making.

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Tutorial Sheet

Q. 1 Backed up value of R , A and B

Q.2 Show Alpha beta pruning in the tree.

Q. 1 backed value of A.

Q.2 Show which nodes get pruned with alpha beta pruning.
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Question Bank (Unit Wise)

UNIT-I
Q.1 What is Artificial Intelligence? What is the Scope of AI. List applications of Artificial
Intelligence.
Q.2 Discuss history of AI. List out task domains of Artificial Intelligence.
Q.3 Explain the main Objective of the Artificial Intelligence and give some live examples.
Q.4 Discuss use of AI in daily life. Also specify working principle of Artificial Intelligence.
Q.5 Explain in brief techniques of Artificial Intelligence. What are pros and cons of Artificial
Intelligence.

UNIT-II
Q.1 Explain Hill climbing algorithm.

Q.2 What are AND-OR graphs. Discuss why it’s called so with help of an example

Q.3 Solve the following example using A* Algo (Min cost from S to D)

Q.4 What is Heuristic function? Explain A* and AO* Search techniques by taking suitable
example and also prove which is better? (10)
Q.5 Explain Breadth First Search and Depth First Search Methods by taking suitable examples
with its structure and Time Complexity. (10)

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Q.6 Explain the difference between Uninformed Search and Informed Searching Methods and
list out these searching methods. (10)

Q.7 What is Constraint Satisfaction Problem ??Explain this by taking

ing Graph Colouring Problem
Problem.

Q.8 Solve the following example using A* Algorithm(Min cost from S to G)

State h(n)
S 5
A 3
B 4
C 2
D 6
G 0

Q.9 What is AO* Algorithm? Show any area where it can be used.

Q.10 What is Heuristic function.Explain using Tiles problem or Block World Problem.

UNIT III
Q.1 You are given 2 jugs, 4-gallon
gallon capacity and 33-gallon capacity. Neither has any measuring mark on it. We
have unlimited water supply. How can we get exactly 2-gallon
2 water in 4-gallon
gallon jug? Show using state space
search equation.

Q.2 What is Game Playing? Apply minimax search process to find best move of ‘A’ on following exam
example.
(Assuming A as Minimizing Player)
Player

Q.3 Explain the Algorithm of minimax search process using Alpha beta cut off.

Q.4 What is Minimax algorithm. Solve this problem assuming first player wants to win the game and he has
his turn first.

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Jaipur-302017,, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Q.5 Explain the concept of Alpha beta pruning. Show the cut down search nodes in given tree

UNIT-IV
Q.1 What is Predicate Logic. Differentiate between Predicate and Propositional logic. Convert the following
statement into predicate logic.
1. Every boy or girl is a child.
2. Every child get a doll or a train or punishment
3. No boy gets a doll.

Q.2 a. Explain Bayes Theorem and also discuss how Probabilistic logic is different from Predicate logic.
b. Solve the following using Bayes Theore
Theorem:
1% of a population have a certain disease and the remaining 99% are free from this disease. A test is used to
detect this disease. This test is positive in 95% of the people with the disease and is also (falsely) positive in
2% of the people free from the disease.If a person, selected at random from this population, has tested
positive, what is the probability that she/he has the disease?
Q.3 Distinguish between Predicate and propositional Logic with example.
Convert statements into Predicate logic: -
 Some boys like cricket.
 All romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.

3
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

 John is short.

Q4. What is planning? Solve it using block world problem:-

Q.5 Differentiate between Predicate and Propositional logic and make the resolution tree,
i) All People who are Graduating are happy
ii) All Happy People smile
iii) Someone is Graduating
Prove the statement “Is Someone Smiling ?“

Q.6 Solve this numerical using Baye’s theorem:-

Bag I contains 4 white and 6 black balls while another Bag II contains 4 white and 3 black balls. One ball is
drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to be black. Find the probability that it was drawn from
Bag I.

Q.7 Convert following statements into predicate logic

i. Arun was a man
ii. Arun was an Indian.
iii.Dr Abdul Kalam was President
iv.All Indians either like President or dislike him
v. Everyone is loyal to someone

Q.8 What is Unification Algorithm. Explain with suitable example.

Q.9 Explain Bayes Theorem and prove how Fuzzy logic is different from binary logic with
examples.
Q.10 Explain Syntax and Semantics of predicate logic in brief. Also convert following
statements into predicate logic:
I. Juhi is either an engineer or a lawyer.
II. Harish is an actor.
III. All surgeons are doctors.
IV. Juhi has a boss who is lawyer.
V. Every surgeon has a lawyer.

4
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

UNIT-V
Q.1 Explain Single layer Perceptron model of neural network. Write some applications of
Neural network.
Q.2 What is neural network? Draw structure, working and also list the applications
Q.3 What are the various types of learning? Explain in brief using examples?
Q.4 What is Support Vector Machine? Explain the role of SVM in Machine learning?
Q.5 Differentiate Supervised and Unsupervised Learning with suitable example. Explain Single layer
Perceptron model of neural network.
Q.6 How neural network gained its name and significance from? How do we use neural Network for solving
problems? Write some applications for it.
Q.7 What are Decision tree . List down the different types of nodes in Decision Trees.
Q.8 Explain the CART Algorithm for Decision Trees.
Q.9 Explain the difference between the CART and ID3 Algorithms.
Q.10 What is the role of the Activation functions in Neural Networks.List down the names of some popular
Activation Functions used in Neural Networks

UNIT-VI
Q.1 What are different steps in Natural Language Processing? Explain Semantic and Syntactic processing
with suitable example.
Q.2 What is NLP? List its steps involved and also discuss the issues associated with it.
Q.3 What is Robotics? In which areas of AI, robotics is being used and how?
Q.4 What is Expert System? Explain block diagram of Expert System along with its characteristics.
Q.5 What are Expert Systems? In which areas of AI, robotics is being used and how?
Q.6 How does NLPworks? Any issues with NLP? Discuss it.
Q.7 What is Robotic Automation?What are the benefits of Robotic Process Automation.
Q.8 What are the basic aspects of the robotics?What are the components of a robot?

5
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management &Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in