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 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
PUTTING THEORY INTO PRACTICE
Fourth Edition

Dennis Howitt
Loughborough University

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 PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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Names: Howitt, Dennis, author.
Title: Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology : putting
theory into practice / Dennis Howitt, Loughborough University.
Other titles: Introduction to qualitative methods in psychology
Description: Fourth edition. | Harlow, England ; New York : Pearson, [2019]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018055332| ISBN 9781292251202 | ISBN 9781292251219 (pdf) |
ISBN 9781292251226 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Research. | Psychology—Research—Methodology.
Classification: LCC BF76.5 .H694 2019 | DDC 150.72—dc23
LC record available at https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__lccn.loc.gov_2018055332&d=
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Fwqji71ow2i1JnNmNjSUS6QzqSeEfqM&s=8k6oC1GoMJh1VUHxOlRNvDuvHvewCvQn_ei643iipzw&e=

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 BRIEF CONTENTS
Contents vii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii

Part 1 Background to qualitative methods in psychology 1

1 What is qualitative research in psychology and was it really hidden? 5
2 How qualitative methods developed in psychology: the qualitative revolution 28

Part 2 How to collect qualitative data 53

3 Qualitative interviewing 55
4 Focus groups 81
5 Ethnography/participant observation 100

Part 3 Qualitative data analysis 121

6 How to transcribe recordings 124
7 Thematic analysis 148
8 Using grounded theory 170
9 Social constructionist discourse analysis and discursive psychology 195
10 Conversation analysis 230
11 Foucauldian discourse analysis 256
12 Phenomenology 281
13 Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) 308
14 Narrative analysis 331

Part 4 Successful writing-up, ensuring quality and ethical

clearance in qualitative research 353
15 How to write a good qualitative report 355
16 Ensuring quality in your research 383
17 How to obtain ethical clearance for qualitative research 404
18 Examples of qualitative report writing: learning to write good reports 431

Glossary 470
References 491
Index 515

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F01 Introduction to Qualitative Re 51202 Contents.indd 6 07/01/19 3:44 PM
 CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii

Part 1 Background to qualitative methods in psychology 1

1 What is qualitative research in psychology and was it really hidden? 5
Overview 5
What is qualitative research? 6
Science as normal practice in qualitative and quantitative research 11
The beginnings of modern psychology: introspectionism and the founders
of psychology 13
The logical positivists, behaviourism and psychology 16
The quantitative dominance of mainstream psychology 18
Statistics and the quantitative ethos in psychology 22
Conclusion 25
Key points 27
Additional resources 27

2 How qualitative methods developed in psychology: the qualitative revolution 28

Overview 28
The growth of qualitative methods in psychology 29
Qualitative methods in psychology up to the 1950s 34
The radical innovations of 1950–1970 40
The recent history of qualitative psychology 45
Conclusion 50
Key points 51
Additional resources 52

Part 2 How to collect qualitative data 53

3 Qualitative interviewing 55
Overview 55
What is qualitative interviewing? 56
The development of qualitative interviewing 59
How to conduct qualitative interviews 61
How to analyse a qualitative interview 72
When to use qualitative interviews 74
Evaluation of qualitative interviewing 75

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 viii CONTENTS

Conclusion 77
Key points 77
Additional resources 80

4 Focus groups 81
Overview 81
What are focus groups? 82
The development of focus groups 84
How to conduct focus groups 85
How to analyse data from focus groups 92
When to use focus groups 93
Examples of the use of focus groups 94
Evaluation of focus groups 97
Conclusion 98
Key points 98
Additional resources 99

5 Ethnography/participant observation 100

Overview 100
What is ethnography/participant observation? 101
The development of ethnography/participant observation 105
How to conduct ethnography/participant observation 106
How to analyse ethnography/participant observation 112
Examples of the use of ethnography/participant observation 113
When to use ethnography/participant observation 116
Evaluation of ethnography/participant observation 117
Conclusion 120
Key points 120
Additional resources 120

Part 3 Qualitative data analysis 121

6 How to transcribe recordings 124
Overview 124
What is transcription? 125
Is a transcript necessary? 125
Issues in transcription 129
The Jefferson approach to transcription 131
The development of transcription 136
How to do Jefferson transcription 137
When to use Jefferson transcription 143

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 CONTENTS ix

Evaluation of Jefferson transcription 144

Conclusion 145
Key points 147
Additional resources 147

7 Thematic analysis 148

Overview 148
What is thematic analysis? 149
The development of thematic analysis 152
How to do thematic analysis 153
When to use thematic analysis 159
Examples of the use of thematic analysis 160
Evaluation of thematic analysis 160
Conclusion 168
Key points 168
Additional resources 169

8 Using grounded theory 170

Overview 170
What is grounded theory? 171
The development of grounded theory 173
How to do grounded theory 176
When to use grounded theory 184
Examples of grounded theory studies 185
Evaluation of grounded theory 189
Conclusion 193
Key points 193
Additional resources 194

9 Social constructionist discourse analysis and discursive psychology 195

Overview 195
What is social constructionist discourse analysis? 196
The development of social constructionist discourse analysis 211
How to do social constructionist discourse analysis 213
When to use social constructionist discourse analysis 220
Examples of social constructionist discourse analysis 221
Evaluation of social constructionist discourse analysis 221
Conclusion 228
Key points 229
Additional resources 229

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 x CONTENTS

10 Conversation analysis 230

Overview 230
What is conversation analysis? 231
The development of conversation analysis 238
How to do conversation analysis 240
When to use conversation analysis 245
Examples of conversation analysis studies 246
Evaluation of conversation analysis 252
Conclusion 254
Key points 254
Additional resources 255

11 Foucauldian discourse analysis 256

Overview 256
What is Foucauldian discourse analysis? 257
The development of Foucauldian discourse analysis 261
How to do Foucauldian discourse analysis 267
When to do Foucauldian discourse analysis 269
Examples of Foucauldian discourse analysis 270
Evaluation of Foucauldian discourse analysis 278
Conclusion 279
Key points 279
Additional resources 280

12 Phenomenology 281
Overview 281
What is phenomenology? 282
The development of phenomenology 287
How to do phenomenological research 292
Data analysis 297
When to use phenomenology 299
Examples of phenomenological analysis 300
Evaluation of phenomenology 305
Conclusion 306
Key points 307
Additional resources 307

13 Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) 308

Overview 308
What is interpretative phenomenological analysis? 309
The development of interpretative phenomenological analysis 311

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 CONTENTS xi

The roots of interpretative phenomenological analysis in the idiographic approach 315

How to do interpretative phenomenological analysis 316
When to use interpretative phenomenological analysis 324
Examples of interpretative phenomenological analysis 324
Evaluation of interpretative phenomenological analysis 327
Conclusion 329
Key points 330
Additional resources 330

14 Narrative analysis 331

Overview 331
What is narrative analysis? 332
The development of narrative analysis 337
How to do narrative analysis 341
When to use narrative analysis 346
Examples of narrative analysis 347
Evaluation of narrative analysis 347
Conclusion 350
Key points 351
Additional resources 352

Part 4 Successful writing-up, ensuring quality and

ethical clearance in qualitative research 353
15 How to write a good qualitative report 355
Overview 355
Is a qualitative research report different? 356
The overall characteristics of a good qualitative report 357
The qualitative ethos 358
The structure of a qualitative report 363
The qualitative report in detail 366
Conclusion 381
Key points 382
Additional resources 382

16 Ensuring quality in your research 383

Overview 383
How should qualitative research be evaluated? 384
Quality criteria for quantitative research 386
Evaluating quality in qualitative research 387

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 xii CONTENTS

General academic justification and features of the research 387

Generalisability in qualitative research 390
Validity in qualitative research 392
Reliability in qualitative research 401
Conclusion 402
Key points 403
Additional resources 403

17 How to obtain ethical clearance for qualitative research 404

Overview 404
Does qualitative research need ethics? 405
The development of ethics in psychology 407
General ethical principles for qualitative research 410
Ethical procedures in qualitative research 411
Debriefing as ethics and methodology 425
The ethics of report writing and publication 425
Conclusion 428
Key points 429
Additional resources 430

18 Examples of qualitative report writing: learning to write good reports 431

Overview 431
Introduction 432
Examples of qualitative reporting writing 434
Conclusion 468
Key points 469
Additional resources 469

Glossary 470
References 491
Index 515

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 PREFACE

Before the 1980s, mainstream psychology was a quantitative monolith smoth-

ering all other approaches to psychology. Around this time, qualitative analytic
methods emerged which grew in strength. This is not entirely a fiction, but it is
a creation myth and not a precise historically accurate account of the dark days
before qualitative psychology emerged. My experience is probably a little dif-
ferent from that of most psychologists. At the end of my first year as a psychol-
ogy student I was sent for six months to the factory floor (and eventually the
personnel offices) of Morganite Carbon which was then in Battersea, London.
The reason? Essentially to experience life as a factory worker and to write a
project on my experiences. In other words, participant observation or ethnog-
raphy – and the experience of real life. At the end of every couple of terms we
were sent to other locations. I spent six months at the prison in Wakefield and
another six months at St George’s Hospital, London. At Wakefield, I did my
first study of sex offenders (possibly the first ever study by a psychologist of sex
offenders in the United Kingdom). At St George’s Hospital my colleagues
included Fay Fransella, an important figure in the field of George Kelly’s per-
sonal construct theory – an early precursor of social constructionist approaches
in qualitative psychology. Indeed, I attended the first conference on personal
construct theory while at Brunel University and, I am assured though cannot
vouchsafe it, was in the presence of George Kelly himself. Actually we got rather
a lot of personal construct theory.
At Brunel, I remember being fascinated by the sessions on psychoanalysis
given to us by Professor Elliot Jacques. Not only was Jacques famous at the time
as an organisational psychologist bringing psychoanalytic ideas to industry but
he was the originator of the concept of the midlife crisis! However, the key
influence on any psychology student who studied at Brunel University at that
time was Marie Jahoda. Ideas and questions were what counted for Marie
Jahoda. She had worked with or knew anyone who was important in the social
sciences at large. Sigmund Freud was a friend of her family. She would speak
of ‘Robert’ in lectures – this was Robert Merton, the great theorist of sociology.
She had worked with and had been married to Paul Lazarsfeld, the great meth-
odologist of sociology. And she had been involved in some of the most innova-
tory research in psychology – the Marienthal unemployment study. The
‘problem’ – meaning the intellectual task – was key to doing research. The ways
of collecting data merely followed, they did not lead; analysis was a way of life.
I have a recollection of Ernest Dichter, who figures in the discussion of market
research, talking to us about apples – what else. I followed Marie Jahoda to The
University of Sussex and remember the visit of the methodologist of psychology
Donald Campbell. My seat was the one next to him. Exciting times.
I have never worked in an environment with just a single academic discipline –
there have always been sociologists, psychologists and a smattering of others. My
first academic job was at the Centre for Mass Communications Research at the
University of Leicester. Now it is remarkable just how important the field of
mass communications research has been in the development of qualitative

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 xiv PREFACE

research methods. For example, the focus group, participant observation, audi-
ence studies, narrative/life histories and so forth either began in that field or
were substantially advanced by it. More than anything, it was a field where
psychologists and sociologists collectively contributed. Of course, the styles of
research varied from the deeply quantitative to the equally deeply qualitative.
Different problems called for different methods. I also remember some radical
figures visiting, such as Aaron Cicourel, a cognitive sociologist influenced by
Erving Goffman and Harold Garfinkel. Cicourel was a pioneer in the use of
video in research. During a seminar in which he agonised over the issues of
coding and categorisation I recall asking Cicourel why he did not simply publish
his videotapes. There was a several seconds’ delay but eventually the reply came.
But it still seems to me an interesting issue – that ethnographic methods are the
methods of ordinary people so why bother with the researcher?
Paradoxically, I have always been involved in teaching quantitative methods –
I was paid to do so as a postgraduate and from then on. Nevertheless, in academic
life you are what you teach for some curious reason. The opposition of quali-
tative and quantitative is not inevitable; many researchers do both. Aaron
Cicourel went along a similar route:
I am NOT opposed to quantification or formalization or modeling, but do
not want to pursue quantitative methods that are not commensurate with the
research phenomena addressed. (Cicourel interviewed by Andreas Witzel and
Günter Mey, 2004, p. 1)
He spent a lot of time as a postgraduate student learning mathematics and
quantitative methods:
. . . if I criticized such methods, I would have to show that my concern about
their use was not based on an inability to know and use them, but was due
to a genuine interest in finding methods that were congruent or in corre-
spondence with the phenomena we call social interaction and the ethno-
graphic conditions associated with routine language use in informal and
formal everyday life settings. (Witzel and Mey, 2004, p. 1)
There is another reason which Cicourel overlooks. Quantitative methods can
have a compelling effect on government and general social policy. Being able to
speak and write on equal terms with quantitative researchers is important in the
type of policy areas upon which my research was based.
By concentrating on the problem, rather than the method, a researcher makes
choices which are more to do with getting the best possible answer to the ques-
tion than getting a particular sort of answer to the question. For that reason,
qualitative approaches are just part of my research. However, where the ques-
tion demands contextualised, detailed data then the method became little more
than me, my participants and my recording machine. Some of my favourites
among my own research involved just these.
Qualitative methods in psychology are becoming diverse. Nevertheless, there
is not quite the spread of different styles of research or epistemologies for
research that one finds in other disciplines. Ethnographic methods, for example,
have not been common in the history of psychology – a situation which persists
to date. But discourse analytic approaches, in contrast, have become relatively
common. This is not to encourage the adoption of either of these methods (or
any other for that matter) unless they help address one’s research question. This
may not please all qualitative researchers but any hegemony in terms of method

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 PREFACE xv

in psychology to my mind has to be a retrograde step. So this book takes a

broad-brush approach to qualitative methods in psychology. First of all, it
invites readers to understand better how to gather qualitative data. These are
seriously difficult ways of collecting data if properly considered and there is little
excuse ever for sloppy and inappropriate data collection methods. They are
simply counterproductive. It is all too easy to take the view that an in-depth
interview or a focus group is an easy approach to data collection simply because
they might appear to involve little other than conversational skills. But one has
only to look at some of the transcripts of such data published in journal articles
to realise that the researcher has not put on a skilled performance. It needs time,
practice, discussion and training to do qualitative data collection well. Secondly,
I have covered some very different forms of qualitative data analysis methods
in this book. These are not all mutually compatible approaches in every respect.
Their roots lie in very different spheres. Grounded theory derives from the
sociology of the 1960s as does conversation analysis. Discourse analysis not
only has its roots in the ideas of the French philosopher Michel Foucault but
also in the sociology of science of the 1970s. Interpretative phenomenological
analysis is dependent on phenomenology with its roots in philosophy and psy-
chology. Narrative analysis has a multitude of roots but primarily in the narra-
tive psychology of the 1990s. And thematic analysis? Well – it all depends what
you mean by thematic analysis as we shall see.
This book has a modular structure. It is not designed to be read cover to
cover but, instead, it can be used as a resource and read in any order as need
demands. To this end, the following pedagogic features should be noted:
● There is a glossary covering both the key terms in qualitative analysis in this
book and the field of qualitative research in general.
● Most of the chapters have a common structure wherever possible. So the
chapters on data collection methods have a common structure and the data
analysis chapters have a common structure.
● Material is carefully organised in sections permitting unwanted sections to
be ignored, perhaps to be read some time later.
● Each chapter includes a variety of boxes in which key concepts are discussed,
examples of relevant studies described, and special topics introduced.
● Each chapter begins with a summary of the major points in the chapter.
● Each chapter ends with recommended resources for further study including
books, journal articles and web pages as appropriate.
This fourth edition adopted the jazz musician’s axiom – ‘less is more’. That
is, fewer musical notes lead to better music. So I have shortened nearly every
chapter quite substantially while at the same time trying to improve clarity. Very
little has been omitted – it has just been explained more succinctly. Hopefully
this will result in a quicker and easier read for those using the book.

Dennis Howitt

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Author’s acknowledgements
All authors have a debt to those people who turn their manuscript to the book
you have in your hands. I have been fortunate to have worked on this book with
an especially talented group of Pearson employees and others. They include:
Kevin Ancient (Design manager) whose text design greatly enhances the look
and readability of the book.
Kelly Miller (Senior designer) who conceived the sparkling cover design.
Antonia Maxwell (Copy editor) who made the text design and my manuscript
work together and spotted my many errors.
Marie Gill (Proof reader) who spotted the rest of my mistakes plus some
others.
Janey Webb, Saraswati Banerjee, and Dipika Rungta were the publishing team
and were an enormous support at all times and made the whole process work.
Helen Keyes and Jessica Robles (subject matter experts) were responsible for
the excellent online materials which support students and teaching staff.
I am also grateful to the following academic colleagues who reviewed plans for
this new edition and made valuable suggestions:
Dr Darren Ellis, University of East London
Dr Naomi Ellis, Staffordshire University
Dr Alexandra Lamont, Keele University
Dr Jane Montague, University of Derby
Dr Dennis Nigbur, Canterbury Christ Church University

Dennis Howitt
Publisher’s acknowledgements
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­Positivism: The essential writings. G. Lenzzer (Ed.). Chicago, IL: University of
Illinois Press. 010 American Psychological Association: Josselson, R. (2014).
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