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Contents
1 Natural Metabolites: An Eco-friendly Approach to Manage Plant
Diseases and for Better Agriculture Farming������������������������������������������ 1
Touseef Hussain, Simranjeet Singh, Mohd. Danish, Rashid Pervez,
Kashif Hussain, and Raja Husain
2 Plant Disease Management by Bioactive Natural Products������������������ 15
Simranjeet Singh, Vijay Kumar, Shivika Datta,
Daljeet Singh Dhanjal, and Joginder Singh
3 Biological Control Agents: Diversity, Ecological Significances,
and Biotechnological Applications������������������������������������������������������������ 31
Simranjeet Singh, Vijay Kumar, Daljeet Singh Dhanjal,
and Joginder Singh
4 Role of the Potent Microbial Based Bioagents
and Their Emerging Strategies for the Ecofriendly
Management of Agricultural Phytopathogens���������������������������������������� 45
Touseef Hussain, Nadeem Akthar, Raghavendra Aminedi,
Mohd. Danish, Yasar Nishat, and Seema Patel
5 Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators: Current
Developments and Future Challenges������������������������������������������������������ 67
Simranjeet Singh, Vijay Kumar, Daljeet Singh Dhanjal,
and Joginder Singh
6 Insecticides Derived from Natural Products:
Diversity and Potential Applications�������������������������������������������������������� 83
Preeti Mishra, Arpita Tripathi, Anupam Dikshit, and Anand Pandey
7 Juvenoids and Its Application in Crop Management ���������������������������� 101
Simranjeet Singh, Vijay Kumar, Daljeet Singh Dhanjal,
and Joginder Singh
8 Pyrethroids: A Natural Product for Crop Protection���������������������������� 113
Kanchan Bhardwaj, Ruchi Sharma, Jayanthi Abraham,
and Pankaj Sharma
vii
viii Contents
9 Natural Products as Fungicide and Their Role in Crop Protection������ 131
Hiran Kanti Santra and Debdulal Banerjee
10 Natural Products as Eco-Friendly Bactericides for Plant
Growth and Development������������������������������������������������������������������������� 221
Shruthy Ramesh and Preetha Radhakrishnan
11 Natural Biological Products from Plants as Rodenticides �������������������� 235
Jatinder Singh and Anis Mirza
12 Natural Product as Avermectins and Milbemycins for Agriculture
Perspectives������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 259
Kanchan Bhardwaj, Jayanthi Abraham, and Simran Kaur
13 Phytogenic Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition�������������������������������������� 273
Jatinder Singh and Dhananjay Suresh Gaikwad
14 Global Scenario of Natural Products for Sustainable Agriculture�������� 291
Saket Jha, Sharad Kumar Tripathi, Ravikant Singh, Anupam Dikshit,
and Anand Pandey
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Joginder Singh is Professor in the Department of
Microbiology, Lovely Professional University, Punjab,
India. Previously, he worked as a Young Scientist in the
Microbial Biotechnology and Biofertilizer Laboratory,
Department of Botany, Jai Narain Vyas University,
funded by the DST, Government of India. His research
interests include exploring efficient strategies toward
bioremediation and phytoremediation of pollutants and
pesticides from water and soil. He is currently working
on the designing and development of cleanup technol-
ogy (biofilters) for in situ bioremediation of textile
industrial effluents. He has published more than 60
research and review articles in the peer-reviewed jour-
nals, edited 4 books, and authored 30 chapters in edited
books. He has chaired technical sessions and presented
papers at several international and national seminars,
symposia, and conferences. He serves as a reviewer for
various prestigious journals and is an active member of
numerous scientific societies and organizations, includ-
ing the Association of Microbiologists of India,
K.K. Nanda Foundation for Advancement of Plant
Sciences, Indian Society for Radiation Biology,
International Phytotechnology Society, and European
Federation of Biotechnology.
ix
x Editors and Contributors
Ajar Nath Yadav is Assistant Professor (SS) in the
Department of Biotechnology, Dr. Khem Singh Gill
Akal College of Agriculture, Eternal University, Baru
Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India. He has 4 years of
teaching and 10 years of research experience in the
fields of industrial biotechnology, microbial biotechnol-
ogy, and plant-microbe interactions. He completed his
doctorate degree in Microbial Biotechnology jointly
from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi, and BIT, Mesra, Ranchi, his MSc in Biotechnology
from Bundelkhand University, and his BSc in CBZ from
the University of Allahabad, India. His 111 publications
include 67 research/review papers, 11 books, and 33
book chapters. He has also presented papers at various
international and national conferences. He has received
12 Best Paper Presentation Awards, 1 Young Scientist
Award (NASI-Swarna Jyanti Purskar), and 3 Certificates
of Excellence in Reviewing Awards. He also received
the “Outstanding Teacher Award” at the 6th Annual
Convocation at Eternal University in 2018. He serves as
an editor/editorial board member and reviewer for more
than 35 national and international peer-reviewed jour-
nals. He has lifetime membership of the Association of
Microbiologists in India, Indian Science Congress
Council, and the National Academy of Sciences, India.
Contributors
Jayanthi Abraham School of Bio Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of
Technology VIT, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Nadeem Akthar Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph,
Guelph, ON, Canada
Raghavendra Aminedi Laboratory of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Regional
Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
Debdulal Banerjee Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory,
Department of Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West
Bengal, India
Kanchan Bhardwaj Department of Botany, Shoolini University of Biotechnology
and Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Mohd. Danish Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Editors and Contributors xi
Shivika Datta Department of Zoology, Doaba College, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Daljeet Singh Dhanjal Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional
University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Anupam Dikshit Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Dhananjay Suresh Gaikwad School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional
University (LPU), Phagwara, Punjab, India
Raja Husain Division of Biochemistry, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, India
Kashif Hussain Gyani Inder Singh Institute of Professional Studies, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India
Touseef Hussain Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Saket Jha Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of
Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Simran Kaur Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India
Vijay Kumar Department of Chemistry, Regional Ayurveda Research Institute for
Drug Development, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Anis Mirza Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Preeti Mishra Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Yasar Nishat Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Anand Pandey Department of Plant Sciences, Avvaiyar Government College for
Women, University of Puducherry, Karaikal, Puducherry, India
Seema Patel Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics Research Center, San Diego
State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Rashid Pervez Division of Nematology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, India
Radhakrishnan Preetha Department of Food Process Engineering, School of
Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamilnadu, India
xii Editors and Contributors
Hiran Kanti Santra Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory,
Department of Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West
Bengal, India
Pankaj Sharma Himachal Pradesh State Biodiversity Board, Shimla, Himachal
Pradesh, India
Ruchi Sharma School of Bioengineering & Food Technology, Shoolini University
of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Ramesh Shruthy Department of Food Process Engineering, School of
Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil
Nadu, India
Jatinder Singh Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Joginder Singh Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Ravikant Singh Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Simranjeet Singh Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Punjab Biotechnology Incubator, Mohali, Punjab, India
Regional Advanced Water Testing Laboratory, Mohali, Punjab, India
Arpita Tripathi Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany, University
of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sharad Kumar Tripathi Biological Product Laboratory, Department of Botany,
University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Natural Metabolites: An Eco-friendly
Approach to Manage Plant Diseases and 1
for Better Agriculture Farming
Touseef Hussain, Simranjeet Singh, Mohd. Danish,
Rashid Pervez, Kashif Hussain, and Raja Husain
Abstract
Natural metabolites and biocontrol agents are becoming more popular and are
getting consideration to be viable replacement methods for controlling various
plant diseases nowadays because the environment is safer and, in some cases, the
only option is available for the protection of plants against the pathogens. In the
present scenario, beyond good horticultural and agricultural practices, producers
often depend mostly on chemically synthetic pesticides and fertilizers that are
not only harmful but also very costly. Development of pathogen-resistant breeds
becomes a worldwide problem which imposes and threatens some chemical
companies to produce new pesticides with their registration process and profit-
ability. There has been a considerable change in the perspective of farmers
toward the use of pesticides for crop protection and crop production. There are
several types of biological control agents and natural metabolite products are
available, but for effective acquisition and future development, it will need a
great understanding of complex interactions between humans, plants, and the
environment. In this chapter, we will discuss wide varieties of plants and
T. Hussain (*) · M. Danish
Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
S. Singh
Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Punjab Biotechnology Incubator, Mohali, Punjab, India
Regional Advanced Water Testing Laboratory, Mohali, Punjab, India
R. Pervez
Division of Nematology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
K. Hussain
Gyani Inder Singh Institute of Professional Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
R. Husain
Division of Biochemistry, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1
J. Singh, A. N. Yadav (eds.), Natural Bioactive Products in Sustainable
Agriculture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3024-1_1
2 T. Hussain et al.
p athogens and their interaction and management through natural metabolites
produced by microbes and plants. These interactions can affect the health of
plants in several ways. There are several microbes that reside in plant roots and
interact with plants that are beneficial while some can be harmful because they
are involved in the development of plant diseases, which occur at various levels
of interaction scale that leads to natural control.
Keywords
Biocontrol · Natural · Metabolites · Plant health · Plant pathogens
1.1 Introduction
Agriculture is one of the most growing fields, which include many crops, that might
be affected by various abiotic and biotic stresses. Biotic stresses include bacteria,
fungi, viruses, insects, nematodes, and weeds, which affect in different develop-
mental stages. The decreased production of a new crop cultivar is the result of biotic
stress (Sanjay and Tiku 2009).
There are so many types of plant diseases that may include reduced quantity and
quality of crop, threat to environment and human health, increased cost of produc-
tion, less remunerative alternatives, and deterioration of natural resources (Eilenberg
et al. 2001). After seeing the present scenario, there are many varieties of natural
metabolites produced by biocontrol agents that are available. In numerous decade
ago, biological metabolites are used for the control of various plant diseases. So, the
purpose of living microbes to control the growth of plant pathogen is an important
part of success (Kumar and Saxena 2009). Thus, it is a challenging task to overcome
the damage caused by plant pathogens. It is compulsory to devise strategies to com-
bat these problems. Although there are multiple pesticides, biocontrols or chemicals
are available in the market, but to reduce the growth of plant pathogens, these com-
pounds may have certain drawbacks; for example, the little amount of these com-
pounds present in fruits or grains could harm human being and may be harmful to
the environment, which can cause water and soil pollution, animal and food con-
tamination, and beneficial microbe elimination. Keeping in view the hazardous
effect of pesticides, natural products seem to be an eco-friendly approach to manage
the disease and reduce the toxic effects of pesticides and fungicides to environment
and human health.
1.2 Role of Natural Plant Products in Disease Management
The accessibility of nutritious and safe food could be increased by increasing the
sustainability of agricultural production system, which is the global challenge for
food security. The use of bioactive natural products isolated from natural products
for plant protection and sustainability may be incorporated in plant production. In
1 Natural Metabolites: An Eco-friendly Approach to Manage Plant Diseases… 3
modern agriculture, the use of botanical and microbial natural products may lead to
the development of natural inducers and antimicrobial agents of plant host defense
system. In much previous research, there are so many plants, such as neem, citrus,
garlic, moringa, etc., which have been used for the management of several bacterial
and fungal diseases. On chemical basis, many plant metabolites act as antifungal
agents like flavones, flavonoids, quinines, tannins, terpenes, and saponins. All these
always played important role as antifungal agents. These are all produced by plants
against microbial infections and found to be effective substances against harmful
microorganisms and pathogens (Ciocan and Bara 2007). Flavonoids are allelopathic
compounds, phytoalexins, and antimicrobial and detoxifying agents that always act
as signal molecules and as protector from various stresses. Flavonoids also play an
important role in abiotic stresses like temperature and drought tolerance, frost hardi-
ness, and freezing tolerance (Iwashina 2003).
Isoflavonoids are involved in the defense mechanism against plant pathogen, and
these can be characterized by migration of phenyl ring. In species Mangifera indica,
the major phytoalexin is vestitol, belonging to class isoflavones (Lanot and Morris
2005). In several previous kinds of researches, scientist investigated the presence of
flavonoid phytoalexins in cucumber and reported that silicon is involved in the
defense mechanism against fungal proteins (Fawe et al. 2001). Flavonoids function
as detoxifying agents, justified by flavonoid peroxidase that plays an important role
in H2O2 scavenging (Yamasaki et al. 1997). Flavonoids are not only able to detoxify
the reactive oxygen species but also chelate with heavy metals, resulting in diver-
gence of molecular structures. Flavonoids also play an important role against plant
viruses. Galangin (3,5,7-trihydroxyflavone), a flavonoid isolated from Helichrysum
aureonitens, creates the defense mechanism against the viruses and gram-negative
bacteria and fungi (Cowan 1999).
1.2.1 Coumarins
Coumarin is a colorless, crystalline solid that is bitter in taste. It was first screened
from tonka beans in 1820 by A. Vogel (Munich). Basically, coumarins are phenolic
substances containing various secondary metabolites, composed of pyrone rings and
fused benzene. Coumarins are inducible antifungal chemicals that function as anti-
fungal agents. Many coumarins, like scopolin, scopoletin, and umbelliferone, are
formed in tissues of plant in response to fungus like Fusarium oxysporum, which
attack potato roots. When roots of parsnip and celery were inoculated to Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum, the level of furanocoumarins was decreased (Rahman 2000). Coumarins
are also known as phytoalexin, and in much previous study, it was reported as anti-
fungal agents that develop the defense mechanism against fungal bodies (Brooker
et al. 2007). In few works, it was also regarded as antibacterial and anti-insecticidal
agents. It has antibacterial effects on animal and pathogenic bacteria (Razavi et al.
2009). In other previous studies, coumarin and murraxocin acts as strong insecticidal
agents having mortality on larva and eggs of insects (Sharma et al. 2006). Coumarin
is also reported to act as an ovicide agent (Tasleem et al. 2012). There are many
4 T. Hussain et al.
agents like carbazole derivatives; clausenidin, dentatin, and clauszoline extracted
from Clausena excavate exhibit antimycotic activity. In several in vitro studies, cou-
marins showed antibacterial and antifungal activities (Nakajima and Kawazu 1980).
Synthetic coumarins and angelicin derivatives were found effective against A. niger,
C. albicans, S. cerevisiae, and C. neoformans.
1.2.2 Tannins or Gallotannin
Tannin is a polyphenolic biomolecule and is responsible for the flavoring and astrin-
gency in tea. Normally, tannin is found in the bark, wood, roots, leaves, and fruits of
plants. The molecular weight of tannin ranges from 500 to 3000 kDa, and it is divided
into two categories: (i) hydrolysable and (ii) condensed tannins. Hydrolyzable tannins
are derived from flavonoid monomers and produce ellagic or gallic acids upon heating
with sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. Hydrolyzable tannins are extracted from vegetable
plants such as oak wood (Quercus petraea, Quercus alba, and Quercus robur), chestnut
wood (Castanea sativa), tara pods (Caesalpinia spinosa), myrobalan, and gallnut. There
is a carbohydrate, usually D-glucose, in the center of tannin molecule as multiple esters.
Certain examples of tannins are gallic acids, which are esters of glucose found in leaves
and bark of many plants. They are also formed by the condensation reaction of flavan
derivatives (Tasleem et al. 2012). The examples of condensed tannins are polyflavonoid
tannins, proanthocyanidins, pyrocatecollic-type tannins, catechol-type tannins, etc.,
formed by condensation of flavans. Condensed tannin is also found in grape, commonly
called as procyanidins, consisting of 2–50 polymer (or more) catechin units linked by
carbon-carbon bonds. Tannins create the defense mechanisms by the binding of dietary
proteins of digestive enzymes. Many types of tannin act as insecticidal agents and could
have a negative effect on insects because they were having basic gut pH and tannins
don’t act on those proteins (Barbehenn and Constabel 2011).
1.2.3 Alkaloids
Alkaloids usually contain more than nitrogen atoms in their heterocyclic ring. These
compounds were having weak and neutral acidic properties (Manske 1965; Lewis
1998). The function of alkaloids in the plant is uncertain. There is no such importance
of alkaloids, although they are regarded only as by-products of plant metabolism.
Sometimes, they may act as reservoirs for protein synthesis. In previous research, it
was reported that generally alkaloids are therapeutically significant plant substances
(Tasleem et al. 2012). Alkaloids are produced by large group of various organisms like
plant fungi, animals, and bacteria (Roberts 1998). Alkaloids have antimalarial, anti-
bacterial, analgesic, and anticancer properties. The first reported alkaloid was mor-
phine, derived from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) in 1805.
The alkaloid like 2-(3-4-dimethyl-2-5-dihydro1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-1-methylethylpen-
tanoate derived from Datura shows antifungal activities against Candida and Aspergillus
species. Fragulanine is a cyclic peptide quinoline alkaloid isolated from Melochia odo-
rata that showed antifungal activity against the pathogenic fungi. Other alkaloid,
1 Natural Metabolites: An Eco-friendly Approach to Manage Plant Diseases… 5
3-methoxysampangine, derived from Cleistopholis patens were reported to have antifun-
gal activity against C. neoformans, C. albicans, and A. fumigatus. N-Desmethylcycleanine,
cycleanine, and cocsoline from Albertisia villosa are the antifungal alkaloids that were
reported from higher plants (Tasleem et al. 2012).
1.2.4 Terpenoids
Terpenoids are commonly called as isoprenoids. Basically, these are the assorted
class isolated from terpenes. Terpenes are large and diverse class of hydrocarbons
produced by varieties of plants. They have strong odor and may protect the plants
by deterring herbivores and by parasites of herbivores. Terpenoids act as antioxi-
dants and execute various functions in plants and animals (e.g., carotenoids function
as essential pigments for light extracting and provide photo protection and plant
pigmentation). Plant terpenoids are used as herbal remedies against various patho-
gens and diseases. Terpenoids give odor to eucalyptus, flavors to ginger cinnamon
and cloves, red color in tomatoes, and the yellow pigmentation in sunflowers
(Specter 2009). Terpenes (diterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes, hemiterpenes, and
sesquiterpenes (C15)) contain oxygen in their side chain and are termed as terpe-
noids. Some common examples are artemisinin (sesquiterpenoids), farnesol, cam-
phor (monoterpenes), and methanol.
In several research studies, it was reported that terpenes or terpenoids work against
bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Capsaicin enhances the growth and development of
Candida albicans, which inhibit the growth of various types of bacteria (Cowan
1999). Terpenes are also considered as antifungal agents. Monoterpenoids are involved
in the innate immunity against various plant pathogens. The major components of
oils, that is, 1,8-cineole, p-cymene cineole, carvacrol, thymol, and geranial, exhibit
antifungal activity. The extracts from Agastache rugosa (essential oil) were reported
to have antifungal activity. The essential oil extracts from the leaves of Litsea cubeba
contain n-transnerolidol 3, 7-dimethyl-1, 6-octadien-3-ol, and cis-ocimene that mani-
fest antifungal activities. Tri-terpenoid glycosides obtained from Bellis perennis and
Solidago virgaurea inhibit the growth and development of human pathogenic yeasts
(Cryptococcus and Candida species) (Tasleem et al. 2012).
1.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
The root system of the plant system is surrounded by a narrow zone of soil called
rhizosphere (Walker et al. 2003). The bacterial community colonizing this narrow
environmental zone is term as “rhizobacteria” (Kloepper et al. 1991). The bacterial
communities that colonize the roots of the plant and support their growths are called
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Beneduzi et al. 2012). These bacte-
ria are one of the most effective and eco-friendly methods for the management of
plant disease (Compant et al. 2005). PGPR as biocontrol agents have several bene-
fits over chemical practices, because PGPR are nontoxic and they are naturally
occurring microorganism having endurable applications.
6 T. Hussain et al.
The application of PGPR as a cost-effective control method of pest management
in roots has been reported by several workers (Lucy et al. 2005; Whipps 2001).
Different bacterial strains have shown to have ability for development as biocontrol
agents on cereals. Bacterial isolates from the plant root, such as Bacillus,
Pseudomonas, and Azotobacter, showed antagonistic activity to check the plant
pathogen and act as disease management agent (Berg and Smalla 2009).
The biocontrol potential of Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus spp. as important bio-
control agents to strive against root and soilborne microbial pathogens has been
reported in several crops like wheat, tomato, potato and chickpea (Hussain and Khan
2020; Dashti et al. 2012; Perez-Montano et al. 2014). Several species of Bacillus such
as B. licheniformis, B. cereus, and B. thuringiensis were reported to be potential bio-
control agents. Bacillus spp. screened from the chickpea rhizosphere have shown to
reduce the pathogenic activity of fungus called Fusarium oxysporum, which is
reported to cause Fusarium wilt disease. In a greenhouse experiments, Bacillus strains
that was isolated and reported from the sorghum rhizosphere in Ethiopia and wild
grass sp. in South Africa have antagonistic affects against the root rot disease caused
by F. oxysporum and crown rot pathogens by Pythium ultimum (Idris et al. 2007).
The plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria exerted different mechanisms such as
antibiosis, secreting toxin surface compound (bio-surfactants) and volatiles, chitinase
cell wall-degrading enzymes, and α-1,3-glucanase and also induce systemic resistance
in plants to deplete the soilborne pathogens (Perez-Montano et al. 2014; Haas and
Défago 2005; Compant et al. 2005; Van Loon 2007, Whipps 2001). The earlier reported
mechanism of biocontrol is the secretion of siderophore ligands that efficiently confis-
cate iron and inhibit the growth of pathogen (Raaijmakers et al. 2002).
1.4 Fungi as Biocontrol Agents
Nowadays, fungi biological control is considered to be a rapid and effective devel-
oping natural phenomenon with wide applications in industrial sector like food pro-
duction and food yield. Harman et al. (2013) reported that Trichoderma species
allows for the development of biocontrol strategies against economically important
plant pathogen. Antagonistic effect of Trichoderma spp. is due to the secretion of
secondary metabolites against Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani (Harman
et al. 2004). Several other fungi like Pochonia chlamydosporia isolates have been
evaluated as biocontrol agents against the root-knot nematodes (RKN) with differ-
ent crops and experimental conditions (Shurf et al. 2014). Endophytic colonization
of the root by P. chlamydosporia suppresses the growth of the pathogens and
enhances the growth and development of the plant (Maciá-Vicente et al. 2009)
1.5 Role of Mycorrhizae in Disease Management
To develop effective and durable protection to root system, the role of mycorrhiza
against pathogenic population is well established (Thakur et al. 2005). Mycorrhizal
fungi are most common fungal association with roots of majority of plants.
1 Natural Metabolites: An Eco-friendly Approach to Manage Plant Diseases… 7
The mycorrhiza (fungus root) is defined as an association between fungi and plants
that establishes on tissue of root system during the time of active plant growth and
makes unfavorable environment for pathogens. Mycorrhizal fungus acts as biocon-
trol agent against various plant pathogens, which is a relatively new and eco-friendly
technique. Several studies have proved that tree seedlings with mycorrhizal associa-
tions exhibit more resistance to feeder roots against pathogenic fungi/bacteria/nem-
atodes than non-mycorrhizal roots (Al-Karaki 2000).
Ectomycorrhizae multiply on the root surface producing a netlike structure called
the Hartig net. They reduce the development of disease by exerting different mecha-
nisms including antibiosis, by synthesizing antifungal compound and developing a
barrier around the root of the plant (Duchesne 1994). Root rot disease of red pine
caused by F. oxysporum and F. moniliforme is effectively controlled by ectomycor-
rhizal fungi like Paxillus involutus.
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) are another significant part of the micro-
bial soil community that provide vital benefit for plant growth (Sukhada et al. 2010;
Yinsuo et al. 2004). The VAM fungi are not only beneficial for plant development, but
it also develop the resistance in the host plant against various soilborne plant patho-
gens (Ziedan et al. 2011; Upadhyaya et al. 2000). Among the VAM fungi, the genus
Glomus is very common with species like G. fasciculatum, G. mosseae, G. constric-
tum, G. monosporum, and G. macrosporum. During the establishment on the root
system, they prevent root infections by reducing the entry sites of pathogens and
encouraging host defense. They have also been found to decrease the infection of root-
knot nematode in different plant systems (Linderman 1994). The effect of Pseudomonas
syringae on tomato is significantly decreased when the host plants are inoculated with
mycorrhizae fungi (García-Garrido and Ocampo 2002). The mode of action involved
in these interactions includes indirect effects, chemical interactions, and physical pro-
tection (Fitter and Garbaye 1994). The other strategy adopted by VAM fungi includes
improved nutrition in the plant; increase lignification on the root system; and chemical
composition of antifungal isoflavonoids, chitinase, etc. (Morris and Ward 1992).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are reported to manage a number of crop
diseases, especially root diseases (Xavier and Boyetchko 2004). They can affect the
pathogens and suppress the diseases through the development of systemic resis-
tance in the host (Jung et al. 2012; Pozo and Azcon-Aguilar 2007; Pineda et al.
2010). It has been found that mycorrhizal induce resistance (MIR) is the result of
active depletion of components in the Salicylic acid (SA)-dependent defense path-
way, which causes systemic priming of jasmonic acid-dependent defenses (Pozo
and Azcon-Aguilar 2007; Hause et al. 2007).
1.6 anagement of Plant Diseases Caused by Plant
M
Parasitic Nematodes
Agriculture production in India has sustained losses of millions of dollars due to
various factors. Among them, one of the major constraints is pest diseases, which
are the limiting factor in the cultivation of crops. Among them, diseases caused by
8 T. Hussain et al.
plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are one of the constraints in reducing both the qual-
ity and yield of the crops. They cause 21.3% crop losses amounting to ₹102039.79 mil-
lion ($1577 million) annually; the losses in 19 horticultural crops were assessed at
₹50224.98 million, while for 11 field crops it was estimated at ₹51814.81 million.
Rice-rot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola was economically most important
causing yield loss of ₹23272.32 million in rice. Citrus (₹9828.22 million) and
banana (₹9710.46 million) among fruit crop and tomato (₹6035.2 million), brinjal
(₹3499.12 million), and okra (₹2480.86 million) among the vegetable crops suf-
fered comparatively more losses (Walia and Chakrabarty 2018; Khan et al. 2010). It
has been estimated that overall losses amount to $78 billion globally due to RKN
(Chen et al. 2004).
Plant parasitic nematodes are regarded as biggest enemy of crops due to their
small size and natural habitats where they established a feeding site. They lead
major structural changes in root system and metabolism. Root-knot nematodes
(RKN), such as Meloidogyne spp., are the most dangerous nematodes worldwide.
They act on more than 5000 plant species and cause economic losses in many hor-
ticultural and agricultural crops (Ntalli et al. 2010).
One or more nematode pests are always associated with every crop, which cause
economic loss to crop, and their control is the major requirements for increasing the
crop productivity. Pesticides are currently being used to manage these nematode
pests leading to environmental and health concerns and resulting into the suppres-
sion of other naturally occurring biocontrol agents as well as resistance in their
nematodes.
Many soil-inhabiting microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria, protozoans,
viruses, turbellarians, enchytraeids, mites, predatory nematodes, collembolans, and
tardigrades, are parasites, predators, or antagonistic to plant parasitic nematodes.
These microorganisms have been exploited as biocontrol agents for the manage-
ment of PPN in several agricultural and horticultural crops. The increasing thrust
toward sustainable agriculture and integrated pest management has led to biological
control emerging from their status as a fringe sector to being viewed as an intrinsic
part of crop protection. A brief description on the most promising organisms is fur-
nished below.
1.6.1 Paecilomyces lilacinus
This is an opportunistic fungus prevalent in many soils. This fungus parasitizes the
egg of root-knot nematodes and suppresses nematode hatching. Inoculation of this
fungus at root zone could significantly reduce root loss due to nematode infestation
and improve plant growth.
