PMF IAS Prelims Magnum 2025 — Art and Culture,

Indian History and Indian Society

Prelims-Specific Current Affairs from January 2024 to December 2024

Table of Contents
1. Art and Culture – Architecture................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. {Architecture} BAPS Temple ........................................................................................................... 1

1.2. {Architecture} Batadrava Than: Assamese Sacred Place * .......................................................... 1
1.3. {Architecture} Bhojshala Complex ................................................................................................. 2
1.4. {Architecture} Borra Caves ............................................................................................................. 3
1.5. {Architecture} Fort Emmanuel/Fort Kochi..................................................................................... 3
1.6. {Architecture} Jagannath Temple : Kalinga Architecture ........................................................... 4
1.7. {Architecture} Javathu Pulavar...................................................................................................... 5
1.8. {Architecture} Kalaram Temple * .................................................................................................. 5
1.9. {Architecture} Kerala's Ganapathyvattam ................................................................................... 6
1.10. {Architecture} Maratha Military Landscapes ** ........................................................................... 6
1.11. {Architecture} Nagara Style of Temple Architecture * ................................................................ 8
1.12. {Architecture} Pandavula Gutta | Ramgarh Crater .................................................................... 11
1.13. {Architecture} Ram Mandir at Ayodhya ...................................................................................... 12
1.14. {Architecture} Ramappa Temple & Ghanpur (Kota Gullu) Temple .......................................... 13
1.15. {Architecture} Six Sites from MP in UNESCO’s Tentative List ** .............................................. 14

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1.16. {Architecture} Sri Madhava Perumal Temple ............................................................................. 16
1.17. {Architecture} The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 .............................................. 16
1.18. {Architecture} Virat Ramayan Mandir ........................................................................................ 17

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

1.19. {Architecture} Virupaksha Temple ** .......................................................................................... 17
1.20. {Architecture} Vishalgad Fort....................................................................................................... 19

2. Art and Culture – Art Forms .................................................................................................................. 20

2.1. {Art Forms} Dhokra Shilpkala ...................................................................................................... 20

2.2. {Art Forms} Gharcholas Saree ...................................................................................................... 20
2.3. {Art Forms} Gotipua Dance .......................................................................................................... 21
2.4. {Art Forms} Haveli Sangeet .......................................................................................................... 21
2.5. {Art Forms} Kalamezhuthu (Dhulee Chithram) .......................................................................... 22
2.6. {Art Forms} Martial Art Forms of India ....................................................................................... 22
 2.7. {Art Forms} Mohiniyattam ........................................................................................................... 24
2.8. {Art Forms} Yakshagana ............................................................................................................... 25

3. Art and Culture – Festivals .................................................................................................................... 26

3.1. {Festivals) Surajkund International Crafts Mela ........................................................................ 26

3.2. {Festivals} Ashtalakshmi Mahotsav * .......................................................................................... 26
3.3. {Festivals} Attukal Pongal ............................................................................................................ 26
3.4. {Festivals} Brahmotsavam festival In Tirupati........................................................................... 26
3.5. {Festivals} Chandubi Festival ....................................................................................................... 27
3.6. {Festivals} Chithirai Car Festival ................................................................................................. 27
3.7. {Festivals} Hornbill Festival of Nagaland ................................................................................... 27
3.8. {Festivals} India celebrates New Year Festivals ......................................................................... 28
3.9. {Festivals} Karam Tree Festival (Karma/Karam Parv) .............................................................. 30
3.10. {Festivals} Kharchi Puja * ............................................................................................................. 30
3.11. {Festivals} Kumbh Mela ** ............................................................................................................ 30
3.12. {Festivals} Naga King Chilli Festival ........................................................................................... 32
3.13. {Festivals} Nangarni Spardha ...................................................................................................... 32
3.14. {Festivals} Navroz ......................................................................................................................... 33
3.15. {Festivals} Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival .................................................................................... 34
3.16. {Festivals} 'Paruveta' Festival ...................................................................................................... 34
3.17. {Festivals} Sammakka-Sarakka Medaram Jatara * ................................................................... 34
3.18. {Festivals} Thrissur Pooram ......................................................................................................... 35
3.19. {Festivals} Tirumala Brahmotsavam ........................................................................................... 35

4. Art and Culture – Misc ........................................................................................................................... 36

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4.1. {Misc} Anand Marriage Act .......................................................................................................... 36
4.2. {Misc} Arunachal Pradesh Statehood Day .................................................................................. 36

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

4.3. {Misc} Ayutthaya: Venice of the East ........................................................................................... 36
4.4. {Misc} Book in news: Freedom At Midnight ................................................................................ 37
4.5. {Misc} Charaideo Moidam ............................................................................................................ 37
4.6. {Misc} First Asian Buddhist Summit ............................................................................................ 37
4.7. {Misc} HarGharTiranga Campaign .............................................................................................. 37
4.8. {Misc} India International Science Festival (IISF) 2023 ............................................................. 37
4.9. {Misc} Indian Historical Records Commission ............................................................................ 38
4.10. {Misc} India's First Newspaper ..................................................................................................... 38
4.11. {Misc} Mutiny Memorial (Ajitgarh).............................................................................................. 38
4.12. {Misc} Pran Pratistha .................................................................................................................... 38
 4.13. {Misc} Republic Day Tableaux ** ................................................................................................. 39
4.14. {Misc} Sahibi River ........................................................................................................................ 40
4.15. {Misc} Tawaifs ............................................................................................................................... 41
4.16. {Misc} The Union Cabinet approved Classical language status ** ........................................... 41
4.17. {Misc} World Heritage Cell ........................................................................................................... 44
4.18. {Misc} World Heritage Young Professionals Forum (WHYPF) 2024......................................... 44
4.19. {Tribes} Hakki Pikki tribe ** ......................................................................................................... 44
4.20. {Initiative} Project PARI ................................................................................................................ 45
4.21. {Laws} Delisting of ASI monuments ............................................................................................ 46
4.22. {Literature} Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register .......................................... 46
4.23. {Literature} Tevaram and Divya Prabandam * .......................................................................... 47

5. Art and Culture – Paintings .................................................................................................................. 49

5.1. {Paintings} Pattachitra Art ** ...................................................................................................... 49

5.2. {Paintings} Restoration of Ajanta Paintings in Hyderabad ...................................................... 50
5.3. {Paintings} Restoration of Kumaranallur Temple Murals ........................................................ 50

6. Art and Culture – Sites........................................................................................................................... 52

6.1. {Places in News} Shankaracharya Temple ................................................................................. 52

6.2. {Places in News} Srinagar: World Craft City .............................................................................. 52
6.3. {Places in News} Vikramaditya Vedic Clock * ............................................................................ 53
6.4. {Places in News} Vivekananda Rock Memorial .......................................................................... 53
6.5. {Sites} Ajmer Sharif Dargah ......................................................................................................... 53
6.6. {Sites} Ancient city of Tamluk ...................................................................................................... 55
6.7. {Sites} Ayodhya ............................................................................................................................. 56

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6.8. {Sites} Binjor Excavations ............................................................................................................. 57
6.9. {Sites} Brahmi inscription found in Dharanikota * .................................................................... 59

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

6.10. {Sites} Budaun’s Jama Masjid Shamsi ......................................................................................... 59
6.11. {Sites} Excavation In Rajasthan's Braj ......................................................................................... 60
6.12. {Sites} Great Stupa of Sanchi * ..................................................................................................... 60
6.13. {Sites} Harappan civilisation ....................................................................................................... 62
6.14. {Sites} Harappan site at Padta Bet (Kutch) *.............................................................................. 63
6.15. {Sites} Jyotirmath and Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham ................................................................. 63
6.16. {Sites} Keeladi Excavation ............................................................................................................ 65
6.17. {Sites} Megaliths & Megalithic Culture * .................................................................................... 65
6.18. {Sites} Nalanda University *......................................................................................................... 66
6.19. {Sites} New Findings at Lothal ..................................................................................................... 67
 6.20. {Sites} Paigah tombs of Hyderabad ............................................................................................ 68
6.21. {Sites} Rajgir .................................................................................................................................. 68
6.22. {Sites} Relation between Vedic people and Harappans ............................................................ 69
6.23. {Sites} Silk Road * .......................................................................................................................... 70
6.24. {Sites} Vadnagar ............................................................................................................................ 72
6.25. {Tribe} Khiamniungan Tribe ........................................................................................................ 73

7. Art and Culture – Religion .................................................................................................................... 74

7.1. {Religion} Abhidhamma Divas * .................................................................................................. 74

7.2. {Religion} Akal Takht.................................................................................................................... 74
7.3. {Religion} Bhagwan Mahavir Nirvan Mahotsav ........................................................................ 75
7.4. {Religion} India displaying Lord Buddha relics in Thailand ..................................................... 75
7.5. {Religion} Lingayats ...................................................................................................................... 76
7.6. {Religion} Matua Sect ................................................................................................................... 76
7.7. {Religion} Matua Sect ................................................................................................................... 77
7.8. {Religion} Mudras in Buddhism | Abhaya Mudra * .................................................................... 78
7.9. {Religion} Separate Religious Code for Sarna Religion ............................................................. 78
7.10. {Religion} Warkari Sect ................................................................................................................ 79

8. Indian History ........................................................................................................................................ 80

8.1. {AH – Dynasty} Badami Chalukya Temples discovered ............................................................ 80

8.2. {AH – Sites} Stone Age .................................................................................................................. 82
8.3. {MH – Dynasty} Kakatiya Dynasty .............................................................................................. 83
8.4. {MH – Dynasty} Surpur Empire .................................................................................................... 84
8.5. {MH – Dynasty} Taxation During Cholas **................................................................................ 85

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8.6. {MIH – Events} 100 years of Vaikom Satyagraha....................................................................... 86
8.7. {MIH – Events} 131 years of Pietermaritzburg incident ............................................................ 87

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

8.8. {MIH – Events} Civil Disobedience Movement in Tamil Nadu * ................................................ 88
8.9. {MIH – Events} Kharsawan Massacre (Jharkhand) 1948 * ........................................................ 89
8.10. {MIH – Events} Perungamanallur Massacre................................................................................ 89
8.11. {MIH – Events} Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission ................................................ 90
8.12. {MIH – Events} Shaheed Diwas..................................................................................................... 90
8.13. {MIH – Events} The Battle of Saragarhi ....................................................................................... 91
8.14. {MIH – Events} The Indian National Flag * ................................................................................. 92
8.15. {MIH – Freedom Struggle} Provisional Governments in British India ...................................... 93
8.16. {MIH – Movements} 100 years of Self-Respect Movement (SRM) ** ......................................... 94
8.17. {MIH – Movements} 100 Years of the Communist Party of India ............................................. 96
 8.18. {MIH – Movements} Alwar Peasant Movement & Neemuchana Massacre.............................. 97
8.19. {MIH – Movements} Kittur Rebellion * ........................................................................................ 98
8.20. {MIH – Movements} Ram Mandir Movement .............................................................................. 98
8.21. {MIH – Movements} Santhal Hul * ............................................................................................... 99
8.22. {MIH – Movements} Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) ......................... 100
8.23. {MIH – Organisation} All India Muslim League ....................................................................... 101
8.24. {MIH – Reorganization} Utkala Dibasa ..................................................................................... 102
8.25. {MIH – Revolts} Satnami Community & Satnami Revolt ......................................................... 103
8.26. {MIH – Events} Havildar Abdul Hamid * ................................................................................... 104
8.27. {WH – Events} 35 years of Tiananmen Square Massacre ......................................................... 104
8.28. {WH – Events} 50 years of Carnation Revolution in Portugal ................................................ 106
8.29. {WH – Events} Juneteenth .......................................................................................................... 107

9. Indian Society ....................................................................................................................................... 108

9.1. {Issues} Legality of Live in Relationships .................................................................................. 108

9.2. {Issues} SOFI report ..................................................................................................................... 108
9.3. {Issues} World Inequality Lab .................................................................................................... 108
9.4. {Labour} Central Sector Schemes for Labour Welfare ............................................................. 108
9.5. {Population} Census in India ...................................................................................................... 109
9.6. {Population} Decline in China’s Population ............................................................................. 110
9.7. {Population} PM’s Economic Advisory Council (PMEAC) ........................................................ 110
9.8. {Population} Super-Aged Society .............................................................................................. 110
9.9. {Population} 'Women and Men in India 2023' report ............................................................. 110
9.10. {Population} UN World Population Prospects Report ............................................................. 111

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10. Personalities in News .......................................................................................................................... 112

10.1. {Personalities} President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan .............................................................. 112

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10.2. {Personalities} Atal Bihari Vajpayee **..................................................................................... 112
10.3. {Personalities} Ayya Vaikundar: The Visionary Reformer ...................................................... 114
10.4. {Personalities} Fakir Shah Hussain and Madho Lal ................................................................. 115
10.5. {Personalities} Guru Gobind Singh (1667-1708) ...................................................................... 116
10.6. {Personalities} Guru Nanak Dev ................................................................................................ 116
10.7. {Personalities} Guru Padmasambhava ..................................................................................... 118
10.8. {Personalities} Guru Ravidas ..................................................................................................... 119
10.9. {Personalities} Guru Tegh Bahadur ........................................................................................... 119
10.10. {Personalities} Humayun ........................................................................................................ 119
10.11. {Personalities} Jagannath Shankarseth ................................................................................ 120
10.12. {Personalities} Lachit Borphukan .......................................................................................... 121
10.13. {Personalities} M.T. Vasudevan Nair ..................................................................................... 121
10.14. {Personalities} Mahayogi Vemana ........................................................................................ 122
10.15. {Personalities} Margaret Elizabeth Cousins.......................................................................... 122
10.16. {Personalities} Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai (1815-76) ....................................................... 123
10.17. {Personalities} Nandalal Bose * ............................................................................................. 123
10.18. {Personalities} Saint Francis Xavier ...................................................................................... 124
10.19. {Personalities} Sakthan Thampuran: The Powerful Ruler of Cochin ................................. 124
10.20. {Personalities} Sant Tukaram ................................................................................................ 125
10.21. {Personalities} Shankaracharyas * ........................................................................................ 126
10.22. {Personalities} Swami Vivekananda * ................................................................................... 128
10.23. {Personalities} Thiruvalluvar Day ** ..................................................................................... 128
10.24. {Personalities} 300th anniversary of Ahilya Bai Holkar * .................................................... 128
10.25. {Personalities} Diwan Todar Mal's Jahaz Haveli ................................................................. 129
10.26. {Personalities} Karsandas Mulji **......................................................................................... 130
10.27. {Personalities} Mahaparinirvan Diwas: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar ............................................... 131
10.28. {Personalities} Razia Sultan's tomb ...................................................................................... 132
10.29. {Personalities} Sarojini Naidu * ............................................................................................. 132
10.30. {Personalities} Subramania Bharati * ................................................................................... 133
10.31. {Personalities} Swami Dayanand Saraswati ........................................................................ 135
10.32. {Personalities} Vinayak Damodar Savarkar ** .................................................................... 136

Note: Some infographics are placed outside the topic be-

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cause of their full-page size.

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 1. Art and Culture – Architecture

1.1. {Architecture} BAPS Temple

• First Hindu temple in the UAE. Located in: Abu Mureikha area near Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque.
• Land gifted by Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan (President of the UAE) in 2015.
• Envisioned by Pramukh Swami Maharaj (Leader of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, in 1997).

About BAPS
• BAPS stands for Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (A Vaishnav sect), a
Hindu denomination within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. Founded in 1907 by Shastriji Maharaj.
• Bhagwan Swaminarayan (1781-1830) revealed faith.
• Notable Temples: It includes the Akshardham temples in New Delhi and Gandhinagar and Swaminarayan
temples in London, Houston, Chicago, Atlanta, Toronto, Los Angeles, and Nairobi.

The architecture of the Temple

• It is built in the traditional Nagara style with seven shikhars adorned with depictions of deities such as
Venkateshwara, Swaminarayan, Jagannath, and Ayyappa.
• Deities from all four corners of India have been featured in the temple.
• Front panel depicts universal values, stories of harmony, Hindu spiritual leaders and avatars.
• Two central domes: Dome of Harmony and Dome of Peace, emphasising human coexistence through
the carvings of earth, water, fire, air, and plants.
• No ferrous material (which is more vulnerable to corrosion) has been used in the temple.
• External facade uses pink sandstone from Rajasthan, and the interior uses Italian marble.

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• 96 bells (Pramukh Swami Maharaj’s 96 years of life.) and gaumukhs in pathway.
• Nano tiles  comfortable to walk on even in the hot weather.
• ‘Pillar of Pillars’ has around 1,400 small pillars carved into it.

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

• Buildings surrounding the temple are modern and monolithic, with their colour resembling dunes.
• A ‘holy river’ surrounds it, for which waters from Ganga and Yamuna have been brought in.
 The river Saraswati has been depicted in the form of white light.
 A Varanasi-like ghat has been created where the ‘Ganga’ passes.
• The Seven Shikhara represent seven Emirates of UAE.

1.2. {Architecture} Batadrava Than: Assamese Sacred Place *

• Location: Assam; Some area conserved for Khilonjia (indigenous people).

• Birthplace of Vaishnavite reformer Srimanta Sankardeva, first-ever Kirtan Ghar (Than/Sattra).
• It has a naamghar (worship hall) as its nucleus and is headed by an influential "Sattradhikar".
Srimanta Sankaradeva
• Assamese polymath, saint-scholar, poet, playwright, actor, musician,social-religious reformer.
• Devised Borgeet (Music), Ankia Naat, Bhaona (Theatre), Sattriya (Dance), literary language (Brajavali).
• Opposed: Regressive medieval practices, caste discrimination, orthodox Brahmanical rituals.

Religious contribution
• Ekasarana Dharma: Bhagavatic (Bhakti) movement, influenced Koch and Ahom kingdoms.
• Focus on: Naam (Chanting) instead of idol worship.
• Propagated: 'EKA DEVA, EKA SEVA, EKA BINEY NAHI KEWA', worship none but one God, Krishna.

EKA SARABA NAMA DHARMA Religion (Neo- Vaishnavite movement)

• Batadrava / Bordowa: Dvitiya Vaikuntha (second heaven), Centre of his religious activities.
• Four components: Deva (god), Naam (prayers), Bhaktas (devotees), and Guru (teacher).

Other important points

• Tree associated with workplace: Shilikha (Myrobalan) tree.
• Created a classical dance form known as both the Sankari dance and Satriya dance.
• First playwright in all modern Indian languages and first prose writer in the entire world.

Sattriya Dance

• Originated in Sattra as a part of the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam.

• It includes Nritta, Nritya and Natya components.
• It had its influences from folk dance forms like Ojapali, Devadasi, Bihu, Bodos, etc.
• Traditionally, performed only by bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as a daily ritual.
• The dance is based on mythological themes, such as Krishna-Radha relations or Ram-Sita.

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Sattriya Dance Costume
• Male costume: Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban); Female constume: ghuri, chadar,kanchi (waist cloth).
Instruments: Khol (drum), Bahi (flute), Violin, Tanpura,Harmonium and Shankha (Conch Shell).

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•

1.3. {Architecture} Bhojshala Complex

• Archaeological Survey of India to conduct a survey of Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque to 'ascer-
tain the true character, nature and form' of the disputed site.
• The ASI has a constitutional and statutory obligation to hold a scientific survey of the site as soon as
possible under Section 16 of the Monument Act, 1958.

About Bhojshala
• Located in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, presently a Monument of National Importance protected
under the Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act).
• Originally a temple of goddess Sarasvati built by Parmar King Bhoja in 11th Century AD.
• Retains some slabs inscribed with Sanskrit and Prakrit literary works.
• The mosque is built using the structural remains of the temple.
• Architectural parts of different periods, mainly 11th century; Islamic tombs in 14th and 15th century.
• Bears ancient inscriptions. John Malcolm mentioned Dhar in 1822, along with building projects such as
the dams planned and completed by King Bhoja.
• September 2023: Guards reportedly found an idol of Goddess Vagdevi. Claims refuted.

History of Bhojshala Temple

• Origin: Traced to Raja Bhoj of the Paramara dynasty who held the throne from 1000 to 1055 AD.
• Envisioned an institution dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge. Later evolved as 'Bhojshala’.
• Association with the worship of Vagdevi, also known as Goddess Saraswati.

About King Bhoja (1010–1055 CE)

• Paramara dynasty. Ruled Malwa region in central India, capital at Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar).
• His wife, Lilavati, was a great scholar.
• Contemporary of the Raja Raj Chola and Mahmud Ghazni.
• Established Bhojpal Nagar  Bhupal Bhopal. Also developed Bhojpur Shiva Sanctuary.
• Composed more than 84 books on various subjects, including syntax, reasoning, and medication.
• Renowned work: Samarangana Sutradhara, a composition on design and designing.
• The Bhoj Shodh Sansthan in Dhar has a collection of Bhoj texts.
• Bhoja fought wars with nearly all his neighbours in an attempt to extend his kingdom.

1.4. {Architecture} Borra Caves

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• Location: Located on the Eastern Ghats in Ananthagiri hills of Araku Valley in Andhra Pradesh.
• Discovered by: William King George of the Geological Survey of India.
• It was formed millions of years ago by the water activity of the Gosthani River.

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

• The caves are basically karstic limestone structures extending to a depth of 80 meters.
• A naturally formed Shivling inside the caves is worshipped by local tribal communities.
• Excavations have unearthed stone tools dating back to the Paleolithic age (30,000-50,000 years ago).

Swadesh Darshan Scheme 2.0

• Revamped Scheme: The Ministry of Tourism has revamped its Swadesh Darshan scheme as Swadesh
Darshan 2.0 for the development of sustainable and responsible tourist destinations.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Promote PPPs for the operation and maintenance.

1.5. {Architecture} Fort Emmanuel/Fort Kochi

• Ruined fort located at Fort Kochi Beach in Kochi, Kerala.
• Symbolises the alliance of Maharajah of Kochi & the Monarch of Portugal (named after him).
• Built in 1503 when Afonso de Albuquerque received permission from the King of Kochi.
• The fort was a Portuguese bastion. It now spread from Bastion Bungalow (now a heritage museum) to
the southern end of the beach (where INS Dronacharya, Indian Navy’s gunnery school, is located).
• Earlier, a massive structure with an entire township, now remnants of the fort remain submerged.
• Fort Kochi remained in Portuguese possession until Dutch occupation and destruction in 1683.
• The Dutch held the fort in their possession until the British occupied it in 1795.
• By 1806, the Dutch and later the British had destroyed most of the fort walls and bastions.
• Foreign control of Fort Kochi ended in 1947 with Indian independence.

Why did the Portuguese build forts in coastal areas?

• Portuguese built Fort in Kochi, Goa, Kollam, Kozhikode, and Kodungalloor.
• It was part of their strategy since their colonies were mainly in coastal regions protected by forts.
• They also had a formidable navy, with cannons fitted atop the deck of ships.
• This gave them a decisive advantage in battles with the forces of, among others, the Zamorin of Ko-
zhikode, Chhatrapati Shivaji, and the Sultan of Bijapur.

1.6. {Architecture} Jagannath Temple : Kalinga Architecture

❖ Shree Mandira Parikrama project: Heritage corridor around Jagannath Temple (Puri, Odisha).

Kalingan Temple Architecture

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Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

• Ancient Kalinga Hindu architecture in Utkal (present Odisha).

• Three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula, and Khakhara Deula.
 • The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses the sanctorum, while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer
dancing and offering halls.

Jagannath Temple
• Deities: Lord Jagannath (Krishna), his brother Balabhadra, and his sister Subhadra.
• One of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram) for Hindus.
• Constructed by: King Anantavarman Chodaganga (Eastern Ganga Dynasty) in the 12th century.
• Nabakalebara: Changing the wooden idols of the deities at intervals (8/9/12 yrs.).

1.7. {Architecture} Javathu Pulavar

 A Murugan temple at Melakodumalur in TN

includes a statue of a Muslim poet among
Hindu deities adorning the Vimana over the
sanctum sanctorum.
• Kumarapathigam, which Javathu Pulavar
wrote in praise of Lord Muruga of the tem-
ple, has been inscribed on granite bars fixed
on the temple walls.
• Poet Javathu Pulavar is symbolically repre-
sented by a statue of a Muslim wearing a cap and dhoti.
• Javathu, as the name suggests, is not a perfume; it means Perumkodai Vallal (a great philanthropist) and
one of the titles of the Prophet.

Vimana in Dravidian Temple Architecture

The vimana is the tower that rises above the sanctum sanctorum.

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•
• Typically pyramidal, decorated with intricate carvings. Symbol of the mountain Meru, considered to
be the home of the gods in Hindu mythology.

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

1.8. {Architecture} Kalaram Temple *

• The temple is the site of temple entry agitation led by B.R Ambedkar for Dalits in 1930.
• Kalaram Temple is a Hindu temple in Nashik city's Panchavati area in Maharashtra.
• Black statue of Ram, thus the name “Kalaram”.
• Originally dedicated to an unknown deity estimated to be of the Rashtrakuta Period, later newly built
by Sardar Rangarao Odhekar with architectural similarity to temple of Trimbakeshwar.
• Sanctum sanctorum has Lord Ram, Sita and Lakshmana with black Hanuman on main entrance.
• 84 temple pillars signifying a cycle of 84 lakh species, and 14 steps signifying 14 years of Ram’s exile.
• It also has an ancient tree with Dattatreya's footprint (paradigmatic Sannyasi and yogic) on a stone.
Panchvati and Ramayana
• Named on five sacred banyan trees, auspicious area of hut of Ram, Lakshman, Sita.
• Part of Dandakaranya and place of Sita’s abduction.

Kalaram Temple Entry Movement (Kalaram Mandir Satyagraha)

• In 1930, B R Ambedkar and Marathi social activist Pandurang Sadashiv Sane (Sane Guruji), led temple
entry movement for Dalits here.
• Mode of Protest: They sang songs and often raised war cries, demanding to enter the temple.
• Reaction of Locals: The people of Nashik boycotted the protesters.

1.9. {Architecture} Kerala's Ganapathyvattam

• Demands for renaming Sulthan Bathery (Wayanad) to Ganapathyvattam are being raised.
• It is argued that the current name originated from Tipu Sultan's invasion.

About Sulthan Bathery & Ganapathyvattam

• Houses a stone temple once known as Ganapathyvattam, built in Vijayanagar style.
• Constructed by migrant Jains from present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century.
• Suffered partial destruction during Tipu Sultan invasions in the late 18th century.
 1750 to 1790: Northern Kerala had multiple invasions by Mysuru rulers Hyder Ali & his son Tipu.
 Tipu Sultan's armies destroyed temples and churches during their invasions.
 Tipu Sultan used the Maha Ganapathy temple in Sulthan Bathery to store weapons.
 The British recorded the temple as Tipu Sultan's Battery, leading to the name Sulthan Bathery.
• Later, ASI took over the temple and declared it a monument of national importance.

1.10. {Architecture} Maratha Military Landscapes **

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• India has nominated the “Maratha Military Landscapes” for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage
list for 2024-25 in the cultural category.

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• Places: Salher, Shivneri, Lohagad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg
and Sindhudurg in Maharashtra and Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu.
• At present, in India, there are 42 World Heritage sites: Cultural- 34; Natural – 7; Mixed- 1.
• Currently, in Maharashtra, there are 6 World Heritage Sites, five cultural and one natural.
• Cultural: Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Elephanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (formerly
Victoria Terminus), Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai.
• Natural: Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Details about important Forts

Gingee Fort (Senji Fort / Troy of the East)*
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 Gingee Fort, Tamil Nadu, is a potential World Heritage Site in 2024-25.
• Originally constructed by Anandakonar around 1190 AD. Gingee Fort is historically significant in battles
involving the Marathas, Mughals, Vijayanagar Nayaks, and the British.
• Three Hillocks: Spans across three hills—Rajagiri, Krishnagiri & Chandrayandurg—each with its citadel.
• Architectural Marvels: Seven-storeyed Kalyana Mahal (marriage hall), granaries, and temples (like the
Kamalakanni Amman Temple).
• Defensive Structures: Strategic location atop hills provided natural defences against invasions.

Sindhudurg Fort
• Construction: Hiroji Indulkar, an architect expert, oversaw the fort's construction. The construction of
the fort began in 1664 and took three years to complete.
• Location: Shivaji Maharaj chose Kurte Island for its strategic position and natural defences. The rugged
coastline made it difficult for enemy ships to approach, allowing for better control over maritime routes.
• Architectural Features: Thick walls, a serpentine design, hidden entrances and watchtowers.
• The fort served as a naval base to protect Maratha interests and enhance maritime trade. It was built to
counter the dominance of Siddis, Portuguese, English, Dutch & French in the Konkan region.

Other important forts

• Raigad Fort: “Gibraltar of the East”, Originally called Rairi, Significant for Rajyabhishek or coronation
of Shivaji (1674 CE), Adopted the title of ‘Chhatrapati.’ Permanent capital of Shivaji (1670) but declined
after death of Shivaji (1680).
• Rajgad Fort (Murumbudev): First capital of the Maratha Empire before Raigad Fort. Chhatrapati Shivaji
kept it out of Treaty of Purandar (Signed in 1655 with Mughal General Jai Singh I).
• Shivneri Fort: Birthplace of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the founder of the Maratha Empire.
• Pratapgad Fort: Site of the battle between Shivaji and Afzal Khan.

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1.11. {Architecture} Nagara Style of Temple Architecture *

• The Ram temple in Ayodhya is constructed based on the Nagara style.

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Nagara Style of Temple Architecture
• Origin: 5th century CE in northern India, late Gupta period.
• Built on a raised stone platform with leading steps; Shikhara (Main tower) houses garbhagriha.
• Lack elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
• The Amalaka or Kalash on the Shikhara is a distinctive feature.
• Subdivisions based on the shape of the shikhara and Amalaka/Kalash is a distinctive feature.
• Typically includes a circumambulatory passage around the garbha griha decorated by murals, along
with mandapas (halls) on the same axis.
• Examples: Kandariya Mahadev Temple (MP), Sun Temple (Konark), Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat.
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Classification of the Nagara Style of Temple Architecture
Valabhi
• Rectangular design with Barrel-vaulted roofs. Example: Teli Ka Mandir (Gwalior)

Phamsana
• Shorter and broader structures. Multiple slabs rise upwards in a moderate slope on a straight incline like
a pyramid, meeting at a single point above the building’s mid-point.

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• Example: Jagmohan temple of Konark Temple.

Rekha-Prasad or Latina

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• Flourished till 10th century, emerged from the Valabhi and Phamsana. Has basic Shikara, a slightly curved
tower with four sides of equal length. Eg: Sun Temple at Markhera (MP) & Sri Jagannath Temple (Odisha).

Shekhari
• Composite Latinas began to emerge, giving rise to Shekhari and Bhumija styles.
• Primary Rekha-Prasad Shikara with rows of lesser steeples (tower with a pointed top) on both sides of the
centre spire and Mini Shikharas at base & corners. Example: Kandariya Mahadev (Khajuraho)

Bhumija
• Origin: Malwa under the Paramara dynasty.
• Miniature spires in horizontal and vertical rows, creating a grid effect, with pyramidal shape shikhara.
• Example: Udayeshwar Temple (Madhya Pradesh).

Nagara and Dravida style: Differences

Features Nagara Style Dravida Style
Location Northern India Southern India
Vimana Shape Curvilinear (Bulbous or Pyramid) Pyramidal (Step-like)
Boundary walls No elaborate boundary walls or Compound wall, Gopuram (entrance
gateways. gateway)
Towers Multiple towers Always a single tower.
Entrance Deities Personified Ganga and Yamuna The entrance has Dwarapalas.
Pedestals Are higher than the ground Are at ground level
Water tank Not present in temple complex Within the temple complex
Examples Kandariya Mahadeva (Khaju- Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Bri-
raho), Jagannath Temple (Puri), hadesvara temple (Thanjavur), Meenak-
Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh). shi Temple (Madurai)

1.12. {Architecture} Pandavula Gutta | Ramgarh Crater

Pandavula Gutta, Telangana

• Officially recognised as the sole Geo-heritage site in Telangana.
• Hillock located near Warangal city. It is older than Himalayas.
• First discovered in 1990. Rich in paintings, rock shelters and Mesolithic to medieval habitations.
• Includes the prehistoric man’s rock art on walls and ceilings, rock shelters and isolated boulders.
• These rock art paintings depict wildlife like Bison, Antelope, Tiger, and Leopard, etc.
• Other shapes present swastika symbol, circles and squares, weapons such as bows, arrows, sword.

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• Feature geometrical designs and impressions in green, red, yellow and white pigment colours.

Ramgarh Crater, Rajasthan

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• Named India’s first National Geo Heritage site by the Rajasthan Government.
• The structure is 165 million years old and spread across 3.5km having a 10th century temple.
• Also a conservation Reserve under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• The Pushkar Talab complex (note that it is different than Pushkar Sarovar in Ajmer), located inside the
crater, is a source of both saline and alkaline water.
• Bhand Deva Temple is constructed on the meteor impact crater.

What are Geo-Heritage Sites?

• Geo-heritage refers to sites that offer insights into the evolution of the earth and can be used for re-
search, reference, and awareness. | Declaration by: Geological Survey of India (GSI).
• May have unique rock formations, fossils, or landscapes that are important for education, research, cul-
tural significance, or visual appeal.

Geological Survey of India

• Set up in 1851 primarily to find coal deposits for the Railways.
• Headquartered in Kolkata with six regional offices. Attached office of the Ministry of Mines.
• Creates and updates the national geoscientific information and mineral resource assessment.
• Also documents surface and subsurface geological processes of India and its offshore areas.

1.13. {Architecture} Ram Mandir at Ayodhya

• It is a three-story temple, with each floor being 20ft, supported by a total of 392 pillars and 44 doors.

Architecture
• Chief architect: Chandrakant B. Sompura.
• Traditional Nagara style temple with Nritya, Rang, Sabha, Prathana, & Kirtan Mandaps.
• Main entrance: Singh Dwar (Eastern) with Shiv, Bhagwati, Ganesh, and Surya temple at four corners.
• Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) houses childhood form of Bhagwan Ram (Shri Ram Lalla), and the first
floor houses a Shri Ram Darbar with complex surrounded by Parkota (rectangular wall).
• Northern end: Maa Annapurna temple; Southern end: Hanuman temple.
Kuber Tila (Southwestern part) has an ancient Shiv Mandir along with the Jatayu statue.

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•
• Mandirs of Maharshi Valmiki, Maharshi Vasishtha, Maharshi Vishwamitra, Maharshi Agastya, Nishad Raj,
Mata Shabri, and the revered consort of the Devi Ahilya are also proposed in the complex.

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Materials used in the construction
• Traditional construction materials, with no iron or steel (Rusting results in a shorter life span).
• Bansi Paharpur Pink Sandstone (from Rajasthan's Bharatpur) for complex, Granite stones in the plinths,
White Makrana marble and coloured marble for the inlay work are used.
• A thick layer of roller-compacted concrete foundation appearing like artificial rock is laid down.
• Special bricks (Ram Shilas) with the inscription "Shri Ram" on them are used.
• "Balak Ram" idol: Sculptor Arun Yogiraj, Material pre-Cambrian era black granite from Mysuru (Karna-
taka), Dashavatars on both sides.

Properties of material used

Sandstone
• Sedimentary rock of sand-sized silicate grains. Can be of any colour (due to impurities in it).
• Source: Rajasthan (~90% deposits), Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Karnataka, Odisha, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Granite
• Igneous rock- forms by slow crystallisation of magma beneath the Earth's surface (plutonic).
• Mohs hardness scale (used for hardness of minerals) rates it as 6-7 out of 10, making it very durable.
• Low porosity, acid resistance, thermal stability, multiple colours (composition, rate of formation).
• Source: Odisha, TN, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.

Makrana marble
• Metamorphic rock composed of carbonate minerals (90%).
• Other examples: Taj Mahal, Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), Dukhnivaran Sahib Gurdwara (Ludhiana),
Sheikh Zayed Mosque (Abu Dhabi), Moti Masjid (Lahore), Victoria Memorial (Kolkata).
• Asia's first Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR)- By International Union of Geological Sciences.
• Only single deposit in India: Makrana (Nagaur in Rajasthan)

Surya Tilak
• Developed by the Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) under CSIR,” Tilak ”shaped on forehead of
the Balak Ram idol; will lit for a specific duration annually on Ram Navami.
• Made up of Brass with no battery, iron or steel, it is powered by Solar energy channelled by High-
quality mirrors and lenses.

1.14. {Architecture} Ramappa Temple & Ghanpur (Kota Gullu) Temple

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 The Centre approves development loans for Ramappa Circuit and Somasila Retreat in Telangana under
Special Assistance to States/Union Territories for Capital Investment (SASCI) scheme.

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• The Ramappa Circuit includes various components like Ramappa Temple, Kota Gullu Temple, and the
lakefront development of Ghanpur village.
• The Somasila retreat will include wellness and spiritual practice facilities and an organic café.

Ramappa Temple (Rudreswara Temple)

• It is located in Palampet, Telangana, and has been recognised as a
UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Historical Significance: It was constructed by Kakatiya General
Recharla Rudra Reddy during the reign of Kakatiya ruler Ganapati
Deva in the 13th century. It is a Sivalayam dedicated to Lord Rama-
lingeswara.
• Marco Polo’s Praise: The renowned traveller Marco Polo visited the Kakatiya Empire and described the
temple as "the brightest star in the galaxy of temples".
• Sandbox technique of construction: Its foundation is built with red sandstone. The flooring is made of
granite & pillars are of basalt. Meanwhile, the white gopuram (tower) is made of floating light bricks.
• Architectural Beauty: The temple stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped platform with walls, pillars and
ceilings adorned with intricate carvings.

Ghanpur Temples (Kota Gullu)

• Location: Ghanpur, Telangana.
• Period: Constructed during the reign of Ganapati
Deva in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.
• Design and Structure: It comprises over 20 temples
within a fortified complex. The main temple is dedi-
cated to Lord Shiva. These temples are enclosed by
two layers of brick walls.
• Sculptural Art: The temples feature mythical sculp-
tures such as Gaja-Kesari (a half-human, half-lion figure riding an elephant) and horse-headed, lion-
backed elephants. Intricate carvings and floral patterns adorn the pillars and walls, showcasing the de-
tailed artistry of the Kakatiya dynasty.

1.15. {Architecture} Six Sites from MP in UNESCO’s Tentative List **

 Six heritage sites in MP have been included in the tentative UNESCO list.
• Sites: Gwalior Fort, Khooni Bhandara (Burhanpur), Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley, Bhojeshwar Ma-
hadev Temple (Bhojpur), Gond monuments of Ramnagar (Mandla), historic ensemble of Dhamnar.

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Details about Sites
Gwalior Fort

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• Built in the 8th century, its origins can be traced
back to the Tomar dynasty.
• Located on a steep sandstone hill  Natural de-
fence advantage.
• Built on an outcrop of Vindhyan sandstone (rocky,
solitary, thin and long steep hill Gopachal).
• Earliest mention in an inscription in the temple of
the Hun Emperor, Mihirakula.
• Monuments of Fort: Man Mandir, Gajari Mahal, Ja-
hangir Mahal, Teli ka Mandir, Saas Bahu Temple.
Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur
• Underground water management system comprising eight waterworks
in Burhanpur (MP).
• Built like Persian qanat approach, constructed in 1615 CE during the gov-
ernorship of Abdur Rahim khan- Khanan during Mughal Emperor Ja-
hangir’s reign.

Qanat System
• Requires no energy, reliant on the force of gravity alone.
• Can carry water across long distances through subterranean chambers, avoiding leakage, evapo-
ration, or pollution.
• Discharge is fixed by nature, producing only the amount of water that is distributed naturally from a
spring or mountain, ensuring the water table is not depleted.
• Specifically found in the Deccan India, primarily Aurangabad, Bijapur and Bidar.

Rock Art in the Chambal Basin

• Contain the world's largest known rock art sites.
Dates to Early Holocene and multiple periods.
• Bears an exceptional testimony to the civilisation of
Acheulian, Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Historical periods.
• Contains depictions related to a particular way of
life of the people of that period.
• Mesolithic period themes: Hunting, gathering,

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collecting and fishing.
• Chalcolithic period: Cattle theme.
• Mediaeval periods: Religion centric.

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Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur
• Established by Parmar king Bhoj of Dhar. Built on the banks of Betwa river.
• The Shivalinga present in this temple is the largest Shivalinga in the world.

Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla

• Seat of power of the Garha-Mandla kingdom built by King Hirde Shah in the late 17th century.
• Cluster of monuments include Moti Mahal, Raibhagat ki Kothi, Vishnu Mandir, Begum Mahal, Dalbadal
Mahal, and Chaugan Ryotwari.
• Amalgamation of adversaries: Rajputs and Mughals, achieved by the originally forest-dwelling Gond
community in architecture.
  Gonds: largest tribal community in India, inhabiting Vindhyas, Satpura and Mandla in MP.

Historic ensemble of Dhamnar

• Rock-cut site consists of a total of 51 caves of varying sizes carved
into the laterite hill.
• 2 groups of structures: Buddhist caves & Hindu temple complex
(known as Dharmarajeshwara temple, also called Dharmanath tem-
ple).
• Consist of dwellings, halls of various sizes, stupas, Buddha statues in
rare postures and displays of craftsmanship in stone imitating the de-
tails of wooden elements and decorative designs.

1.16. {Architecture} Sri Madhava Perumal Temple

• Largely submerged in the Bhavanisagar dam in Erode district.

• Hoysala ruler King Veera Ballala III appointed Madhava Perumal Dhandanayaka to govern the region.
• Madhava Perumal Dhandanayaka constructed the Dhandanayaka Fort about 680 years ago.
• His son, Veera Siddha Keththaya Dhandanayaka, built the Sri Madhava Perumal Temple.
• The area was later ruled by the Vijayanagara Empire, Ummattur chiefs & Tipu Sultan. Battle of Sath-
yamangalam (1790), during third Anglo-Mysore War, occurred near the fort, guarded by Tipu Sultan.
 Bhavani River originates from the Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats, enters the Silent Valley National
Park in Kerala and flows back towards Tamil Nadu.
 The Moyar River is one of the tributaries of the Bhavani in Tamil Nadu, India.

1.17. {Architecture} The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904

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 Tensions in Sambhal highlight Place of Worship Act, 1991 interpretation issues.
 Sambhal’s Shahi Jama Masjid is a “protected monument” under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act

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of 1904.
• It was enacted during the tenure of Lord Curzon in British India.
• Objective: The Act aimed to ensure the conservation of monuments, sculptures, carvings, and other
structures of historical, archaeological, or artistic interest.
• Protected Monuments: The Act empowered the government to declare certain monuments "protected"
and regulate activities around them to prevent unauthorised digging or removal of artefacts.
• Maintenance and Preservation: It provides for the maintenance and repair of protected monuments by
the government or authorised agencies.
• Acquisition: The govt. could acquire private land containing monuments if necessary for preservation.
• Penalties: Any injury to protected monuments was considered an offence punishable by law.
Read More > The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958
1.18. {Architecture} Virat Ramayan Mandir

• World's largest Ramayan temple is being constructed in East Champaran, Bihar.

• It will be three times larger than the Ram Temple in Ayodhya and taller than Cambodia's 12th century
Angkor Wat temple complex.

Key Features
• The main shivling in the arghya (sanctum sanctorum) is 33 feet tall, making it the world's largest shivling.
It is made of black granite and crafted in Mahabalipuram.
 Arghya (sanctum sanctorum), also known as Garbhagriha, is a small room, generally a cubicle,
that houses the temple's principal deity.
• The complex includes 22 smaller temples dedicated to important deities from the Ramayana.
• The temple has 12 shikhars, with the main shikhar being 270 feet tall.
• The architecture of the temple is inspired by:
 Angkor Wat complex in Cambodia.
 Ramanathaswami temple in Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu.
 Meenakshi Sundareshwarar temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

1.19. {Architecture} Virupaksha Temple **

 Saalu Mantap, pavilion of Virupaksha Temple in Hampi collapsed following torrential rains.

Credits: Wikipedia 17
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About Virupaksha Temple (Also Pampapathi Temple)

• Dates back to the 7th century AD, built by early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty.
• Expanded by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under the rule of Deva Raya II (Prauda Deva Raya) of the
Vijayanagara Empire. Later, during the reign of King Krishnadevaraya in early 16th century.
• Dedicated to Lord Shiva (Virupaksha/Pampa pathi) as the consort of the local goddess Pampadevi,
who is associated with the Tungabhadra River.
• Also part of the 'Adarsh Smarak Yojana'.
 Adarsh Smarak Scheme
• Launched in 2014 to provide improved visitor amenities, especially for the physically challenged.
• 100 Monuments are protected by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under the Ministry of Culture.

Architectural Features of Virupaksha Temple

• Utilised physics principles and concepts of maths such as Rectilinear Light Theory, fractals, geometry and
the Fibonacci number sequence.
• An interesting part of the structure is the inverted pinhole image of its tower present on the inner wall.

Dravidian architectural features of the Virupaksha Temple

• The eastern entrance has a nine-story gopuram (tower) intricately decorated with sculptures depicting
Hindu myths and deities. Other entrances have smaller but similarly elaborate gopurams.
• Ranga Mandapa: Added in 1510 by King Krishnadevaraya, it features intricate pillars and carvings of
mythical creatures and deities used for temple ceremonies and performances.
• Open Pillar Hall: This is a large hall with rows of intricately carved pillars depicting mythological scenes.
• Kalyana Mandapa: This area is used for celebrating the annual marriage festival of the deities, reflect-
ing both architectural grandeur and cultural significance.
• The innermost sanctum houses the sacred Linga of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva). Smaller shrines dedicated to
other deities surround the main sanctum.
• Carved Pillars: The temple’s pillars are renowned for their detailed carvings, which depict scenes from
Hindu mythology, including episodes from epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
• Artistic Themes: The sculptures include divine figures, mythological animals, and scenes from daily
life, showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the era.
• Sacred Tank: A sacred water tank within the complex is used for religious rituals and ceremonies.

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Group of Monuments at Hampi
• Group of monuments at Hampi (Karnataka) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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• Natural defence: Once the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, Hampi is surrounded by craggy hills
and the Tungabhadra River on the north.
• They have Vijayanagara architecture, a synthesis of the Dravidian style & Indo-Islamic influences.
• The Hampi ruins were uncovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian.

Architectural Marvels
• The Vitthala Temple complex showcases intricately carved pillars and the iconic Stone Chariot.
• The Royal Enclosure with its majestic structures like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables.
• The Hazara Rama Temple is known for its intricate stone carvings and sculpted panels.
• Notable Structures: Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta temples, Achyutaraya tem-
ple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, and Lotus Mahal complex.
Lambani community *
• Lambani community (Lambadis/Banjaras) were once nomadic tribes who arrived from Afghanistan to
Rajasthan (Mewar region) and then spread across Karnataka, AP, MP, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• They assisted Aurangzeb in carrying goods to the southern part of the country in the 17th century.
• They speak Gor Boli (Lambadi). It has no script and is written in Devanagari or local languages.
• Lambadi Nritya  involves energetic movements, footwork, and rhythmic music.
• Lambani embroidery received a status of GI TAG in 2010 from Karnataka.

1.20. {Architecture} Vishalgad Fort

• Vishalgad Fort, also known as Khelna or Khilna, was a significant fort of the Maratha Empire.
• The fort, built by Shilahara king Marsinh in 1058, is situated on a hilltop in the Sahyadri mountain ranges
and was captured by Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri in 1209.
• It fell under the Khilji dynasty after Allauddin Khilji defeated the Seuna Yadavas in 1309.
• It was later ruled by the Vijayanagar Empire and then the Adilshahi dynasty.
• It was captured by Shivaji in 1659 and renamed Vishalgad, meaning "grand fort."
• Notable sites include the Dargah of Hazrat Sayed Malik Rehan Meera Saheb and the tombs of Phulaji and
Baji Prabhu Deshpande, who both served under Shivaji.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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 2. Art and Culture – Art Forms

2.1. {Art Forms} Dhokra Shilpkala

• Origins: Tribal communities of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha.

• "Dhokra" = Dhokra Damar tribes, who are the traditional metal-smiths of Central India.
• Uses the Lost-wax technique (cire perdue)process of metal casting.
• Themes: Nature, mythology, and everyday life, motifs such as animals, deities, and tribal symbols.
• Size: Can be miniature figurines and jewellery to larger-than-life sculptures and functional objects.

2.2. {Art Forms} Gharcholas Saree

 The Gharcholas Saree from Gujarat received the GI tag. It was presented at the “GI and Beyond –
Virasat Se Vikas Tak” program in New Delhi.
• Traditional Use: They are worn by newlywed brides to symbolise joining their new home, particularly
within Hindu and Jain communities. The name "Gharchola" means "Outfit for Home".
• Fabric and Design: These sarees are woven on cotton or silk fabric using silk & zari threads. They feature
checkered patterns filled with small golden motifs of peacocks, lotuses, human figures & floral designs.
• Bandhani Technique: The sarees are coloured using the Bandhani or tie-and-dye technique. This tech-
nique frequently uses red, maroon, green, and yellow.
• Varieties: Saree with 12 squares is known as "Bar Bagh," while one with 52 squares is called "Bavan Bagh".

About "GI and Beyond – Virasat Se Vikas Tak” Program

• Purpose: The program aims to celebrate and promote India's rich cultural heritage by recognising and
supporting traditional crafts and products through the GI tag.

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• Organised by: Ministry of Textiles.
• The program is part of the One District, One Product (ODOP) Initiative, which focuses on promoting

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local crafts and boosting the economy of specific districts by highlighting GI-tagged products.

Other Handicrafts Honoured

• Saadeli Art: A traditional art form from Surat that involves intricate wooden inlay work.
• Soof Embroidery: An intricate form of needlework from Banaskantha known for its geometric patterns.
• Sujni Craft: A type of embroidered quilt-making from Bharuch.
• Saudagiri Print: A distinctive block printing technique from Ahmedabad.

Hastakala Setu Yojana

• Objective: It aims to promote and support traditional crafts and rural industries in Gujarat by providing
artisans training, market linkages, and financial assistance.
 • Implementation: It is implemented through the Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India.
• Training Programs: It offers domain-specific training, entrepreneurship skills training, and mentoring
programs to help artisans enhance their skills and business acumen.
• Market Linkages: The program provides market linkages through exhibitions, business-to-business
product catalogues,& packaging and supply chain support to help artisans reach a wider audience.
• Credit Linkages and Social Security: Through the program, artisans can access credit facilities and
social security benefits, ensuring financial stability and support.

2.3. {Art Forms} Gotipua Dance

• Gotipua Dance emerged in Odisha in the 16th century, during Bhoi king Rama Chandra Dev.
• In the Oriya language, Goti means single, and Pua means boy. It is developed as a male counterpart
(boys dressed as girls) to the declining Mahari tradition (a ritualistic dance performed by Devadasis at
the Jagannatha temple in Puri). It is considered a precursor to the Odissi dance.
• Dance Style: There are two primary postures: Tribhangi (three bends at the head, torso, and knees) and
Chouka (a square-like stance symbolising Lord Jagannath). Dancers sing while performing.
 Upper torso movements resemble the waves of the Odisha coastline.
• Training involves rigorous practice in singing, dancing, yoga, and acrobatics.
• Boys maintain long hair, wear flower garlands, and apply white and red powders for makeup.
• It is performed in praise of Lord Jagannath and Lord Krishna. Dancers typically retire upon reaching
puberty as they struggle to maintain flexibility and lose their feminine character.
• Sculptures in the Konark Sun Temple and Puri Jagannath Temple illustrate this ancient tradition.

2.4. {Art Forms} Haveli Sangeet

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• It is a form of Hindustani classical music sung in havelis. The essential component is dhrupad.
• Origin: Govardhan, Mathura in Braj, northern India. It is also linked to the Pushti Margiya temples of
the Vaishnava Tradition, where people sang daily to Krishna.

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• Historical Background: Revived during the Bhakti movement; declined during the medieval period due
to socio-political changes.
• Musical Styles: Includes Prabandh, Dhrupad, Dhamar, Khyal, Kirtana, and Bhajan, but is not limited to
the Dhrupad style alone.
• Languages Used: Songs are performed in Brij Bhasha, Sanskrit, Punjabi, and Marwari.
• Significant Figures: Vallabhacharya, Shri Vitthalnathji (Shri Gusaiji), Surdas, Pandit Jasraj.

Vallabhacharya and the Rise of Haveli Sangeet

• Discovery of Lord Shrinath: In 1556, Vallabhacharya discovered a divine form of Bhagwat, named Lord
Shrinath (the ‘Consort of the Goddess of Wealth’), in a cave on Giriraj Mountain.
• Fearing destruction during Aurangzeb's reign, Vallabhacharya moved the deity multiple times before es-
tablishing a permanent home in Nathdwara, Rajasthan.
• Establishment of Haveli Sangeet: The temple of Shrinathji in Nathdwara, known as Haveli of Shrinathji,
serves as the seat of the Pushtimarg. The music associated with these temples is called Haveli Sangeet.
• Devotional Services and Disciples: Vallabhacharya appointed four disciples—Kumbhandas, Surdas, Par-
manandas & Krishnadas—for devotional services, with Kumbhandas as Shrinath's first kirtankar (singer).
• Expansion by Shri Vitthalnath: Vallabhacharya’s son, Shri Vitthalnath (Shri Gusai), further systematised
the sewa (service) and added four more disciples—Govindawami, Chhitaswami, Chaturbhujdas, and
Nanddas—forming the Ashta Sakhas (eight companions) of the Lord.
• Introduction of Raga, Bhog, and Shringar: Shri Gusai introduced raga (melody), bhog (offering), and
shringar (adornment) as essential parts of sewa.
 Raag sewa involves singing padas (devotional hymns) in various ragas and taals (rhythmic cycles)
according to the eight prahars (time periods), including Mangala, Shringar, Gwaal, Rajbhoga, Uthapan,
Bhoga, Sandhya, Aarati, and Shayan.

2.5. {Art Forms} Kalamezhuthu (Dhulee Chithram)

• Kalamezhuthu is a communal ritual art widely believed to have originated in the 9th century AD to
worship the great Gods of the land, including Bhadrakaali, Ayyappan and Vettakkorumakan.
• It is also known as Kalam Pattu, Kalamezhuthu Pattu, Dhumakkali in Kerala and Kalam Karuppai in Tamil
Nadu. Only natural products are used for the ritual to make the Kalam.
• The artists traditionally belong to the Kurups, Theyyampadi Nambiars, Theeyadi Nambiars, and Theeyadi
Unnis communities, each with unique kalam traits.
• It requires a lot of concentration, as it must be drawn according to religious guidelines like Thangka paint-
ings. Coloured powders extracted from plants make beautiful drawings on the floor.

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• These are erased at the end of the ritual, with the rhythms of various musical instruments like the ilath-
alam, veekkanchenda, kuzhal, kombu and chenda, acting as accompaniment.

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2.6. {Art Forms} Martial Art Forms of India

Khukuri Dance
• Performed by Gurkhas. Only men perform the Khukuri Dance.
• Khukuri is a small knife that symbolises victory.
• It is a very important part of Gurkha culture. Gurkhas display their triumph using a khukuri.

Kalaripayattu – Kerala
• Primary aim is the ultimate coordination between mind and body.
• Also focus on specialisation in indigenous medicinal practices.
• Kalaris also important centres of religious worship.
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Silambam – Tamil Nadu
• References in the Silappadikaram and other works of the Sangam literature.
• Silambambu = Particular type of bamboo. Also uses animal movements of the snake, tiger, etc.

Gatka – Punjab
• Originated in the Punjab in the 15th century. Style of stick-fighting, with wooden sticks intended to simu-
late swords. Were taught by the Sikh gurus.

Musti Yuddha – Varanasi

• Unarmed martial arts include punches, kicks, knees and elbows.

Thang Ta – Manipur
• Integrates various external weapons - the sword, spear, dagger, etc.
• System of physical culture that involves breathing methods, meditations, and rituals.
• Also involves performing rituals, elements of dance using swords and spears, and a combative form in-
volves the actual act of fighting.

Lathi Khela – West Bengal

• Kind of stick (lathi) fighting, with lathi normally made up of male bamboo.

Mardani Khel – Maharashtra

• Armed method of martial art created by Marathas. Used by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
• Uses a sword mainly & needs rapid movement.

Malla Khamb – Madhya Pradesh

• Aerial yoga postures. Mallakhambha = Malla, meaning wrestler, and Khamb, which means a pole.
• In 2013, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared Mallakhambha as the state sport.

Sqay – Kashmir
• Shaivite snake-worshipping Nagas supposedly created this martial art prior to the Aryan invasion.
• From 1325 AD to 1819 AD, Sqay Martial arts training remained compulsory for Kashmiri soldiers.
• Presently, Sqay has become a sporting event in more than 62 countries, including India.
• Sqay employs weapons such as single swords, double swords, free hand and shields.

2.7. {Art Forms} Mohiniyattam

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 Kerala Kalamandalam (institution for arts and culture) has allowed boys to learn Mohiniyattam.
• Mohiniyattam is a classical dance form in Kerala traditionally associated with females.

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• Named after Mohini, the female avatar of Lord Vishnu.
• Origin can be traced to Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra. Initially performed by Devadasis (temple dancers)
during the reign of Chera kings (9th to 12th centuries CE).
• Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, the Maharaja of the Kingdom of Travancore, significantly contributed to its
development and systematisation in the early 19th century.
• Primarily a solo dance by female artists, characterised by feminine movements known as Lasya.
• Combines dancing & singing, often featuring Manipravala songs blending Sanskrit & Malayalam.
• Music for Mohiniyattam is typically Carnatic, with dancers or vocalists performing the recitation.
• Smooth and fluid body movements, avoiding abrupt jerks or leaps, emphasising hand gestures derived
from 'Hastha Lakshana Deepika' and subtle facial expressions over footwork.
• Costumes: Plain white or ivory cream saris adorned with bright gold-laced brocade.
• Instruments: Mridangam, Madhalam, Idakka, flute, Veena, Kuzhitalam (cymbals).

2.8. {Art Forms} Yakshagana

 UNESCO Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage accredits Keremane Idagunji Mahaganapati

Yakshagana Mandali. It was founded in 1934 by Late Keremane Shivarama Hegde.
• Objective: To educate future generations, safeguard Yakshagana from decline, and promote the tradi-
tional Yakshagana Bayalata to ensure its continued relevance and vitality,
• Yakshagana is a traditional theatre that emerged between the 11th and 16th centuries in coastal Karnataka
and some parts of Kerala.
• It is a unique combination of dance, music, dialogues, colourful costumes, and heavy facial makeup.
• It was inspired by the Vaishnava Bhakti movement that started in the 11th century. It took the format of
dance drama under the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Theme: Stories of Lord Krishna and Vishnu, Hindu tales of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Accompanied by percussion instruments like chenda, maddalam, jagatta or chengila (cymbals) and
chakratala or elathalam (small cymbals).
• Men have traditionally played all parts, including female characters, while women are now included in
Yakshagana troupes.

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 3. Art and Culture – Festivals

3.1. {Festivals) Surajkund International Crafts Mela

• By Surajkund Mela Authority, Haryana Tourism, Union Min of Tourism, Textiles, Culture, External Affairs.
• Started in 1987 to promote the artisans suffering due to the cheaper machine-made imitations.
• Upgraded to international level as the largest crafts fair in the world in 2013.
• "Theme State" for 2024, Gujarat.

3.2. {Festivals} Ashtalakshmi Mahotsav *

 The PM inaugurated Ashtalakshmi Mahotsav to highlight the vast cultural tapestry of Northeast India,
bringing together an array of traditional arts, crafts, and cultural practices.
• The event underscores the region's economic potential, focusing on sectors like textiles, tourism, handi-
crafts, and Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged products.
• Organised by: The Ministry of Development of Northeast Region (MoDoNER) and managed by North-
east Handicrafts and Handloom Development Corporation Limited.
• Significance of the Name: The eight states of Northeast India are referred to as 'Ashtalakshmi', rep-
resenting eight forms of prosperity (Wealth, Purity, Knowledge, etc.) embodied by the goddess Lakshmi.
• Mascot: Poorvi, a young girl representing all eight states of Northeast India, was chosen as the festival's
mascot. It is envisaged that this mascot will remain a symbol of the Northeast region even after the event.

3.3. {Festivals} Attukal Pongal

• Dubbed ‘Women’s Sabarimala’, a ten-day festival celebrated in the Malayalam month of Kumbham.

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• Pongala (to boil over) includes preparation of sweet payasam offering to Goddess or ‘Bhagavathy’.
• Organized in Attukal Devi’s temple in Trivandrum.
• Guinness Book of World Records for the largest congregation of women at any single place.

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3.4. {Festivals} Brahmotsavam festival In Tirupati

 Sri Venkateswara temple in Tirupati is preparing for Brahmotsavam.

• Nine-day festival celebrated at the Tirumala Tirupati Temple on the banks of Swami Pushkarini.
• Lord Brahma is believed to have initiated it to thank Lord Venkateshwara for protecting mankind.
• If there is an extra month in the lunar calendar, two Brahmotsavam are held: Salakatla and Navarathri.
• In 2024, since there is no Adhika Maasa, there will only be one Brahmotsavam (Salakatla).
• Koil Alwar Tirumanjanam, the traditional temple cleansing ritual, is performed on Tuesdays preceding
Brahmotsavam and festivals of Telugu Ugadi, Anivara Asthanam and Vaikuntha Ekadasi.

About Tirupati Temple

• Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Vijayanagara kings contributed significantly to its South Indian architec-
tural construction since 300 CE. Located on Seshachalam Hill, which comprises seven peaks.
• In the 11th and 12th centuries, Ramanujacharya visited Tirupati thrice and introduced the recitation of
Naalayira Divya Prabandham (collection of 4,000 Tamil verses composed by the 12 Alvars).
• Sri Tallapaka Annamacharya (or Annamayya) was the official songmaster of the temple.

3.5. {Festivals} Chandubi Festival

❖ Location: Chandubi Lake (Assam's Kamrup). Annually on New Year.

• Different tribes of the area, Rabhas, Garos, Gorkhas and tea tribes, are supported by this event.
• Freshwater lake formed by earthquake. Chandubi = Sinking moon (Chand=Moon, Dubi= Sinking).

3.6. {Festivals} Chithirai Car Festival

• Also referred to as Chithirai Thiruvizha or Meenakshi Kalyanam, it is celebrated during the Chithirai or
Panguni months (March-April) or the Tamil month of Thai.
• Celebrated at the Rock Fort’s Thayumanavar Swamy Temple.
• Commemorates the divine union between Goddess Meenakshi and Lord Sundareswarar.
• Also symbolises the unity of Saivaites and Vaishnavites. It glorifies both Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.
• The last days of the festivals are celebrated in Alagar Hills in Madurai.
• According to inscriptions on the temple walls, the first car festival was reportedly introduced in Madurai
700 years ago, during the reign of King Veerapandian.

Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple (Meenakshi Amman temple)

• Located in the city of Madurai on the Southern bank of river Vaigai.
• Dedicated to Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) and Meenakshi (Parvathi).

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• Built in the Dravidian style, once considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Has four entrances
facing four directions.
• Viswanatha Nayak, the first Nayak King of Madurai (1559-1600 A.D.), took the initiative to rebuild it.

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• Restoration under Ariyanatha Mudaliar, Prime Minister of Nayak Dynasty, founder of Poligar System.
• King Thirumalai Nayak (circa 1623-1659) built various complexes inside and outside the temple.
• The temple has 14 gopurams, including two magnificent Thanga (golden) Gopurams.
• The temple has the famous “Ayiramkaal Mandapam” or "Hall of 1,000 Pillars".

3.7. {Festivals} Hornbill Festival of Nagaland

 “Festival of Festivals”, the Hornbill Festival began in the Naga heritage village of Kisama.
• It is celebrated annually in the first week of December. It is named after the revered bird, Hornbill.
 Great hornbill is the state bird of Kerala and Arunachal Pradesh, not of Nagaland. The State Bird of
Nagaland is Blyth's tragopan.
 About Nagaland
• It became the 16th state of India in 1963. Capital: Kohima | Official Language: English
• Borders: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Myanmar.
• Major Tribes: Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam,
Sumi, Yimkhiung, Zeme-Liangmai (Zeliang), Khiamniungan, Kuki, Kachari.
• Major River: The Doyang River is one of the major rivers in Nagaland. It is a tributary of the Brah-
maputra River and is important to the state's agriculture and water supply.
• Flora and Fauna: Nagaland is part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, known for its rich biodi-
versity and dense forests. The Dzukou Valley is often called the "Valley of Flowers,".
• GI Tags: Naga Mircha (King Chilli), Naga Tree Tomato, Chakshesang Shawl and Naga cucumber.

3.8. {Festivals} India celebrates New Year Festivals

• Vikram Samvat 2081 started on April 9, 2024, and was celebrated as Solar New Year in India.
• Mythologically, Goddess Ganga descended to Earth on this day; thus, people take holy dips in rivers.

Vaisakhi (Baisakhi)
• States: Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh among Sikhs.
• Khalsa Panth was formed on the same day in 1699 by Guru Gobind Singh.
• Worship of agricultural machinery (Aawat pauni) is done before the harvest.
• Baisakhi is a harvest festival and the start of the new agricultural year.
• Baisakhi is associated with the Vaisakha festival, celebrated as the solar new year.

Vishu
• Malayalam New Year, first day of Malayalam month of Medam | States: Kerala, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu.

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• Vishnu and Krishna are worshipped to signify Krishna’s victory over the asura-king Narakasura.
• The term ‘Vishu’ = Sanskrit word ‘Viuvam,’ translating to ‘equal,’ symbolising the spring equinox.

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Pana Sankranti (Bishub)
• Traditional New Year in Odisha, India, first day of the traditional solar month of Meṣa.

Bahag Bihu (Rongali Bihu/Xaat Bihu)

• The onset of “Bohag” (Assamese calendar) marks the beginning of the Assamese New Year.

Poila Boishakh (Pohela Boishakh)

• Bengali New Year in Bangladesh and West Bengal and a harvest festival.
• It gained significance during the Bengali Renaissance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Vaishakhadi (Mesadi)
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• Harvest festival in Maharashtra and Karnataka. Attraction: Palanquin procession of the village deity.

Puthandu
• Tamil New Year on the first day of the first Tamil month, Chittirai.
Ugadi (Yugadi)
• “New Year” celebrations by Telugu and Kannadigas.
• In Sanskrit Yugadi  "Yuga" means “age”, and "Adi" means "beginning”  new year beginning.
• Attractions: Colourful patterns on the floor (Muggulu/Rangoli) and special food called Pachadi.

3.9. {Festivals} Karam Tree Festival (Karma/Karam Parv)

• Munda, Ho, Oraon, Baiga, Kharia, and Santhal tribes celebrated the Karam Parv in Jharkhand, West Ben-
gal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, and Odisha.
• Celebrated on the Ekadashi tithi (eleventh day) of the lunar fortnight in the month of Bhado/ Bhadra,
which corresponds to August-September in the Gregorian calendar.

Karam Tree (Haldina cordifolia)

• Haldina cordifolia is a deciduous tree with a large crown. It is native to regions across India, including the
Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and some parts of Southeast Asia.
• The tree has a massive root system in proportion to its size, which makes it very resistant to drought.
• The plant is harvested from the wild for its useful timber (used to produce combs, window frames, furni-
ture, bobbins, boxes, piano keys, etc) and local medicinal use.
• The tree tree branches symbolise fertility and prosperity. Karam Parv is a tribute to this.

3.10. {Festivals} Kharchi Puja *

 Kharchi Puja, an ancient traditional Hindu festival, was celebrated in Tripura.

• Festival of the 14 Gods: Fourteen gods forming the dynasty deity of the Tripuri people are worshipped.
• On the day of the puja, deities are carried by members of Chantai (royal priest) to river Saidra, then
bathed in the holy water and brought back to the temple.

30
• It is believed that Tripura Sundari (Mother Goddess), the presiding deity of Tripura, undergoes menstru-
ation during the Ambubachi month in June. This event is believed to have impured the earth.
• Kharchi means “cleaning of the sins”, conducted to cleanse the people's sins and purify the earth after

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the menstruation period concludes.
• Originated as a tribal festival, it is now celebrated in July by tribal and non-tribal peoples.

3.11. {Festivals} Kumbh Mela **

• Prayagraj is all set to witness the Mahakumbh mela. Kumbh Mela, the largest peaceful congregation
of pilgrims on Earth. During the mela, participants bathe or take a dip in a sacred river.
• It is celebrated in a cycle of approximately 12 years, based on the Hindu Lunisolar calendar. The dates
and venue for Kumbh Mela are determined by the positions of the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter:
 Prayagraj: Located at the confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and Sarasvati rivers
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  Haridwar: Located on the Ganges River
 Ujjain: Located on the Shipra River
 Nashik: Located on the Godavari River
• Types of Kumbh Mela:
1. Normal Kumbh Mela: Takes place every three years.
2. Ardha (half) Kumbh Mela: Takes place every six years in Haridwar and Allahabad.
3. Purna (full) Kumbh Mela: Takes place every 12 years in all four cities.
4. Maha Kumbh Mela: Takes place in Prayagraj every 144 years or after 12 Purna Kumbh Mela.
5. Magh Kumbh Mela (Mini Kumbh Mela): Held annually and only at Prayagraj. Organised in the
month of Magh according to the Hindu Calendar.
• In 2017, UNESCO added the festival to the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage.

3.12. {Festivals} Naga King Chilli Festival

• Seiyhama village in Nagaland celebrated its third Naga King chilli festival. The festival showcases the
King chilli's cultural and culinary significance in Naga cuisine.

King Chilli (Raja Mircha/ Naga Mircha)

• Native crop of Nagaland. It is believed to have originated in the Zeliangrong region of Nagaland.
• Certified by Guinness World Records in 2006, it is one of the hottest chillies globally.
• Consistently ranked among the top five on the Scoville Heat Units (SHU) scale.
• It was awarded a Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2008.
• Also known as “Bhoot Jolokia” or “Ghost Pepper”. It is harvested in August-September.
 Other GI tags in Nagaland include Naga Tree Tomato, Naga Sweet Cucumber & Chakhesang Shawl.

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3.13. {Festivals} Nangarni Spardha

• Nangarni Spardha is a centuries-old traditional oxen race held in various villages of Maharashtra an-
nually by a village committee at the peak of the rainy season.

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• The soft, muddy ground during the rainy season prevents serious injury to the drivers, who compete in
bare feet and without protective gear.
• The oxen are no longer used for ploughing the fields but are kept strictly for the competition. Their horns
are brightly painted, and their bodies are sprinkled with coloured powder before the race.
• The race is held on a horseshoe-shaped track where the driver must hold onto the reins while controlling
the oxen’s speed by pulling and twisting their tails. If he drops the reins, his team will be disqualified.

Jallikattu
• Traditional sport popular in Tamil Nadu.
 • Celebrated in January as a part of Mattu Pongal, Tamil harvest festival.
• It involves releasing a wild bull into a crowd of people, and the participants attempt to grab the bull's
hump and ride it for as long as possible or attempt to bring it under control.
• It is celebrated in January as a part of Mattu Pongal, the Tamil harvest festival.

Maramadi
• Also known as Kalappoottu or Pothottam, this traditional race is held in villages after the monsoon but
before the cattle are needed for planting.
• The most famous Maramadi races are held at Anandhapalli village in Pathanamthitta district in Kerala
during the Onam festival in August.
• Other bull races in Kerala include Bull surfing and Chithali (Palakkad district).

3.14. {Festivals} Navroz

• Navroz (Iranian or Persian New Year) marks the beginning of the Zoroastrian calendar, coinciding with
the spring equinox and symbolising the renewal of nature.
• March 21st and September 23rd: Earth experiences equinox direct sunlight falls on the equator.
• During this time, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun, resulting in equal durations of day and
night across the entire planet.
• Celebrated for over 3,000 years, across Western Asia, Central Asia, Caucasus, Black Sea Basin, Balkans,
and South Asia. Mainly celebrated by the Parsi community in India.
• Symbolizes the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, signifying the moment when the Sun
crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day.
• Traditional customs include fire and water rituals, ritual dances, gift exchanges, poetry recitation, and
symbolic objects, which vary among the diverse peoples and countries that celebrate the festival.

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• Navroz was recognized as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2009.

Intangible Cultural Heritage

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• UNESCO's Convention for Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2003 and
became effective in 2006.
• Aims to protect cultural practices threatened by globalization.
• 24 members, elected based on fair representation and rotation and serve 4-year terms.
• The Convention publishes lists such as
 List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding
 Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
 Register of Good Safeguarding Practices
• Encompasses:
 Oral traditions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage;
  Performing arts;
 Social practices, rituals and festive events;
 Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe;
 Traditional craftsmanship.

3.15. {Festivals} Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival

• Recognises the efforts of the Nyishi community to preserve hornbills. Theme: Let Our Hornbills Remain.
• Four species (Oriental pied hornbill, wreathed hornbill (vulnerable), rufous-necked hornbill (vulnerable)
and great hornbill (near threatened)) in the Pakke Tiger Reserve.
• Nyishi community: Largest ethnic group in Arunachal | Sino-Tibetan family | Follows Polygyny.

Pakke (Pakhui) Tiger Reserve

• Established in 1966. East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.
• India Biodiversity Award 2016 for the Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
• Climate: Subtropical with cold weather, annual rainfall of 2,500 mm.

Hornbill
• Giant, fruit-eating birds, Gardeners or farmers of the forest (disperses seeds).
• State bird: Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh. | Distribution: Tropical and subtropical Africa and Asia.
• Conservation Status: IUCN = Vulnerable; WPA1972 = Schedule I; CITES = Appendix I.

India Biodiversity Awards

• By: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, National Biodiversity Authority and United
Nations Development Programme.

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3.16. {Festivals} 'Paruveta' Festival

• Mock hunting festival, a 40-day spiritual odyssey celebrated Annually at Sri Narasimha Swamy temple in

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Ahobilam, Andhra Pradesh, embodies the principles of a casteless society.
• Dates back to the incarnation of Lord Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion, in Ahobilam.
• Deity from the inner sanctum of the temple is carried to the 32 Chenchu tribal settlements.

3.17. {Festivals} Sammakka-Sarakka Medaram Jatara *

• Second-largest fair of India (after Kumbh), celebrated by the Koya tribe (second-largest Tribe of Tel-
angana), in honour of the Goddesses Sammakka and Saralamma.
 Medaram is in the Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, part of Dandakaranya.
• Celebrated once in two years in the month of 'Magha' (February) on the full moon day.
3.18. {Festivals} Thrissur Pooram

• Celebrated in Thrissur, the cultural capital of the state of Kerala.

• Started by Raja Rama Varma, famously known as Sakthan Thampuran, the Maharaja of Cochin (1790–
1805), with the participation of 10 different temples.
• Thrissur Pooram is a seven-day festival. The sixth day is considered to be the most important—that's
when Thrissur Pooram takes place.
• Pooram day is the day when the moon rises with the Pooram star in the Malayalam month of Medam.
• A very strict itinerary of the Pooram celebrations — 36 hours nonstop — is maintained.
• A massive parade accompanied by Chenda Melam and Pancha Vadyam music.
• It is centred on the Vadakkunnathan Temple, with all the temples sending their processions to pay obei-
sance to Shiva (Lord Vadakkunnathan), the presiding deity.
• The seventh day is the final day of the Pooram, which is often referred to as "Pakal Pooram.”

What is Chenda Melam?

• Chenda Melam is a traditional percussion ensemble from the southern Indian state of Kerala.
• It is typically performed during religious festivals, processions, and other auspicious occasions.

3.19. {Festivals} Tirumala Brahmotsavam

• Celebrated at Tirumala Tirupati Sri Venkateshwara Temple on the banks of Swami Pushkarini.
• The festival is believed to have been initiated by Lord Brahma to thank Lord Venkateshwara for protect-
ing mankind. It includes Garuda Seva, Golden Chariot, Rathotsavam and Vahana sevas.
• Vahanaseva features grand processions with deities on ornate carriers.
• Arjitha Seva is performing seva to the Lord on payment of a fee to the temple.

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Tirumala Tirupati Sri Venkateshwara Temple
• Location: Seshachalam Hills, at Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
• Deity: Lord Sri Venkateswara, an incarnation of Vishnu. Architecture: Dravidian.

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 4. Art and Culture – Misc

4.1. {Misc} Anand Marriage Act

• The Act for Sikhs had been initiated during the British Era in 1909 but not implemented till 2012.
• The Anand Marriage (Amendment) Bill was passed by India's parliament in 2012, allowing Sikhs to reg-
ister their marriages under the Anand Karaj Marriage Act rather than the Hindu Marriage Act.
• The Act aimed to acknowledge and respect the customs and practices of the Sikh community.
• While the central government approved the amendments, it was left for individual states and Union ter-
ritories to frame respective rules for the registration of Anand marriages.

4.2. {Misc} Arunachal Pradesh Statehood Day

• Arunachal Pradesh, meaning “Land of the Rising Sun”.

• In British era, it was known as the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA).
• Part of Assam until becoming a UT in 1972 and full statehood in 1987.
• The Tibet Autonomous Region of China borders it to the north.

4.3. {Misc} Ayutthaya: Venice of the East

• Ancient City of Ayutthaya in Thailand named after the birth city of Lord Ram in Ayodhya, India.

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• Founded in 1350, 2nd capital of the Siamese Kingdom after Sukhothai.
• Flourished as a cosmopolitan urban area from the 14th to the 18th centuries and a centre of global
diplomacy and commerce. Now in ruins as an archaeological site.
• This site was chosen because it was located above the tidal bore of the Gulf of Siam as it existed at that
time, thus preventing attack on the city by the sea-going warships of other nations.
• Attacked and razed by the Burmese army in 1767. Never rebuilt at exact location.
• Systematic and rigid city planning grid consisting of roads, canals, and moats and Hydraulic system for
water management.
4.4. {Misc} Book in news: Freedom At Midnight

 Recently, a web series was made in India based on the book Freedom at Midnight.
• Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre co-authored the book, which explores the events surrounding In-
dia's independence movement and partition.
• It details the last year of the British Raj, from 1947 to 1948, beginning with the appointment of Lord
Mountbatten of Burma as the last viceroy of British India to Mahatma Gandhi's death and funeral.
• It also includes the reactions of princely states towards independence, including descriptions of the life-
styles of the Indian princes, the partition of British India (into India and Pakistan) on religious grounds,
and the bloodshed that followed.

4.5. {Misc} Charaideo Moidam

 Charaideo Moidams of Assam is included in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-
ganization (UNESCO) World Heritage List.
• 700-year old earthen mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty.
• First from the North East to be recognised as a World Heritage Site in the cultural category.
• Other WHS in Assam: Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park (in natural category).

4.6. {Misc} First Asian Buddhist Summit

 Ministry of Culture, in collaboration with the International Buddhist Confederation (IBC), is organising
the First Asian Buddhist Summit (ABS) in New Delhi.
• Theme: Role of Buddha Dhamma in Strengthening Asia.
• It will bring together Buddhist ‘Sangha’ leaders, scholars, experts, and practitioners from various traditions
across Asia to foster dialogue and promote understanding.

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• The Summit is a manifestation of India’s Act East Policy, which is principled on the collective, inclusive
and spiritual development of Asia with Dhamma as the guiding light.

4.7. {Misc} HarGharTiranga Campaign

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• Initiative of Ministry of Culture in collaboration with MyGov to spread awareness about the revered
National Flag of India, Tiranga.
• It aims to transform our relationship with the flag from a formal and distant one to a more personal and
heartfelt connection.

4.8. {Misc} India International Science Festival (IISF) 2023

❖ Department of Science and Technology, GoI organised 9th edition of IISF (started in 2015).
• Coordination and implementation body: National Innovation Foundation-India
• Host: Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB) – Faridabad (Haryana)
• Theme of IISF 2023: "Science and Technology Public Outreach in Amrit Kaal"
• Participants: 22 countries, including Armenia, Cambodia, Germany, Namibia, the UK, and the USA.

4.9. {Misc} Indian Historical Records Commission

 The Indian Historical Records Commission (IHRC) has adopted a new Logo and Motto.
• IHRC is an all-India Forum of creators, custodians and users of records set up in 1919.
• Secretariat: National Archives of India. Motto: "Where history is preserved for the future."
• Headed by the Union Minister of Culture.
• Responsible for identifying, collecting, cataloguing, and maintaining historical documents, manuscripts,
and other sources of historical information.

4.10. {Misc} India's First Newspaper

 The Bengal Gazette became the first newspaper ever published in India in 1780.
• Ireland-born James Augustus Hicky, renowned as the “Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire”,
served as its founder-editor.
• Published opinions, general events and local issues, suggesting Britishers invest more in infrastructure
and sanitation. Initially, avoided political news to avoid any trouble.
• Criticised Hastings’ expansion policy and called him Robert Clive’s “miserable successor”.
• He even called Warren Hastings “Wild, Pusillanimous, disgraceful, and wicked” and “Despotic.”
• The newspaper was alleged to have even called troops to mutiny.
• It was sued for libel around two years into its publication, leading to its closure.

4.11. {Misc} Mutiny Memorial (Ajitgarh)

• It was originally built in 1863 to honour the British and Indian soldiers who fought in the Delhi Field Force

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during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
• Renaming: In 1972, on the 25th anniversary of India's independence, the Indian government renamed
the memorial Ajitgarh (meaning "Place of the Unvanquished").

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• Architectural Features: Gothic architecture, constructed with red sandstone. A four-tiered building with
an octagonal base. The lowest tier has seven faces with memorial plaques engraved with the names and
ranks of the soldiers. The memorial was designed to be taller than the nearby Ashoka Pillar.

4.12. {Misc} Pran Pratistha

• Transforms an idol into a deity.

Stages of Pran Pratistha

• Shobha yatra: Procession of the idol.
• Adhivas: Submerged in various materials such as Water (Jalãdhivãs) and grain (Dhãnyãdhivãs).
• Ritual bath: It can have 108 different types of materials, such as Panchamrut.
• Netronmeelan: Final ceremony. Opening of eyes involves putting anjan (like kohl) with a gold needle.

4.13. {Misc} Republic Day Tableaux **

Muria Darbar
• Chattisgarh tableau featured Muria Darbar, 600-year-old Aadim Jansansad and Limbu Raja’s natural
stone throne, depicting the theme of Republic Day: “Bharat is the mother of democracy. "
• Limau Raja depicts collective wisdom; Muria Darbar depicts tribal democracy.
• Bastar ki Aadim Jansansad (Primitive People’s Parliament): Gathering of the Janjati people to discuss
community issues and welfare initiatives.
• The Muria Darbar is an unalienable part of the concluding ceremony of the Bastar Dusshera.
• Origin: Limbu Raja (Kondagaon district); symbolising an ancient lemon kingship collective conscious-
ness based decision making.
• Earlier in the Muria court, Manjhis (Heads) used to represent the concerns of people to the king and the
officials. Since 1947, along with the king, public representatives have also started joining it.
• The CM of Chhattisgarh has also attended almost every Muria Darbar since 2009-10.

Dhordo
• Dhordo, the gateway to the Rann of Kutch (Indo-Pak border), was the theme of Gujarat's tableau.
• Recognised as Best Tourism Villages (2023) by the United Nations World Tourism Organization.
• Rann of Kutch: Vast salt marsh turns a white desert during the winter and a shallow lake in monsoon.
• It was earlier a part of the Arabian Sea and is believed to have a tectonic origin.
• Home to the Flamingo City, where the birds breed and lay their eggs spread over a large area.
• It is also famous for its Dhordo Tent City, hand-embroidered mirror work and annual Rann Utsav.

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• The local Mutwa community (From Sindh) excels in its distinct appearance and the Kutchi dialect.

United Nations World Tourism Organization

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• Specialised agency of the United Nations, headquartered in Madrid, Spain.

UNWTO Recognition of villages

• The Best Tourism Villages initiative was launched in 2021 to promote rural development, combat depop-
ulation, and encourage sustainable practices through tourism.

Kudavolai System
• Tamil Nadu’s tableau highlighted the significance of the Chola era Kudavolai electoral system along with
the Vaikunda Perumal Temple (Uttaramerur) model, where the Kudavolai system is still practised.
• Uttaramerur inscriptions: Details of the Kudavolai system; Kanthaleeswarar Temple inscriptions out-
line qualifications for village council members, both situated in TN's Kancheepuram district.
• Ur: Village assembly (Sabha) with lottery-drawn elected representatives from each ward.
• Annual Committee and Garden Committee had 12 members each; Tank Committee had six members.
• Eligibility: Aged 35 to 70, owns one veli land and house on taxable land, knows Vedas and mantras.
• Not eligibles: Thieves, drunkards, convicts
• Administration units: Mandalams (Province)> Valanadu,Nadus > Kurrams, Kottams (sub-divisions)
• Unique feature: Local Self Government; Specific department committees: Variyams.

Uttaramerur Inscriptions
• Location: Uttaramerur (Near Chennai), Inscription Language: Tamil
• It is a Chaturvedimangalam/Brahmadeya/Devadana: Donated to Vaishnava Brahmins.
• Multiple inscriptions, including the famous Chola king Parantaka I, detailing the self-governance.
• Temple complexes: Kailasanatha Temple (Lord Shiva), Sundara Varadaraja Perumal Temple (Lord
Vishnu) and Balasubramanya Temple (Lord Subramanya).

Rajasthan: Ghoomar Dance | Bandhej | Bagru Print | Applique Work

• Ghoomar was done initially by the Bhil tribe to worship Goddess Sarasvati; Only by women.
• State dance of Rajasthan. Performed by a group in a circular motion and leg positions (Sawai).
• Instruments: Dhol, Nagaada, and Shehnai
• Bandhej / Bandhani: Tie (Sanskrit= Bandha) & dye textile; Practiced in Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP.
• Bagru print: Hand block printing with natural colours using engraved wooden blocks.
• Applique of Rajasthan: Decorative artwork with one cloth sewn or fixed onto another, and glass pieces,
metals, wood or metal wires decorations, and embroidery.
• The origin of ‘Applique’ work is believed to be Europe or Arabia (Middle East).
• Ex.‘Gota’ & ‘Kinari’ work on female costumes; Barmer Applique: bedspreads of black and brown base.

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4.14. {Misc} Sahibi River

 Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has successfully traced the flow of the Sahibi

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River using satellite imagery.
• Also called the Sabi River is an ephemeral, rain-fed river flowing through Rajasthan, Haryana & Delhi.
• The river course used to join the Yamuna via the Najafgarh. Indian Archaeological Society (IAS) article
suggests that the Sahibi is an older geological formation than the Najafgarh jheel.
• Origin: Eastern slopes of the Saiwar Protected Forest hills in Sikar (Rajasthan).
• Rigveda and Manusmriti mention its existence as the Drishadvati River.
• Important wetlands and sanctuaries along the current and paleochannels of the Sahibi River include Mas-
ani Barrage Wetland (Haryana), Khaparwas Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary (Haryana),
Sultanpur National Park (Haryana), Basai Wetland (Haryana).
  Najafgarh jheel got its name from Mirza Najaf Khan, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal
Army under Emperor Shah Alam II. He built a strong fort (Najafgarh fort) on its banks.
• Ancient sites: Several Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture sites are found on its banks. A red stone statue of
Vamana Dev was unearthed on the Sahibi riverbed near Bawal.

4.15. {Misc} Tawaifs

• Comes from the Urdu word tawaf, which means circumambulation. The performers who spun in circles
to the music came to be known as Tawaifs.
• Tawaifs, the Awadhi term for highly skilled courtesans, rose to prominence between the 18th and 19th
centuries in the royal courts of Awadh, part of present-day Uttar Pradesh. They were also known as
devadasis in the South, baijis in Bengal, and naikins in Goa.
• Highly skilled in music, dance, and other arts and were influential, refined and valued. Reached their zenith
under the Mughal rule.
• Known for their power in society and their profound cultural wisdom. Patronage of rich nawabs and Kings.
Primarily performed mujra and recited ghazals.
• Epitome of autonomy and financial independence & were not forced to marry or have children. They
were also the only women who were allowed to inherit property at the time.
• After the imposition of 19th-century Victorian morals on women, tawaifs were looked down upon.
• Over a period of time, their status in society went from being connoisseurs of art to sex workers.

Role in the Independence Movement

• The tawaifs had actively participated in anti-British actions behind the scenes. Their buildings, known as
"kothas", became meeting areas and hiding places for anti-British elements.
From 1920 to 1922, during the non-cooperation movement, a group of Varanasi courtesans formed the

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•
Tawaif Sabha to support the independence war.

4.16. {Misc} The Union Cabinet approved Classical language status **

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 Classical language status to Marathi, Bengali, Assamese, Pali & Prakrit.
 Bengali is 2nd most spoken language in India, but not a classical language.
• Earlier India had 6 classical languages — Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Odia.
• Tamil was the first language to be given classical status in 2004, followed by Sanskrit in 2005.
• Six classical languages: Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Odia (2014).
• All the Classical Languages are listed in the 8th Schedule of the IC. But all 8th scheduled languages are
not classical.

Criteria for declaring a language as 'Classical.'

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• The criteria for bestowing classical status were revised by the Linguistics Experts Committee, chaired by
the Sahitya Academy.
• The Linguistics Expert Committee comprises representatives of the Union Ministries of Home, Culture
and four or five linguistic experts at any given time.
• The Ministry of Culture provides guidelines regarding Classical languages. They are:
1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over 1500-2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/texts is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech community.
4. Classical language and literature are distinct from modern.

Prakrits: language of the people

• The term ‘Prakrit’ comes from ‘Prakriti’, meaning ‘source’ or ‘origin’. According to most scholars, the
Prakrits are said to have sprung from Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas and later Hindu literature.
• There is no one Prakrit language. Rather, Prakrit generally refers to a group of closely related Indo-Aryan
languages. Historian A L Basham wrote in his classic The Wonder that Was India (1954): “By the time of
the Buddha, the masses were speaking languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit”.

Some notable Prakrits include

Magadhi

• Official language of the Mauryan court and the language of the Magadha people (present-day Bihar).
• The Ashokan edicts were composed in this language. This language would find wide use in Eastern India
and later evolved into modern-day languages such as Bengali, Assamese, Odia, and the Bihari languages
(Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili), among others.

Ardhamagadhi

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• Literally, “half-Magadhi” was a later variation of the Magadhi language used by Jain scholars.

Shauraseni

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• Used in North and Central India. In Sanskrit plays, the speech of women and people from the lower classes
was often denoted in this Prakrit, which later evolved into Hindustani, Punjabi, and other languages of
the Hindi group.

Pali: language of the Buddhist canon

• Pali has traditionally been identified with Magadhi Prakrit, with the word ‘pali’ meaning “lines or series”.
• Pali is the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon.
• After Theravada Buddhism declined in India, Pali survived as an ecclesiastical language in Sri Lanka, My-
anmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where this Buddhist school continued to prosper.

Tipitaka (“three baskets”) of Buddhism in Pali

• Vinaya Pitaka: Dealing with rules or discipline of the Buddhist sangha (monastic order).
• Sutta Pitaka: The largest basket comprising discourses and sermons of the Buddha himself, as well as
some religious poetry.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: The basket that further elaborates on Buddhist philosophy.

4.17. {Misc} World Heritage Cell

 Visva-Bharati University has formed a world heritage cell to maintain, monitor and manage heritage mat-
ters related to World Heritage Site.
• First time that a dedicated cell had been formed for overseeing heritage matters.
• Document and preserve all files, maps, correspondences and other records related to the declaration of
Santiniketan as a World Heritage Site.

Shantiniketan
• Cultural and educational institution in Birbhum (West Bengal) comprises Viswa Bharati University.
• The name “Santiniketan” translates to “abode of peace” in Bengali, reflecting its serene environment.
• Originally began as an ashram or hermitage founded by Debendranath Tagore, the father of
Rabindranath Tagore.
• Promotes open-air classrooms that foster a connection between students & the natural world.
• Second cultural symbol from West Bengal to be included in the UNESCO list, following Durga Puja in
Kolkata in UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2021.

4.18. {Misc} World Heritage Young Professionals Forum (WHYPF) 2024

• The Ministry of Culture is hosting the 2024 World Heritage Young Professionals Forum under the
UNESCO World Heritage Education Programme.

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• It is part of UNESCO’s prestigious World Heritage Committee meeting hosted by India.
• Theme: “World Heritage in the 21st Century: Building Capacities and Exploring Opportunities for Youth.”
This year’s sub-themes will focus on tackling climate change along with sustainable development.

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•

4.19. {Tribes} Hakki Pikki tribe **

 This tribe remains in the news due to the Adivasi oil controversy.
 Hakki Pikki tribe members from Karnataka were stuck in violence-hit Sudan. India launched Operation
Kaveri (2023) to evacuate Indian citizens from Sudan.

About Hakki Pikki tribe

• Belongs to West & south India, especially forest areas in Karnataka.
• Hakki in Kannada means ‘bird’, and Pikki means ‘catchers’; hence, the name means bird catchers.
• In northern Karnataka and Maharashtra, they are referred to as Mel-Shikari.
• Four clans (Gujaratia, Panwar, Kaliwala, Mewaras) are arranged like the Hindu caste system.

Occupation
• Traditionally, Semi-nomadic life, staying for three months at permanent camps.
• Earlier, men of the tribe would hunt while women resorted to begging.
• After strict wildlife laws, they now depend on forest produce and sell spices and herbal oils.

History of migration

45
• Originally hailed from the bordering districts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, now live in southern states.
• In recent periods, they migrated overseas, especially in Africa, to trade in spices.

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Rituals and customs
• Hindu traditions are matriarchal and have a preference for cross-cousin marriages. The groom gives a
dowry to the bride’s family. Monogamy is the norm.
• Eldest son in a family is not supposed to cut his hair for easy identification.

4.20. {Initiative} Project PARI

 Ministry of Culture has launched Project PARI (Public Art of India).

• The first phase is taking place in Delhi along with the 46th session of the World Heritage Committee.
• It aims to create public art that blends ancient traditions with contemporary themes and techniques.
• To be executed by Lalit Kala Akademi and the National Gallery of Modern Art.
• The artworks draw inspiration from various Indian art styles such as Phad paintings (Rajasthan), Thangka
paintings (Sikkim/Ladakh), Gond art (Madhya Pradesh), and many more regional artistic traditions.
• Some sculptures also draw inspiration from World Heritage Sites like Bimbetka, with special emphasis
on India's seven natural World Heritage Sites.
• Project PARI strongly emphasises the participation of women artists, highlighting India's commitment to
empowering its NARI SHAKTI (women's power).
• Project PARI transforms urban areas into public art galleries, making art accessible to all citizens. This
initiative stimulates dialogue, reflection, and inspiration, enriching the nation's cultural fabric.

Lalit Kala Academi

• An autonomous body registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860.

• Government’s apex cultural body in the field of visual arts in India. Publishes bi-annual art journals, Lalit
Kala Contemporary (English), Lalit Kala Ancient (English) and Samkaleen Kala (Hindi).
• Fully funded by the Ministry of Culture.
 The Sangeet Natak Akademi (SNA) was the first of the three to be established in 1953, followed
shortly by Lalit Kala Akademi (LKA) and Sahitya Akademi (SA).
• Conducts an international exhibition on contemporary art in New Delhi every three years.
• HQ: New Delhi and regional centres at Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Shimla.

4.21. {Laws} Delisting of ASI monuments

Monument of National Importance

• Monuments that are considered of significant historical importance, as mandated by the Ancient Mon-
uments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules 1959 (AMASR Act).

46
• Designated by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• Authorises the central government to “maintain, protect and promote the site”.
• Any construction-related activity is not allowed around the protected site.

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• Currently, 3,693 monuments of national importance are being protected by the ASI.
• Finalisation of 18 monuments: List Includes monuments from Uttar Pradesh (11), Delhi (2), Haryana (2),
and others in Assam, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

Delisting Process
• Section 35 of AMASR Act 1959: To delist the monuments, stating that these “have ceased to be of
national importance”.
• Central govt issues notification in this regard, inviting “objections or suggestions” from the public
within two months.

4.22. {Literature} Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register

 Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sahṛdayāloka-Locana enter UNESCO's Memory of the World Asia-
Pacific Regional Register.
• 10th General Meeting of the Memory of the World Committee for Asia and the Pacific (MOWCAP), at
Mongolia's capital, Ulaanbaatar announced this.
• The MoW (Memory of the World) Program was launched by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1992.
• MOWCAP maintains an Asia/Pacific Regional Register of the MoW documentary heritage, a listing of the
documentary heritage of influence in the Asia/Pacific region.
• Normally, inscriptions on the Asia/Pacific Register are made every two years.

Other listings from India in MOW Register

• The I.A.S. Tamil Medical Manuscript Collection (1997)
• Archives of the Dutch East India Company (2003)
• Saiva Manuscript in Pondicherry (2005)
• Rigveda (2007)
• laghukālacakratantrarājatikā (Vimalaprabhā) (2011)
• Tarikh-E-Khandan-E-Timuriyah (2011)
• Shāntinātha Charitra (2013)
• Gilgit Manuscript (2017)
• Maitreyayvarakarana (2017)

Ramcharitmanas
• Authored by 16th century Goswami Tulsidas, an epic poem that narrates the life of Lord Rama.
• Based on the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, it is written in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi.

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• Has seven chapters, or Kandas, from Ram’s birth to becoming the King of Ayodhya.
• The poem is also called Tulsikrit Ramayan (Ramayan composed by Tulsi).

Panchatantra

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• Collection of folktales and fables believed to have been originally written in Sanskrit by Vishnu Sharma
more than 2500 years ago.
• It is a book of Niti, the wise conduct of life, written in the form of a chain of simple stories. Each story has
a moral and philosophical theme.

4.23. {Literature} Tevaram and Divya Prabandam *

Shanmata
• Shanmata, meaning "Six Sects" in Sanskrit, is a system of worship believed in the Smarta tradition to have
been founded by the Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara.
• It includes: Saivam (Lord Shiva), Vaishnavam (Lord Vishnu), Shaaktham (Goddess Sakthi), Gaanaapathyam
(Lord Ganesha), Kaumaram (Lord Skanda or Kumara), and Souryam (Sun as God).
• Hinduism is made up of diverse cults, all united by a polytheistic concept.
 Polytheism is the belief or doctrine that there are multiple gods or deities.

Saivite Temples
• Among the Saivite temples, the Paadal Petra Sthalams and Vaippu Sthalams were necessary.

Paadal Petra Sthalams

• These, also known as Tevara Sthalam, are a group of 276 temples revered in the verses of Shaiva Naya-
nars from the 6th to the 9th century CE. 217 of 276 of these are in Tamil Nadu.
• Saints Thirugnana Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar visited these between the 7th and 9th Centuries.
 They are the “primary three” among the sixty-three Nayanars and are referred to as Shaiva Kuruvars.

Vaippu Sthalams

• 249 Vaippu Sthalams, 189 of which are in Tamil Nadu. Vaippu Sthalam are temples that were mentioned
casually in the songs of the text. There is a claim that one such Vaippu Sthalams is in the Gulf countries.

Tevaram

• Tevaram literally means "garland of divine songs" and refers to the collection of verses in praise of
Shiva sung by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.
• Denotes the first seven volumes of Tirumurai, the twelve-volume collection of Śaiva devotional poetry.
• Manickavasagar was not considered a Nayannar because he was believed to have united with Shiva.

Uzhavarapani
• Process of cleaning with the use of Uzhavaram (a small spade) is known as Uzhavarapani.

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• Saint Appar always carried a Uzhavaram (spade) to clean the temple premises by removing the weeds.
• He believed cleaning the temples to be cleaning one’s soul and best way to reach Shiva's lotus feet.

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Vaishnavite Temples

• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu were classified as Divya Desams and considered sacred.
• Named in the works of 12 Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) in the Nalayira Divya Prabandam (4,000 holy
hymns in praise of Lord Vishnu). Total of 108 Divya Desams, and 84 of them were in Tamil Nadu.

Divya Prabandam

• Collection of 4,000 Tamil verses composed by 12 Alvars. Compiled in its present form by Nathamuni.
• Involves adoring the deities of 108 temples (Divya desams) situated in different parts of the country and
employing every form of poetics and prosody available in Tamil.
 5. Art and Culture – Paintings

5.1. {Paintings} Pattachitra Art **

• “Patta” = “cloth,” and “Chitra” = “picture” in Sanskrit. This is a traditional, cloth-based scroll painting.
• Belongs to Odisha and West Bengal, with origin in the early 12th century.
• Uses: ritual use and as souvenirs for pilgrims.
• Two kinds of Pattachitra:
 Jodano chitra’ (‘jodano’ = wrapped), consisting of a long vertical or horizontal scroll with different
squares depicting different facets of a story or incidents.
 ‘Chouko chitra’ (‘chouko’ = square). It is an isolated painting depicting a mythological incident.

Theme of the paintings

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• Odia paintings: Lord Jagannath and Vaishnava sect themes. West Bengal: Stories of Goddess Durga.
• The individual paintings of gods and goddesses are done.

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• Some other themes: Thia Badhia (temple of Jagannath), Krishna Lila (Jagannath as Lord Krishna), Da-
sabatara Patti (ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu), Panchamukhi (Lord Ganesh as a five-headed deity).

Features
• Intricate details and natural colours. Executed primarily in profile with elongated eyes.
• Disciplined form with a set of rules and restrictions, like a floral border, is a must around the paintings.
• Done on canvas, comprising rich, colourful applications, creative motifs, and designs.
• Use of prominent solid shades depicting stark emotional expressions.
• Mixes folk and classical elements. The dress style in the paintings has Mughal influences.
• Categories based on the surface: Paintings on cloth (‘Patta Chitra’), on walls (‘Bhitti Chitra’), and on palm
leaves (‘Tala Patra Chitra’).
• The GI of Patachitra is registered differently in both states because of differences in the style and motif.
• Odisha is the GI tag for Orissa Pattachitra, while that of West Bengal is registered as Bengal Patachitra.

5.2. {Paintings} Restoration of Ajanta Paintings in Hyderabad

 The Department of Heritage Telangana and Iran's Noor International Microfilm Centre are collaborating
to restore Ajanta paintings in the Telangana State Museum's Ajanta Gallery.
• These are early 20th century copies of Ajanta Caves paintings created by artists such as Christiana Her-
ringham, Nandalal Bose, and Syed Ahmad.
• The project aims to use reversible and natural materials and herbs for conservation.

Ajanta Caves
• UNESCO World Heritage Site. Created during the Satava-
hana rule between 200 and 100 BCE.
• Located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, were discovered in
the 19th century.
• Built on a perpendicular cliff. Chaityas (4) are less compared
to viharas (25).
• Paintings are outlined in red colour, followed by the appli-
cation of other colours.
• Main themes: Jataka stories. Mentions of Chinese travel-
lers Fahien and Hiuen Tsang.
• Of the 30 Ajanta Caves, 5 are dedicated to Hinayana Buddhism and 25 to Mahayana Buddhism.
• The Ajanta Caves' fresco art involves applying pigments to fresh, damp lime plaster, allowing the colours
to bond with the surface as it dries, creating vibrant and durable paintings.

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5.3. {Paintings} Restoration of Kumaranallur Temple Murals

 The Kumaranallur Devi temple in Kottayam, Kerala, is undergoing a restoration project.

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Historical Significance of the Temple and its Murals
• Dates back to the 10th century during King Cheraman Perumal’s reign. It features a rare ‘Sree Chakra’
style in its Naalambalam and Sreekovil. This ring-like structure with a handle is a rare architectural element
and exemplifies a blend of devotion and artistic brilliance.
• The temple's murals are spread across 14 distinct sections, known as Chithrakandas. These vivid artworks
primarily depict scenes from the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The mural series begins on
the right side of the temple with an image of Karthyayani Devi, the main deity of the temple.
• These intricate artworks, which have darkened and faded with age, are being skillfully restored to their
former glory by renowned mural artist Gopi Chavayur.
• The first restoration strictly adheres to the five traditional colours: ochre red, ochre yellow, dark green,
white, and black, reflecting the importance of lines over colours in Kerala-style mural paintings.
• While the murals adhere to traditional colour schemes, they feature unique elements. For example, God-
dess Parvathy is wearing a jacket and saree, which is diverging from traditional attire.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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 6. Art and Culture – Sites

6.1. {Places in News} Shankaracharya Temple

• Located atop Shankaracharya Hill, also called the Hill of Solomon, on the Zabarwan Mountain in Srinagar,
Kashmir. Considered the oldest temple in the Kashmir valley.
• Dates back to around 200 BCE, present structure likely dates to the 9th century CE.
• Initially known as Takht-i-Sulaiman, which means Throne of Solomon, later renamed after a saint Adi
Shakaracharya who attained enlightenment here in AD 750.
• Follows the indigenous early Kashmiri style of architecture.
 The early Shikhara style is evident, characterised by a horseshoe arch pattern.
• Dedicated to Lord Shiva and with a height of 1,000 feet above, plain looks over the city of Srinagar.
• Also called Jyesteshwara Temple or Pas-Pahar.

Kashmiri style of architecture

• Two phases: early medieval Hindu phase and Muslim rule from the 14th century onwards.
• Renowned for its exquisite stone carvings.
• Due to its location on important trade routes, inspired by many foreign sources.
• Main Features of Kashmiri style of architecture:
 Trefoil arched (Gandhara influence)
 Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard
 Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
 Column walls (Greek influence)

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 Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
 More number of steps

6.2. {Places in News} Srinagar: World Craft City

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• Srinagar has become the fourth Indian city to be recognised as a ‘World Craft City’ by the World Craft
Council (WCC). Jaipur, Mamallapuram and Mysore are the other World craft cities in India.

World Craft City

• Initiative launched in 2014 to recognise the pivotal role local authorities, craftspeople, and communities
play in cultural, economic, and social development worldwide.

World Craft Cities in India

• Srinagar is a city with more than 4,000 years of written history and shawls, carpets, papier mache, etc.
• In 2021, Srinagar also earned the title of UNESCO Creative City under Crafts and Folk Art.
 World Craft Council (WCC)
• International non-profit organisation dedicated to fostering the preservation, promotion, and advance-
ment of global craftsmanship and traditional crafts.
• Founded by Ms. Aileen Osborn Vanderbilt Webb, Ms. Margaret M. Patch, and Smt Kamaladevi Chatto-
padhyay at the 1st World Crafts Council General Assembly in New York on June 12, 1964.
• Affiliated with UNESCO under Consultative Status for many years.

6.3. {Places in News} Vikramaditya Vedic Clock *

 'Vikramaditya Vedic Clock, the world's First Vedic Clock, was installed in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh.
• Positioned on an 85-foot high tower within the Jantar Mantar area in Ujjain, adjacent to the Government
Jiwaji Observatory.
• Exhibits information related to Vedic Hindu Panchang (Almanac), planetary positions, Muhurat, astrolog-
ical calculations & predictions & Indian Standard Time (IST) and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
• Showcases 30 Muhurats, tithi, Parva, Shubh Muhurat, Ghati, Nakshatra, moon position, solar eclipse, lunar
eclipse, etc. The clock will calculate time from one sunrise to another.
• The period between the two sunrises will be divided into 30 parts, with one hour consisting of 48 minutes,
according to ISD.

History
• The standard time of the world was determined from Ujjain 300 years ago.
• Ujjain, where the clock is installed, has been historically considered the centre of time calculation as
the Tropic of Cancer passes through the city.

6.4. {Places in News} Vivekananda Rock Memorial

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• Located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, the Vivekananda Rock is a rocky islet some 500 metres from
Kanyakumari’s Vavathurai beach, the southern tip of mainland India, at the confluence of Indian Ocean,

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Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
• Swami Vivekananda is believed to have meditated here for three days and attained enlightenment.
• Situated on one of the two adjacent rocks projecting out of the Lakshadweep Sea and comprises the
'Shripada Mandapam' and the 'Vivekananda Mandapam'.
• Locals believe that Goddess Devi Kumari blessed the rock while performing austerity.

6.5. {Sites} Ajmer Sharif Dargah

Origin and subsequent development of Ajmer Sharif

• Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti was interred in 1236 in the cell where he lived. No mausoleum was initially
constructed, and his memory faded in Ajmer for over two centuries.
• Sultan Mahmud Khan Khalji of Malwa (not to be confused with the Khalji sultans of Delhi) and his son
Ghiyasuddin built the first pucca mausoleum. They also constructed the grand Buland Darwaza.
• The current white marble dome was built in 1532, during Humayun's reign. In 1616, Jahangir added a
gold railing around the saint's tomb. Shah Jahan carried out additional expansions.
• It is an example of Indo-Islamic architecture, and the dome features a lotus and a crown of gold
donated by Rampur's Nawab Haider Ali Khan.
• The dargah has a royal darbar, Mehfil Khana, constructed in 1888. In the 19th century, the Nizam of
Hyderabad donated the Nizam Gate.
• The six-day Urs festival marks the death anniversary of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti.

Historical Background of Ajmer

• Origin of Ajmer: Historically known as Ajaymeru, it is named after its founder, Raja Ajay Pal Chauhan.
• Ajmer served as the capital of the Chauhans, a prominent Rajput clan that ruled regions of present-day
Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh from the 7th to the 12th centuries CE.
• Destruction by Muhammad of Ghor: In 1192, after defeating Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle
of Tarain, Muhammad of Ghor's forces sacked Ajmer, destroying many temples.
 The petition references Har Bilas Sarda's book "Ajmer: Historical and Descriptive" (1911), which
notes the destruction of temples but does not directly link it to the construction of the dargah.

Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti *

• Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is also known as Moinuddin Hasan Chishti and is revered by the epithet
Ghareeb Nawaz (Benefactor of the Poor).
• He was born in Sijistan (modern-day Sistan, Iran) and settled in the Indian subcontinent in the early 13th
century. He is said to have been a descendant of Prophet Muhammad.

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• He became a disciple of Khwaja Usman Harooni; after rigorous spiritual training, Moinuddin was initi-
ated into the Chishti silsila (spiritual lineage).
• He preached in Ajmer after Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam of Ghor defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the

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Second Battle of Tarain (1192). After that, Ajmer became his base of spiritual and social work. He
founded his ‘khanqah’ in Ajmer to help the poorest people in the community.
• His shrine in Ajmer has been visited by rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Sher Shah Suri, Akbar, Ja-
hangir, Shah Jahan, Dara Shukoh and Aurangzeb.
• Contemporaries: Lived during the reigns of Qutub-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish.
• Teachings and Influence: Promoted “Sulh-i-Kul” (Peace with all), drawing followers from all religions
and social classes. Also, it advocated service to humanity, inner purity, and devotion to God.

Chishti Order (Chishtiya)

• Foundation: It was founded by Abu Ishaq Shami in Chisht (modern-day Afghanistan) and established in
India by Khwaja Moin-Uddin Chishti.
• Core Beliefs: Emphasised the doctrine of the unity of being with God (waḥdat al-wujūd). Adherents
were pacifists who believed in non-violence and harmony.
• Lifestyle: Reject all material goods as distractions from the contemplation of God. Abstained from any
connection with the secular state.
• Practices: Involved reciting the names of God, both aloud (dhikr jahrī) and silently (dhikr khafī).

Prominent Disciples

• Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki: Spread the Chishti teachings in Delhi and became the spiritual guru of
Iltutmish, the Delhi Sultanate ruler. The Qutub Minar is named after him.
• Baba Fariduddin: Spread Chishti teachings in Punjab and was given the name "Ganj Shakr" (treasure
of sweetness) by Moinuddin.
• Nizamuddin Auliya and Chirag Dehalvi: Established the Chishti order in Delhi.

About Sufism
• The word derives from the Arabic word for wool (suf), which refers to the rough wool clothes worn by
ascetics and even prophets.
• It is the mystical form of Islam that focuses on the spiritual search for God and shunning materialism.
• It emphasises asceticism and devotion towards God.
• In Sufism, self-discipline is considered essential to gain knowledge of God through perception.
• Its belief is that serving humanity equates to serving God.

6.6. {Sites} Ancient city of Tamluk

• Located in West Bengal, it is the site of the ancient city of Tamralipta or Tamralipti.
• Capital of the ancient kingdom of Suhma and capital of the Pala Empire in the 9th century CE.
Remains of the ancient town of Chandraketugarh were also excavated here.

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•
• Tamluk is one of the largest producers and exporters of paan (betel leaf).

History of Tamluk

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• As per Mahabharata stories, Pandavas’ Ashwamedha horse was stopped by the prince of Tamralipta, and
a battle ensued. Eventually, the kingdom allied itself with the Pandavas.
• Famous Kali temple Bargabhima Mandir, believed to have been built here by the Pandava prince, Bhima.
• Nearby areas still witness the worship of Bhima and a great fair, known as Bhim Mela, every year.
• Under the rule of King Tamradhwaja, the kingdom reached its peak. The mines of Ghatshila near
Tamralipti have been producing rich copper, fuelling the kingdom’s treasury.
• The ancient Rupnarayan River flowed into the Bay of Bengal through an intricate network of estuaries,
which enabled large sea-faring ships to dock at Tamralipta.
• Exported copper, silk, cotton, indigo, and earthenware to Ceylon, Southeast Asia, and Southeast Asia.
• It is believed that Emperor Ashoka’s attack on Kalinga intended to capture the port city of Tamralipta.
• During the Mauryan rule, a great stone road connected Pataliputra to Tamralipti to help in the easy move-
ment of copper and other export items to the port of Tamralipta.
• During Ashoka’s reign, Buddhism spread to Ceylon, Southeast and Far East Asia through Tamralipta.
• The Jataka tales of Buddhism also mentioned Tamralipta.
• It is also mentioned in the writings of famous Chinese travellers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang and Itsing.
• It is also mentioned as Taluctae by the Roman philosopher and traveller Pliny (2nd century CE).
• By the end of the 7th century, the great port city had started declining due to unknown causes.
• After the death of Skandagupta in 467 CE, the Gupta dynasty fell, and anarchy ruled.
• The Rupnarayan River also changed course, moving eastwards and joining Bhagirathi (Hooghly).

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• With the older course drying up, the port became less and less navigable, and its glory was forever lost.

6.7. {Sites} Ayodhya

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History of Ayodhya
Ancient History
• "Ayodhya" means "not to be fought". Also called "Saketa" and “Unconquerable city of gods”.
• Mentioned in: Atharvaveda, Jain literature Adi Purana, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Kalidasa's
Raghuvamsha, Vayu Purana & Brahmanda Purana (Relate Saketa to early Gupta. Yet, no such findings
except Gupta coins.)
• Capital of the Ikshvaku kings of Kosala (including Lord Ram).
• Karamdanda (Karmdand) inscription: Kumaragupta I, Mention it as capital of the Kosala.
• Later Kingdoms: Harsha’s rule > Gurjara-Pratiharas kings > Gahadavalas (promoted Vaishnavism).
Buddhist connection

• Buddha's residence for some time | Ashoka: Believed to have constructed a stupa in Ayodhya.
• Mentioned as Saketa - Seat of Ikshvaku king Sujata in Samyutta Nikaya, Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavastu.
• Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hian (5th century CE) mentioned multiple monasteries in Ayodhya.

Jainism connection

• Jain text Jambudvipa-Pannati: City Viniya (~Ayodhya) as birthplace of 1st tirthankara Rishabhdev.

Medieval Period
• Part of the Delhi Sultanate, Jaunpur Kingdom, and Mughal Empire.
• Mir Baqi (commander of the Mughal emperor Babur) built Babri Mosque (1528–29) here.
• Death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD led to Awadh becoming virtually independent, with Ayodhya as capital.

British Period
• Subordinated to East India Company in 1764 with 1st capital of Awadh as Ayodhya (later Faizabad).
• Significant in Treaty of Allahabad (1765) after the Battle of Buxar.
• Awadh Annexation (1856) by Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse was a factor in the 1857 revolution.
• Agra Presidency: Part of North-Western Provinces(1877),later United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.

Post-independence
• Excavations at Ayodhya discovered a large brick wall (fortification wall) by archaeologist B. B. Lal.
• It has been the centre of the Ram Janambhoomi movement.

Geography
• In Indo-Gangetic Plain | Subtropical monsoon climate | On the southern bank of the Saryu River.

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Saryu/Sarju River/Lower Ghaghra
• Origin: Nanda Kot mountain (Kumaon Himalayas, Uttarakhand)
• Largest tributary of the Mahakali (Sharda) River, merging at Pancheshwar (India-Nepal border).

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• Left Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Punger | Right Bank Tributaries: Gomati, Panar, Lahor
⇨ Fictional town of Malgudi (R. K. Narayan) also has river named Ayodhya.

6.8. {Sites} Binjor Excavations

• At Binjor, a craftsperson’s village of the Harappan period was discovered.

• Location: Anupgarh, Rajasthan, near the India-Pakistan border dividing the Ghaggar-Hakkra river.
• Excavations suggest that the industrial activities at the site started during the Mature Harappan period.
• The site was abandoned towards the end of the Mature Harappan phase around c.2000 BCE, which coin-
cided with the onset of the de-urbanisation phase of the civilisation.
Findings from the excavations
• Three periods: Early, Transition, and Mature Harappan.
• Most structures are made of mud bricks, including multiple rooms, workshop areas, courtyards, and a
massive enclosure wall that surrounds the settlement.
• Pottery with decorative motifs, including animal motifs like tigers and fish; numerous seals; exquisite
beads—carnelian, agate, jade, lapis lazuli, quarts; and animal and human figurines—were excavated.

A village of Craftsperson
• The industrial centre was represented by the evidence of over 250 hearths (fireplaces/kilns) in different

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shapes and sizes found in seven structural phases right from the settlement’s inception.
• Though initially, the concentration of hearths was limited to domestic use, the level of industrial and mass
production activity could be seen only during the Mature Harappan period (2600-2000 BCE).

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• The increase in the number of hearths and the concentration of fire activity in clusters present for a long
time (defined by layers and layers) in one area showed that the scale of production increased.
• The entire array of hearths is divided into three broad categories:
1. For smelting (particularly furnaces/kilns).
2. Smaller hearths, mostly (rounded or oval) for secondary melting.
3. Hearths shaped like basins were used for heating and forging artefacts, and round hearths filled with
powdery ash or gypsum might have been used for final polishing.
• Objects such as terracotta crucibles and moulds, stone anvils, hammers, polishers, copper chisels, and
other tools; evidence of wood as fuel; bones in the hearths; and weights and measures in various denom-
inations are indicators of a craft-cum-industrial setup.
• Moreover, a thick deposit of industrial waste and a large number of finished products are found at the
site, suggesting mass production of copper implements.

6.9. {Sites} Brahmi inscription found in Dharanikota *

 An inscription was found while ploughing in Dharanikota village at Amaravathi in Andhra Pradesh. It
is written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi characters of the 2nd century C.E.

About Dharnikota
• In 500 BCE, Dharanikota was known as Dhanyakatakam, the capital of the Satavahana dynasty, which
ruled in the Deccan from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.
• Xuanzang visited the great Amaravati stupa at Dharanikota and wrote an enthusiastic account of the
place and the viharas. Jainism flourished here during the reign of Sada kings.
• Dalai Lama conducted a very large Kalachakra ceremony there in January 2006.

About Brahmi Script

• It is the earliest writing system developed in India after the Indus script. All modern Indian and several
hundred Southeast and East Asian scripts are believed to be derived from Brahmi. Some descendant
scripts of Brahmi are Bengali, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Tibetan, etc.
• The earliest (indisputably dated) and best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka
in north-central India, dating to 250–232 BCE.
• In most cases, Brahmi and its derivatives are written from left to right, but an early coin discovered in
Madhya Pradesh is inscribed with Brahmi characters running from right to left.
• It is used in ancient texts of the three major Dharmic religions, Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, as well
as their Chinese translations. For example, the Lalitavistara Sūtra (Mahayana Buddhist Sutra).

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• Brahmi was deciphered by James Prinsep, the secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

6.10. {Sites} Budaun’s Jama Masjid Shamsi

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 A court in Budaun, Uttar Pradesh, is hearing a plea seeking permission for Hindus to pray at the 800-
year-old Jama Masjid Shamsi.
• The petitioners argue that mosque was constructed after demolishing the Neelkanth Mahadev Temple.
• The Muslim side refutes this claim, citing the Places of Worship Act, 1991.

Historical Significance of the Jama Masjid Shamsi

Construction History
• Commissioned by Sultan Shams ud-Din Iltutmish in 1223 AD, according to inscriptions on the mosque.
• The mosque’s construction occurred during the governorship of Iltutmish’s son, Rukn-ud-Din Firoz.
• It was repaired in the 16th century after a fire, with domes added under Akbar’s reign.
• The mosque is recognised as a Monument of National Importance and a National Heritage Site.

Architectural Features
• It is one of the oldest and largest congregational mosques in North India.
• The mosque showcases Persian and Afghan architectural influences.
• The mosque is constructed using red sandstone and white marble.

Historical Evidence and Claims

• Some historical records, including those by British-era Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officials, men-
tion that the mosque was constructed using materials from demolished Hindu temples. It also mentioned
dwarf pillars with Hindu architectural features near the mosque’s mihrab.
• Alexander Cunningham, founder of the ASI, noted local traditions that suggest a temple, Harmandar,
stood at the site before the mosque.
• Gazetteer References: The 1907 district gazetteer credits the construction

6.11. {Sites} Excavation In Rajasthan's Braj

• Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is conducting excavations in Bahaj, in the Braj region of Rajasthan.

Findings
• A 2,500-year-old 'yagya kund', metal tools, and coins.
• Tools made from bones and ancient baked clay sculptures from the Mauryan period.
• A pair of statues of Ashwani Kumar (twin Hindu gods) of the Sunga period.
 Ashwani Kumars are associated with medicine, health, dawn, and the sciences. The names of Ashwini
Kumar in Mahabharata are Dstra and Nastya.
• Fragments of pottery, possibly from the Mahabharata period.

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• Pits contain sacrificial soil (natural sandy soil) along with the offering of miniature pots.
• Copper coins wrapped in cloth and other copper and iron objects.

6.12. {Sites} Great Stupa of Sanchi *

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 Sanchi's Great Stupa East Gate replica installed at Humboldt Forum Museum in Berlin.

Historical Background
• It was commissioned by Emperor Ashoka to house the relics of the Buddha. After embracing Buddhism
following the Kalinga War, Ashoka sought to promote the faith through the construction of stupas.
• The original stupa was a simple hemispherical dome made of brick and mud mortar, estimated to be half
the size of the current structure. It was later enlarged and renovated, particularly during the Sunga dyn-
asty (184-72 BCE), which introduced local sandstone and decorative elements.

Architectural Features
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• Stupa features a hemispherical dome, symbolising the cosmic mountain, and is crowned with a chhatra
(umbrella), representing the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
• A circular terrace surrounds the stupa for circumambulation, emphasising the ritualistic aspect of the
structure. Four elaborately carved Toranas (gateways) were added during the Satavahana dynasty in the
1st century BCE. These toranas are adorned with intricate bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the Buddha's
life and Jataka tales, showcasing the artistic excellence of the period.

Rediscovery and Restoration

• Rediscovered by British officer Henry Taylor in 1818. Formal excavations began in 1851 under Alexan-
der Cunningham. In 1989, Sanchi was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

6.13. {Sites} Harappan civilisation

 In 1924, John Marshall, then-Director General of the ASI, announced the discovery of the “civilisation
of the Indus Valley” in “The Illustrated London News”.
• The Harappan civilisation spread across modern Pakistan, northwest India, and Afghanistan, with key
sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira.

Characteristics
• Urban Planning: Harappans designed well-organized cities with grid layouts, advanced drainage sys-
tems, and standardised bricks.
• Craftsmanship: They produced intricate seals, pottery, and jewellery, notably unique steatite seals with
animal motifs and undeciphered script.
• Trade Networks: The civilisation engaged in extensive trade, as evidenced by artefacts made of lapis
lazuli and carnelian from distant regions.

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Enigmas
• Undeciphered Language: The Indus script has 400-600 symbols and remains undeciphered due to the
absence of bilingual inscriptions.

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• Spiritual Practices: Understanding of Harappan religious beliefs is limited. Seals show possible deities,
but the lack of temples renders much uncertain.
• Causes of Collapse: The decline of the Harappan civilisation around 1900 BCE is debated, with unclear
factors including climate change, tectonic activity, resource overexploitation, and invasions.
• Extent of Trade: Evidence shows trade with Mesopotamia and other regions, but the details of commod-
ities exchanged and their impact on Harappan society remain unclear.

Rakhigarhi
• Location: Hisar, Haryana, near Ghaggar river, in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain.
• Dates back about 6500 BCE as part of the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization.
Dholavira
• Located on Khadir bet island in the Kachchh Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kachchh.
• Also known locally as Kotada Timba, the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Ha-
rappan city. One of the two largest Harappan sites in India and 5th largest in the subcontinent.
• The city was fortified and had elaborate defence systems, a citadel, gateways, streets, castles, and houses
that were made of stones.
• Dholavira has one of the world’s earliest water conservation systems ever excavated.

6.14. {Sites} Harappan site at Padta Bet (Kutch) *

• Location: Small hillock locally called Padta Bet near Khatiya village (Kutch, Gujarat).
• Period: 3,200 BCE to 2,600 BCE.

Findings
• Structural remains: Remains of a circular structure and other rectangular structures of varying sizes,
made of locally available sandstone and shales.
• Harappan Ceramics: Belonging to Early Harappan, Classical Harappan, and Late Harappan types.
• Novel ceramics: Reflects the presence of local pottery traditions different from Harappans.
• Animal bone remains: Cattle, sheep, or goat, and edible shell fragments indicate that the inhabitants
domesticated animals and exploited shellfish.
• Artefacts: Semi-precious stone beads made of carnelian and agate, terracotta spindle whorls, copper,
lithic tools, cores and debitage, grinding stones, and hammer stones.

Juna Khatiya Site

• Earlier, another Harappan burial site was discovered near Padta Bet, Kutch, Gujrat.

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• Largest Harappan burial site in India, with numerous graves, even predating Dholavira.
• The absence of habitation near Juna Khatiya makes it unique.
It has features similar to those of excavations from early Harappan sites in Sindh and Balochistan.

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•

Field Discovery Award

• Conferred by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences of Shanghai University.
• Rajesh S V was conferred with the award at the fifth Shanghai Archaeology Forum (SAF), China.
• Given for his discovery of the Juna Khatiya Harappan site.
• His was the only entry from India in the discovery segment.

6.15. {Sites} Jyotirmath and Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham

• The Centre approved the Uttarakhand government’s proposal for renaming the Joshimath tehsil (Cha-
moli) to Jyotirmath and the Kosiyakutoli tehsil (Nainital) to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham tehsil.
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Jyotirmath
 While “Jyotirmath” was used in a more formal or religious context, “Joshimath” became the more com-
monly used name as recorded in British records.
• One of the four cardinal mathas (monasteries) that 8th century philosopher Adi Shankaracharya is be-
lieved to have established across India to promote the Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
• ‘Jyoti’ means divine light of knowledge he is said to have attained.
• Home of the oldest tree of India, Amar Kalpavriksha (Adi Shankaracharya performed penance under it).

From Kosiyakutoli to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham

• “Kosi” river flows through the Nainital district. “Kutoli” means village or settlement.
• Neem Karoli Baba founded the Kainchi Dham Ashram here in 1962. He is a renowned Hindu guru and
saint. He passed away in 1973. He is revered for his teachings on bhakti yoga and devotion to God.

6.16. {Sites} Keeladi Excavation

• Location: Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu near Madurai. Vaigai River flows near it.

Findings
• Existence of urban civilisation in Sangam-age Tamil Nadu.
• Presence of a pottery-making industry with pot sheds having Brahmi inscriptions.
• Weaving industry, dyeing industry, and glass industry are believed to exist.
• Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, and bangles were also found.
• No evidence of religious observance is found.

6.17. {Sites} Megaliths & Megalithic Culture *

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• A stone carving of a snake from the megalithic period was found in Kasaragod (Kerala).

The Megalithic Period (1000 BCE to Second Century BCE)

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• In South India, the neolithic phase was followed by the Megalithic phase. People during this period are
known primarily for their graves (megaliths) rather than their actual settlements, which are rare.
• The Megalithic phase began around 1000 BCE and continued until the second century BCE. In many
regions, it lasted from the fifth to the first century BCE.
• However, in certain areas, this phase persisted even as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.
• Megalithic Burials: The Megalithic people encircled the megalith by stone boulders to mark burial sites.
They placed a single large stone standing on the ground to indicate that there were burials beneath.
• Grave Goods: Generally, the dead were buried with distinctive pots, including red ware, but Black and
Red Ware were the most popular. The graves also contain tools and weapons of iron and sometimes,
skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments of stone and gold. Tridents, which later came to
 be associated with Shiva, have also been found in the megaliths. Tools used for fighting and hunting are
larger in number as compared to agricultural tools, indicating that megalithic people did not practice
an advanced type of agriculture.
• Regional Variations: The megalithic people in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu buried the skeletons
of the dead in urns made of red pottery in pits. The practice of urn burial was different from that of pit-
burial or cist-burial (rectangular box made of stone slabs) surrounded by stone circles which prevailed in
the Krishna Godavari valley.
1. Pit burial: The dead remains were placed in a pit.
2. Cist burial: dead remains were placed rectangular box made of stone slabs.
3. Urn burial: A terracotta urn was placed in a pit. Urn was used to hold the bodies of the dead.
• The practice of erecting megaliths was prevalent throughout the Deccan, south India, in the north-east
and Kashmir. However, their concentration seems to be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.

Important Megalithic Sites

• Karnataka: Maski, Hallur, Piklihal, Hanamsagar and Brahmagiri
• Tamil Nadu: Adichanallur and Perumbair
• Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunakonda, Gallapalli and Amravati.
• Kerala: Kuttoor, Ramavarmapuram, Mangadu, Nagaparamba, Pulimattu, Tengakkal, Muthukar, Peria
Kanal and Machad
• Maharashtra: Junapani (near Nagpur)

6.18. {Sites} Nalanda University *

• Nalanda University was inaugurated in Rajgir (Bihar) near the ancient Nalanda monastery ruins.

‘Reviving’ Nalanda

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• Then President APJ Abdul Kalam was the first to officially propose ‘reviving’ Nalanda in 2006 as a
Bodhgaya Nalanda Indo-Asian Institute of Learning.

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• Endorsed at the 2007 East Asia Summit in Mandaue, the Philippines.
• Established through a joint effort of 17 countries other than India: Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Zealand, Portugal, Singapore,
South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.
• Parliament's Nalanda University Act 2010 accorded it “national importance” status.
• First Chancellor: Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen. First Visitor: Former President Pranab Mukherjee.

Nalanda Mahavira
• Mahavira, in Sanskrit/Pali, means ‘great monastery’. Active from the fifth to the thirteenth century CE.
• As per 7th century Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang or Xuanzang, the local tradition explains that the name
Nalanda came from a nāga (serpent deity) whose name was Nalanda.
• Abundance of nālas (lotus stalks) in the area  Nalanda would then represent the giver of lotus stalks.
• Founder: Shakraditya (Kumaragupta I of the Gupta dynasty) as per a discovered seal.
• Other patrons post-Gupta period: Harsha (Siladitya) of the Kannuaj and Pala rulers.
• Subjects taught: All Buddhist schools and other faiths. Under Silabhadra, Nalanda also taught the Vedas,
Hindu philosophy, logic, grammar and medicine.
• Candidates of other faiths who succeeded in passing a strict oral examination were admitted.
• A strict code of conduct, including daily meditation and study sessions, was mandatory for students.
• Destroyed in 1193 by Turkish ruler Qutbuddin Aibak's general Bakhtiyar Khilji.
• Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan-Hamilton rediscovered it in 1812. In 1861, Sir Alexander Cunning-
ham identified it as an ancient university.
• Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016.

6.19. {Sites} New Findings at Lothal

• A new study confirmed the existence of a dockyard at Lothal, Gujarat, during the Harappan Civilisation.
It also revealed that the Sabarmati River flowed by Lothal during the Harappan Civilisation.

Lothal

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• Lothal is the world’s oldest known artificial dock and only Harappan port town located along the
Bhogava River, a tributary of Sabarmati.
• Location: Bhal region of Gujarat near the Gulf of Khambat.
• It was discovered by S.R. Rao in 1954. Lothal in Gujarati means ‘the mound of the dead’.
• Other important features of Lothal include an acropolis, bead factory, warehouses, and drainage system.
• The town is divided into two parts, like most Harappan sites, the citadel and the lower town.
• The site has been nominated to be enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Key Highlights of Lothal

• Artefacts and Trade Links: Excavations revealed bead necklaces (amethyst), axes and fish hooks, and
Mesopotamian-style seals, indicating strong trade links with Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia.
• Decline: Frequent flooding and changes in Sabarmati River's course might have disrupted its maritime
connections, leading to the decline and transformation into an unplanned settlement around 2000 BCE.
• National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC): Under construction in Lothal alongwith Vietnam, to
showcase India’s 4500-year-old maritime legacy, featuring a Lighthouse Museum and 5D theatre.

6.20. {Sites} Paigah tombs of Hyderabad

• They were a noble family who accompanied Aurangzeb during his conquest of the Deccan region.
• Founder: Shams-ul-Umra I, known as Nawaz Abul Fatah Khan Tegh, established the House of Paigah.
• Matrimonial Alliances: Their ties with the Nizams were strengthened through strategic marriages.
• Palaces: The Paigahs constructed several notable palaces in Hyderabad, Such as Falaknuma Palace, As-
man Garh Palace, Khursheed Jah Devdi, Vicar-ul-Umarahi Palace.

Historical Importance
• The Paigahs, who married the daughters of the Nizams, were the highest-ranking nobles in the
princely state of Hyderabad, second only to the Nizams.
• They were the only noble family permitted by the Sultan to maintain a private army.

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About the Paigah Tombs Complex
• Also known as Maqhbara Shams al-Umara. They are the final resting places of the Paigah nobility.
The tombs are a prime example of Indo-Saracenic architecture, blending Asaf Jah and Rajputani styles.

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•
• Built of white marble, the tombs feature intricately designed interiors. The structures are decorated with
stucco work, representing Mughal, Greek, Persian, Asaf Jahi, Rajasthani, and Deccani styles.
• The famous ‘Jali’ work adds to the tombs’ allure. Each tomb is uniquely designed with a distinct style.
• Stucco, a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water, is used as a decorative coating
for walls and ceilings and a sculptural and artistic material in architecture.
 The Department of Heritage Telangana and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) are handling
the project to restore the necropolis of one of Hyderabad’s most powerful noble families. The US Ambas-
sadors Fund for Cultural Preservation is helping to conserve six of the 14 monuments.

6.21. {Sites} Rajgir

• Rajgir, also known as ‘Grivraja’, is revered in Buddhist and Jain scriptures and finds notable mention in
the Mahabharata. It is located 60 miles southeast of Patna, the present capital of Bihar.
• The city is fortified by the hills of the Barabar range. The Barabar range is home to India's four oldest
rock-cut caves, believed to have been built during the Mauryan empire.
• Gautam Buddha is believed to have given many sermons. Lord Mahavira had lived here for some time.
• The first Buddhist Council took place in Rajgir within the Saptaparni Cave.
• It served as the capital of the Magadh empire from the time of Mahabharata to 5th century BC.

Places of significance in Rajgir

• Vishwa Shanti Stupa: The Japanese constructed it atop Ratnagiri hill, 400 m above sea level.
• Saptparni Cave: It is the source of Rajgir Hot water springs, which have curative properties and are con-
sidered sacred by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains.
• Maniyar Math: Built in the Gupta Period, it is a mysterious place of worship believed to be dedicated to
Naga Shilbhadra and has also been a Buddhist stupa sometime in the past.
• Gridhra-Kuta (vulture’s peak): It was a cherished spot for meditation and delivering sermons by Buddha.

6.22. {Sites} Relation between Vedic people and Harappans

• Research is going on to establish a link between Vedic people and Harappan people.

Suggesting links between the two

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• Excavations at Rakhigarhi found evidence of ritual platforms and fire altars. Fire worship is also men-
tioned in Rigvedic texts.
• Two sets of historians locate the origin of the Vedas in two different periods. One set dates it to between
1,500 BC and 2,000 BC, while another dates it farther back to 2,500 BC or 4,500 years ago.
• This would coincide with the age of the genetic evidence from the erstwhile Harappan woman’s bone
samples tested at the Rakhigarhi site.
• The Saraswati River is recorded at least 71 times in the Rigvedic text. The majority of Harappan set-
tlements were along its banks.

Saraswati
• Currently, it is called the Ghagghar-Hakra river and flows only during the monsoon season.
• Originates from Shivaliks & flows through Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan before entering Pakistan.
• The Indian part of the river is named the Ghagghar, while the one in Pakistan is the Hakra.
• Also, Rigvedic texts do not mention the use of iron, which makes them different from 2,400-year-old
settlements near the Ganga Basin and the Deccan region. Mentioned in later vedic text as Krishna Ayas.
• A set of animal bones from the Surkotada region of Kutch, Gujarat, are debated to be either of a proper
domesticated horse or of a wild ass.
• Those who believe that the Harappans and Rigvedic people are the same cite that the animal bones are
that of a horse, as horses are mentioned in Rigvedic texts.
• However, those historians who date the Rigveda to after 2,000 BC believe that the animal bones were
that of a wild ass as domesticated horses only came to India after 1,800 BC from central Asia.
• Researchers had extracted DNA from the well-preserved petrous bone remains of a female skeleton (ex-
cavated from Rakhigarhi) dated to 4,600 years ago. The skeleton was not comparable to the Steppe or
Iranian population, leading to the hypothesis that Harappans were indigenous.

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 NCERT recently made a major addition to the Class 12 History textbook, Themes in Indian History
Part 1 in the chapter, ‘Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation’, based on DNA evidence from

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the 4,600-year old remains of a woman, indicating that the Harappans were an indigenous people.

6.23. {Sites} Silk Road *

• Archaeologists unearthed two medieval cities, Tugunbulak and Tashbulak, in Uzbekistan, challenging
the traditional understanding of the Silk Road.
 In 2013, China introduced the “Belt and Road Initiative” to revive these routes, aiming to enhance con-
nectivity with over 60 countries across Asia, Europe, and East Africa.

Silk Road (Silk route)

• It was an ancient web of trade routes stretching from China (East) to the Mediterranean Sea (West).
• Zhang Qian is credited as the "Father of the Silk Road" for his pioneering expedition.
• It facilitated trade in goods, including silk, spices, gold and gemstones, across various civilisations.

Trade Routes of the Silk Road

Source: The Writing Catalogue

• Northern Route: Popularised under Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BC), this route benefited from impe-
rial protection against nomadic threats, facilitating safe passage for merchants across Central Asia.

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• Southern Route (Karakoram route): Passed through the Karakoram mountains. Stretched into Af-
ghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, India, and China.

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• Southwestern Route: Traversed the Ganges Delta between China and India. Served as various global
items, including Roman beads and gemstones from Thailand and Java.
 Buddhism spread from India to China and Central Asia along the northern branch of the Silk Road.

Decline of Original Silk Road

• Rise of Sea Trade: European powers' development of faster maritime routes during the Age of Explo-
ration reduced the need for long, hazardous overland journeys.
• Political Instability: The collapse of the Mongol Empire, which had secured and maintained many sec-
tions of the Silk Road, led to increased danger and instability, discouraging trade.
• Spread of Diseases: The Black Death (plague) and other epidemics travelled along the Silk Road, de-
creasing trade and movement across borders.
Silk Road and India

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Source: Into Far Lands
• The four corridors link India to the Ancient Silk Roads:

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 Tibetan Plateau to Sravasti (Uttar Pradesh)
 Western Nepal to Ganges Valley (Northern India)
 Karakoram Route through Western Himalayas
 Ganges Route from Delhi to Chandraketugarh (West Bengal)

Silk Road Sites in India

• There are 12 such places in India. These are spread across seven states in India: Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir,
Maharashtra, Puducherry, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
• These sites are on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

6.24. {Sites} Vadnagar

❖ Excavation led by the ASI found evidence of a cultural continuity in Vadnagar (Gujarat).
• Unpublished radiocarbon dates indicate its potential age around 1400 BCE, which aligns with the late
phase of the post-urban Harappan period.
• Makes it the oldest living city within a single fortification uncovered in India.
• Dark Age: Period between Indus Valley Civilisation's collapse and the emergence of the Iron Age.
• Earliest archaeological record: Rock inscription of Ashoka at Sudarsana Lake, Girnar Hill, Gujarat.

Findings from Vadnagar

• Multireligious: Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Islam.
Multicultural: Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, Hindu-Solankis, Sultanate-Mughal, and Gaekwad-
British colonial rule.
• Evidence of cultural continuity contemporary with late-Vedic or pre-Buddhist Mahajanapadas.
• Archaeological Discoveries: Pottery, copper, gold, silver, and iron objects, and bangles.
• Includes coin moulds from Indo-Greek rule featuring Greek king Appollodatus.

6.25. {Tribe} Khiamniungan Tribe

 The Nagaland Tourism Department has formally apologised for omitting the Khiamniungan Tribe’s
name in the Heritage Guide Map displayed during the Hornbill Festival 2024.
• The Khiamniungan tribe is one of the major tribes among the Nagas, inhabited in India and Myanmar.
• The nomenclature of the tribe ‘ Khiamniungan’ is a compound word formed by three words: ‘Khiam’
means water, ‘Niu’ means great and ‘Ngan’ means source. Thus, Khiamniungan means ‘source of great
water or river’.
• Festivals of Khiamniungan tribe
 Tsokum: Celebrated in September or the first part of October, invokes blessings for a rich harvest. It

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includes dancing, singing, cleaning, road repair, and outdoor cooking and eating.
 Khaotzao Sey Hok-ah sumai: Marks the end of all agricultural activities for the year. It is a time to
rest and thank God for a bountiful harvest and triumph over adversities throughout the year.

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 Miu: The Khiamniungan people traditionally practised jhum cultivation (slash and burn agriculture)
and celebrated the Miu festival at the time of sowing. They offer prayers for a good harvest.
• Language: Patsho Khiamniungan. Music Instrument: Log Drum.

-------- End of Chapter --------

 7. Art and Culture – Religion

7.1. {Religion} Abhidhamma Divas *

• International Abhidhamma Divas was celebrated by Ministry of Culture in association with the Interna-
tional Buddhist Confederation (IBC).
• It commemorates the descent of Lord Buddha from the celestial realm of the thirty-three divine beings
(Tāvatiṃsa-devaloka) to Sankassiya, known today as Sankisa Basantapur in Uttar Pradesh.
• The place is documented by the Aśokan Elephant Pillar, signifying the importance of the place of event.
• It coincides with the end of the first Rainy Retreat (Vassa) and the Pavāraņā festival, a time when monks
and nuns conclude their retreat period with a ceremony.

Teachings of Abhidhamma
• The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the third part of the Pāli Canon. It contains the profound moral psychology
and philosophy of the Buddha’s teaching, in contrast to the simpler discourses in the Sutta Piṭaka and
the rules and regulations in the Vinaya Piṭaka.
• Comprised of seven books, the Abhidhamma teachings offer a detailed framework for understanding the
nature of existence. They address the processes of birth, death, and mental phenomena.
• Traditionally, it is believed that Buddha first taught the Abhidhamma to the gods in the Tavatimsa heaven
and later conveyed these teachings to his disciple Sariputta, who expanded upon them in the six core
books of the Abhidhamma Piñaka.
 The Pali Canon contains the Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monastics) and the Sutta Pitaka (discourses of
the Buddha and his principal disciples).

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7.2. {Religion} Akal Takht

• The Akal Takht, the supreme temporal seat of the Sikhs, imposed religious punishment on the former

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deputy CM of Punjab and President of the Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) for the alleged misrule of the SAD
government from 2007 to 2017.

Establishment of the Akal Takht

• Foundation: It was established by the sixth Sikh master, Guru Hargobind, in 1606 following the exe-
cution of his father, Guru Arjan Dev, by the Mughals.
• Purpose: Guru Hargobind used this platform for governance and issued the first directive (Hukam-
nama) from here, urging Sikh congregations to contribute horses and weapons to the Panth.
• Focal Point: After the execution of Banda Singh Bahadur in 1716, the Akal Takht became the focal point
for Sikhs during periods of persecution. Sikhs gathered here on Baisakhi and Diwali for Sarbat Khalsa
assemblies to make important decisions.
• Symbolism: The Guru requested two swords, one shorter symbolising miri (temporal power) and one
longer symbolising piri (spirituality), indicating the primacy of spiritual authority over temporal power.
• Defiance: The Akal Takht symbolised Sikh defiance of Mughal authority, with its 12-foot-high platform
challenging Emperor Jahangir's 11-foot-high throne.
• Historical Assemblies: Maharaja Ranjit Singh convened one of the last assemblies in 1805 to deliberate
on supporting the Maratha prince of Indore, Jaswant Rao Holkar, against the British.

Appointment of the Jathedar

• Authority: The Jathedar of the Akal Takht is the supreme temporal and religious authority of the Sikhs.
• Criteria: The Jathedar must be baptised, possess a deep knowledge of Sikh history and scriptures, and
be free from moral shortcomings.
• Initial Phase: Initially, the Sarbat Khalsa appointed the Akal Takht Jathedar during annual congregations.
After British control, the Darbar Sahib committee controlled the appointments.
• SGPC Role: Following the Sikh Gurdwaras Act of 1925, the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee
(SGPC) began appointing the Jathedar.

Religious Punishment by the Akal Takht

• Tankhah: The term "tankhah" refers to a penalty imposed on a Sikh who has violated the Rehat Mar-
yada, which is the Sikh code of conduct. It involves performing extra prayers (Bani), performing Seva
(selfless service), making public apologies, or undertaking pilgrimages.
• Justice: Any Sikh can be summoned to the Akal Takht, tried, and sentenced. It applies only to those who
voluntarily submit to its authority, aiming to remove ego and instil humility.

7.3. {Religion} Bhagwan Mahavir Nirvan Mahotsav

 2550th Bhagwan Mahaveer Nirvan Mahotsav at Bharat Mandapam on Mahaveer Jayanti was innaugrated.

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Kalyanaks
• Jains celebrate five Kalyanaks (major life events) of every Tirthankar.

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• These are Chyavana/Garbha (Conception) Kalyanak; Janma (Birth) Kalyanak; Diksha (Renunciation) Kal-
yanak; Kevaljnana (Omniscience) Kalyanak and Nirvana (Liberation/Ultimate Salvation) Kalyanak.
• The precise locations of all the five Kalyanaks of Bhagwan Mahavir are disputed.
• However, it is broadly agreed that Bhagwan Mahavir attained Nirvana at Pawapuri in Bihar.

7.4. {Religion} India displaying Lord Buddha relics in Thailand

• AA category relics aim to promote the Buddhist circuit and strengthen cultural ties with Thailand.
 The ‘AA’ category denotes a special classification assigned to certain artefacts or relics based
on their rarity and delicate nature.
• Previously exhibited in countries such as Sri Lanka, Mongolia, Singapore, South Korea, and Thailand.
 Buddha’s Life and Enlightenment
• Born as Siddhartha, renounced worldly pleasures at the age of 29 to seek salvation.
• Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree to become “Gautama Buddha”.
• Travelled for forty-five years, taught his Saddharma, and organised Sanghas (Followers’ group).

Distribution of the Sacred Relics

• Mahaparinirvana (passed away) at the age of 80 in Kushinagar; his body was cremated.
• Brahmin priest Dhona of Kushinagar collected the holy relics from the funeral pyre.
• Sacred relics were commemorated in eight different stupas and two later stupas over the urn.
• These stupas, known as Saririka-stupas, are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
• Emperor Ashoka (circa 272–232 BCE), a devoted Buddhist, opened seven of the eight stupas.

What is the Buddhist Circuit?

• Route that follows the footsteps of the Buddha from Lumbini in Nepal (Birthplace), through Bihar in
India (enlightenment), to Sarnath (First sermon) and Kushinagar(death) in Uttar Pradesh.
• Announced by the central government in 2016, under the Ministry of Tourism Swadesh Darshan
scheme, undertaken in 21 states to be India’s first trans-national tourist circuit.

Swadesh Darshan Scheme

• A 100% centrally funded scheme launched by the Ministry of Tourism in 2014-15 to develop theme-
based tourist circuits in the country.

7.5. {Religion} Lingayats

 Panchamasali Lingayats, a sub-caste of Karnataka’s Lingayat community, seeks OBC reservations.

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• Lingayats are followers of Basavanna, a 12th-century philosopher-saint.
• They reject the caste system and Vedic rituals and worship only one God, Linga (Shiva).
• Despite officially being classified as Hindu sub-caste 'Veerashaiva Lingayats, they have distanced them-

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selves from Hindu Veerashaivas because the latter support the Vedas and the caste system.

Basavanna (Basavesvara)
• Basavesvara was an Indian philosopher, poet, and social reformer who founded the Lingayat sect. He
led a radical anti-caste movement that rejected orthodox ritualistic Hindu practices.
• Beliefs: principles of Arivu (true knowledge), Achara (right conduct), and Anubhava (divine experi-
ence), integrating bhakti (devotion), jnana (knowledge), and kriya (action) in a well-balanced manner.

7.6. {Religion} Matua Sect

Origin of Matua sect

• Established by Harichand Thakur, comprising Namashudras, or so-called "Dalits," at Orakandi, Bangla-
desh, in the mid-19th century.
• Originated as a reform movement around 1860 CE questioning the practices of Brahminism.

Harichand Thakur (1812 – 1878)

• Born in the Gopalganj District of Bangladesh (erstwhile Bengal Presidency).
• After the "Atma Darshan", he was regarded as a God possessing magical capabilities.

Teaching and belief system

• Preached belief in humanity. All customary practices are pointless and distractions from God.
• Three guiding principles: Truth, Love, and Sanity. Emphasised education as a way of social upliftment.
• Salvation is only through "Harinaam" chanting and belief in Swayam-Dikshiti (Self-Realization).

Twelve Directives of Matua Sect

• Harichand preached, “ Have a Shree Hariparameshwar temple at your residence and a temple of pure
ideas in your heart,” among other directives.

Matua’s in India
• Millions of Matuas migrated to India after the 1947 partition and the 1971 war.
• Pramatha Ranjan Thakur (grandson of Harichand) founded the town of Thakurnagar in West Bengal for
migrant Matuas. Later, it became the headquarters of All-India Matua Mahasangha.
• At the annual fair in Thakurnagar, Matuas offer prayers to Harichand Thakur and his wife, Shanti Devi.

7.7. {Religion} Matua Sect

Origin of Matua sect

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• Established by Harichand Thakur, comprising Namashudras, or so-called "Dalits," at Orakandi, Bangla-
desh, in the mid-19th century.
• Originated as a reform movement around 1860 CE questioning the practices of Brahminism.

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Harichand Thakur (1812 – 1878)
• Born in the Gopalganj District of Bangladesh (erstwhile Bengal Presidency).
• After the "Atma Darshan", he was regarded as a God possessing magical capabilities.

Teaching and belief system

• Preached belief in humanity. All customary practices are pointless and distractions from God.
• Three guiding principles: Truth, Love, Sanity. Emphasised education as way of social upliftment.
• Salvation is only through "Harinaam" chanting and belief in Swayam-Dikshiti (Self-Realization).

Twelve Directives of Matua Sect

• Harichand preached, “ Have a Shree Hariparameshwar temple at your residence and a temple of pure
ideas in your heart,” among other directives.

Matua’s in India
• Millions of Matuas migrated to India after the 1947 partition and the 1971 war.
• Pramatha Ranjan Thakur (grandson of Harichand) founded the town of Thakurnagar in West Bengal for
migrant Matuas. Later, it became the headquarters of All-India Matua Mahasangha.
• At annual fair in Thakurnagar, Matuas offer prayers to Harichand Thakur and his wife, Shanti Devi.

7.8. {Religion} Mudras in Buddhism | Abhaya Mudra *

Mudras in Buddhism
• Visual depictions of the Buddha (Buddharupa). Different gestures convey different moods and mean-
ings, symbolising Buddha's enlightened State.
• The earliest Buddharupa depictions featured four mudras:
 Abhaya mudra: Gesture of fearlessness/protection/ granting refuge.
 Bhumisparsha mudra: Earth-touching gesture.
 Dharmachakra mudra: Gesture of the wheel of dharma.
 Dhyana mudra: Gesture of meditation.

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Abhaya Mudra
• Right palm facing outward at shoulder height, fingers pointing up. In some cases, both hands may
simultaneously be raised in this posture in a “double Abhaya mudra”.
• Associated with Buddha after Enlightenment, signifying a sense of security, serenity, and compassion
derived from enlightenment. It also represents the gesture of fearlessness.
• Also appeared in Hindu art, Buddha himself absorbed as god Vishnu's 9th avatar.

7.9. {Religion} Separate Religious Code for Sarna Religion

• Demand of Separate religious code for not yet officially recognised Sarna religion (West Bengal).
• 'Sarna' from 'Sar' in Mundari language means a grove of Sal trees. Followed by Munda, Oraon, Kharia, &
Santhals worshipping 'Dharti Aayo' (Mother Earth) and sacred groves (Sarna Sthal or Jaher).
• Components: Jal (water), Jungle (forest), Zameen (land) | Oral tradition| No centralised book.

7.10. {Religion} Warkari Sect

• Part of Hindu culture in Maharashtra since it emerged as a ‘Panth’ during the Bhakti Movement in the
13th century CE.
• The term ‘warkari’ is a combination of two words: "war" (short for "wari") meaning "pilgrimage," and "kari"
meaning person who performs the pilgrimage.
• It is a non-Brahmanical tradition that worships Lord Vitthal or Vithoba (deity of Pandharpur), which is
seen as a form of Vishnu or Krishna.
• They chant the name of the Lord (nam japa), sing abhangs (holy song), and read haripath (sacred text),.
• They conduct their annual pilgrimage known as ‘wari’ on the auspicious occasion of Ashadi Ekadashi.
• Tukaram, Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath, and Dnyaneshwar are among the saints and gurus of the bhakti
movement associated with the Warkaris, and they are all given the dignified title of ‘Sant.’
• Warkaris are strict Vegetarians. They wear a mala, or rosary, around their neck made of Tulasi beads.
• Warkaris travel in groups, regardless of caste & creed. Practice Brahmacharya throughout student life.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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 8. Indian History

8.1. {AH – Dynasty} Badami Chalukya Temples discovered

 Location: Mudimanikyam village along the banks of River Krishna in Nalgonda district, Telangana.
• Exceptional as are of Kadamba Nagara style in the Rekha Nagara format.
• Label inscription dates back 8th or 9th century AD (Badami Chalukya period), reads as ‘Gandaloranru’
and is inscribed on a pillar of a group of five temples in the village.

Chalukya Dynasty
• Period: 6th and 12th century.
• 3 dynasties of Chalukyas ruled individually: 1. Badami 2. Vengi/ Eastern 3. Kalyani/ Western

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Chalukyas of Badami
• Established by: Pulakesin I (Adopted title: Vallabheshvara, performed Ashvamedha).
• Capital: Badami or Vatapi.
• Succeeded by Kirtivarman I (566-597). Defeated Mauryas of North-Konkana, Nalas of Nalavadi (Bellari)
and Kadambas of Banavasi.
• Pulakesin II defeated Harsha of Kanauj on the banks of the Narmada.
 Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription: Victory of Pulakesin II over Harsha. Title of Parameshvara.
 Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese traveller, visited the court of Pulakesin II.
• The Pallava King Narasimhavarman I (A.D. 630-668) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about 642
A.D., when Pulakesin II was probably killed in fight against the Pallavas.
• Replaced by the Rashtrakutas in about 750 CE. Rashtrakuta feudatory Dantidurga gave a final blow and
defeated the Chalukyan king Kirtivarman II.

Art & Architecture

• Built between 450 and 700, in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.
• Rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole.
• Aihole: Durga temple, Ladh Khan temple, Meguti temple, Hucchimalli and Huccappayya temples.

Land Governance & Polity

• Maharashtrakas (provinces) > Rashtrakas (Mandala) > Vishaya (district) > Bhoga (group of ten villages)
> Dasagrama unit of Kadambas. Local assemblies looked after local issues.
• Mahajanas (learned brahmins), looked after agraharas (like Ghatika or place of higher learning).

Society
• The Hindu caste system appeared, and the government recognized prostitution.

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• Sati may have been absent as widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records.
• Women enjoyed political power in the administration. Queens Vijayanka, a noted Sanskrit poetess;

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Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya; and Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II who
fought wars, stand as three examples.

Religion
• Followed Vedic Hinduism.
• Later inclination towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas existed.
• Actively encouraged Jainism. Buddhism had begun a decline.

Coinage
• Nagari and Kannada legends. Symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right, and lotus.
• Four gram coins = honnu (Now Hana =Money ) in old Kannada and fractions such as fana.
8.2. {AH – Sites} Stone Age

• Stone Age — a long prehistoric period characterised by the use of stone tools by humans— might as
accurately be described as the ‘Wood Age’.
• Around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schöningen, Germany,
indicated that these were not simply “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools.”
• Suggests that systematic hunting, involving foresight, planning and the use of appropriate technology,
was part of the behavioural repertoire of pre-modern hominids.
• In the 19th century, Danish archaeologists devised the first scientifically rigorous periodisation of human
prehistory into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and finally, the Iron Age.

Stone Age

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• The Stone Age is a period in prehistory that lasted from around 3.4 million to 12,000 years ago.
 In technical terms, human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing.
 Everything before that is ‘prehistory’, studied primarily using archaeological evidence, alt-

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hough ethnographic research (study of human cultures and communities) can also provide im-
portant insights.
• Called the Stone Age because it is characterised by when early humans started using stones, such as flint,
for tools and weapons. They also used stones to light fires.
• Marks the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherers to the beginnings of agriculture, animal domestica-
tion and the use of tools.

Three Stages of the Stone Age

• Lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before the Present), comprises 99% of human history.
• 3 divisions: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
Palaeolithic Period
• From the first use of stone until the end of the last Ice Age, between 2.5 million and 10,000 years ago.
• Palaeolithic humans were hunters and gatherers and had a nomadic lifestyle. Lived in small groups and
used caves or forests for shelter. Simple tools out of stone and made cave paintings.

Mesolithic Period
• ‘Middle Stone Age’ lasted from the end of the last Ice Age until the beginning of farming.
• Climate started to warm up, early farming developed, and people started to raise animals as livestock.

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• Sophisticated Stone tools, the invention of the prepared-core technique, which allowed early humans to
create lots of similarly-shaped tools from the same stone.

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Neolithic Period
• From the start of farming until the first use of metal (which was the beginning of the Bronze Age).
• Marked by the domestication of animals, the advent of agriculture and pottery/textiles.
• Shift from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle (staying in one place and creating a settlement).

8.3. {MH – Dynasty} Kakatiya Dynasty

Attribute Details
Capital Orugallu (Warangal)
Common Languages Telugu, Sanskrit, Kannada
Religion Hinduism
 Government Monarchy
Preceded By Eastern Chalukyas
Succeeded By Western Chalukya Empire, Reddi Kingdom, Musunuri Nayakas, Delhi Sultanate,
Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire

Characteristics of Kakatiya Architecture

• Elaborate Pillars and Sculptures: Intricately carved pillars and sculptures often depicting deities, myth-
ical creatures, and scenes from Hindu epics.

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• Star-Shaped Platforms: Many temples were built on raised star-shaped platforms.
• Use of Granite and Sandstone: Robust materials like granite and sandstone were extensively used, en-
suring the longevity and resilience of their structures.

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List of Temples built by Kakatiyas
Temple Name Dedicated To Significance
Thousand Pillar Temple Lord Shiva, Vishnu, It is known for its architectural grandeur and star-
Surya shaped structure.
Padmakshi Temple Goddess Padmakshi Famous for its Jain influence and Kakatiya-era carv-
ings.
Inavolu Mallikarjuna Lord Shiva One of the early Kakatiya temples is known for its
Swamy Temple cultural importance.

8.4. {MH – Dynasty} Surpur Empire

 Viragallu (hero stones) memorial stones commemorate the deaths of heroes in battle.
• Also known as the Shorapur Principality, was a state in present-day Yadgir district, Karnataka.
• Rulers: Ruled by the Nayak Dynasty, with Raja Venkatappa Nayak as the last ruler.

History
• The Bedars, a community whose name means "hunter" in Kannada, became the rulers of Surpur after
the fall of Vijayanagara.
• Raja Venkatappa Nayak led a rebellion against the British East India Company in 1857, refusing to
accept their sovereignty.
• The British captured the city of Surpur, and Raja Venkatappa Nayak was forced to flee to Hyderabad.
• Palace: An example of the superior architecture of the Nayak reign. It features fine wooden work, stone
carving, and plasterwork.
• Surpur paintings are a type of miniature art that is now largely no longer produced.

8.5. {MH – Dynasty} Taxation During Cholas **

• Stone inscriptions in temple walls of Tamil Nadu detail the land surveys conducted by Cholas. Tax as-
sessments were conducted periodically and collected through local grandees.
• Rajakulavar (lordly families) avoided tax by donating lands to religious institutions or appointing their
dependents as cultivators.

Chola Dynasty (9th – 12th century AD)

• Cholas dynasty established their kingdom in the 9th century after defeating the Pallavas.
• Vijayalaya was the founder of Chola Empire. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas.
• Vijaylaya captured Tanjore in the 8th century, and this led to the establishment of the Chola Empire.
• Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are the most celebrated Chola rulers.

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• Their rule lasted till the Pandyas defeated them in the early 13th century.
• Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.

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Types of lands
• Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmin farmers (Taxed).
• Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas (Tax exempted).
• Shalabhoga: Land for school (Tax exempted).
• Devadana, Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples (Tax exempted).
• Pallichchhandam: Land for Jain institutions (Tax exempted).

Related Terms
• Puravuvari-tinaikkalam: Department of land revenue.
• Naduvagaiseykira: The surveyors of the land from the landholding communities.
• Ur: General assembly of the village.
• Urar: Landholders in the village who played a crucial role in village administration.

Important Taxes
• Kudimai: Primary source of revenue collected from cultivators as rent.
• Opati: Levied and collected by the king and local chiefs.
• Iraikattina-nellu: Tax paid in kind (paddy or rice).
• Vetti: A form of forced labour where people had to work for the king or landlords without pay.
• Eriayam tax: Collected by village assemblies for maintenance and repair of irrigation tanks.
Read More > Administration of Cholas I Kudavolai Electoral System.

8.6. {MIH – Events} 100 years of Vaikom Satyagraha

 Non-violent agitation in Vaikom, Travancore, began on March 30, 1924 (100 years), marking the start of
temple entry movements in India, and sustained itself for over 600 days.
 Introduced Gandhian protest methods to Travancore.

History of Temple-Entry Movement in Travancore (1860-1940)

Context of Early 20th Century Travancore
• Feudal and custom-ridden government system with caste-based discrimination barred lower castes from
temples and surrounding roads (a classic example of the Purity & Pollution notion).
• Conversion of so-called “lower caste” individuals by Christian missionaries and free primary education by
Maharaja Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma improved conditions.
• However, government jobs remained reserved for “upper castes”.

Role of T.K. Madhavan

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• Ezhavas (considered avarna Hindus) emerged as an educated elite in the early 20th century.
• T.K. Madhavan, an Ezhava leader, initiated the temple entry issue in 1917 and advocated for direct

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action inspired by Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement (1920).
• “Upper caste” opposition and Maharaja's reluctance hindered progress till Congress’s intervention.
 In 1915, T.K. Madhavan started a weekly called Desabhimani. TK Narayanan was editor.

Entry of the Indian National Congress (INC)

• Madhavan met Gandhi in 1921 and gained his support for a mass agitation to enter temples.
• Kakinada session (1923): Kerala Provincial Congress Committee passed a resolution to address untouch-
ability  Led to a campaign to open Hindu temples and public roads to “lower castes”.

Launch of Vaikom Satyagraha

• Vaikom: First site for satyagraha. The initial focus was on opening roads around the temple for all.
• Protesters attempted to use forbidden roads daily from March 30 to April 10, 1924, resulting in arrests.
Subsequently, they engaged in peaceful protests, fasting, and singing until September.
• Leaders like Periyar and C. Rajagopalachari participated and offered support.
• In August 1924, the Maharaja of Travancore died, following which the young Maharani Regent, Queen
Sethulakshmi Bai, released all prisoners.

Outcomes
• After the Maharaja's death, a compromise was reached in March 1925, allowing access to three out of
four roads surrounding the temple.
• November 1925: Diversionary roads were opened for “lower castes”, officially ending the satyagraha.
• Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936: Removed caste-based bans on temple entry.

Related Facts
• The Akalis from Punjab travelled to Vaikom to supply food to the protesters.
• Mahatma Gandhi insisted  Should be a local protest. So, couldn’t be a pan-India movement.
• Few “upper castes” like Mannathu Padmanabhan supported.
• Sanchara resolution in Assembly:
 Allowing free entry to the streets around the temple. Higher cates supported it.
 However, defeated by a single vote due to traditionalists and indirect pressure of govt.

8.7. {MIH – Events} 131 years of Pietermaritzburg incident

Pietermaritzburg incident
• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi arrived in South Africa on 24 May 1893 to attend to a legal matter of

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Durban-based merchant Dada Abdullah Jhaveri.
• The incident occurred in 1893 when a railway official demanded Gandhiji shift from his “whites-only”
first-class compartment to a third-class compartment.

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• He mentioned the incident as “symptom of the deep disease of colour prejudice” in his autobiography.

Gandhiji in South Africa

Resistance by Natal Indian Congress (NIC)
• First of the Indian Congresses to be formed. Established in 1894 by Mahatma Gandhi.
• To resist a bill by the Natal Legislative Assembly to disenfranchise the Indians.
• Within a month, a monster petition bearing 10,000 signatures was presented to Lord Ripon, Colonial
Secretary, and the agitation compelled the British Government to disallow the Bill.
• However, in 1896, the Bill finally became law. The act did not mention the Indians but merely disqualified
those who were not of European origin.
Support in Boer wars
• Gandhi founded an Ambulance Corps in support of the British in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902.
• He thought that support for the British would translate into better conditions for Indians in Transvaal.
• He founded the Transvaal British Indian Association in 1903 in Johannesburg.
• The British-Boer understanding after the War led to further restrictions on Indians in Transvaal.

Phoenix farm
• English artist John Ruskin's book Unto This Last inspired Gandhi to set up Phoenix Farm near Durban.
• Gandhi trained his cadres on non-violent Satyagraha or peaceful restraint here.
• Phoenix Farm is considered the birthplace of Satyagraha. However, it was at Tolstoy Farm, Gandhi's
second camp in South Africa, that Satyagraha was moulded into a weapon of protest.

Satyagraha
• ‘Satya’ (truth) and ‘agraha’ (insistence or truth-force), and its practitioners are called Satyagrahis.
• It was his newspaper weekly ‘Indian Opinion’ through which the word Satyagraha was coined.
 Competition was conducted, inviting readers to suggest a name for the passive resistance
campaigns.

8.8. {MIH – Events} Civil Disobedience Movement in Tamil Nadu *

 Gandhi’s associate, C. Rajagopalachari, led the Civil Disobedience Movement in Tamil Nadu.
• Rajaji commenced the Satyagraha on April 13, 1930. It was accompanied by the song "Kathiyindri,
rathamindri, yudham ondru varugudhu" by poet Namakkal V. Ramalingam Pillai.
• Led Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam march. Sardar Vedaratnam Pillai, a salt merchant and Gandhian,
influenced Rajaji's choice of Vedaranyam over Tuticorin for the march.

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• Women, including Rukmini Laxmipathi and Sucheta Kripalani, participated in the march.

C. Rajagopalachari

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• Agitated against the Rowlett Act, the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha,
and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Opposed and eventually dissociated himself from the Quit India Movement.
• Gandhiji called Rajaji the keeper of my conscience.
• Elected to the Constituent Assembly from Madras and served as last Governor-General of
India.
• Served as Tamil Nadu’s Chief Minister from 1952 to 1954. His decision to make Hindi a man-
datory language in schools drew heavy criticism. Conferred with the Bharat Ratna (1954).
 • Formed Swatantra Party in reaction to the Indian National Congress's increasingly socialist
and statist outlook. Swatantra stood for a market-based economy and the dismantling of the
Licence Raj.
• Members of the Swatantra party included Minoo Masani, N.G. Ranga, Darshan Singh
Pheruman, Udham Singh Nagoke & K.M. Munshi.
• Dissolved two years after the death of Rajagopalachari in 1972.

Sucheta Kripalani
• Elected to the Constituent Assembly from the United Provinces.
• Member of the Flag Presentation Committee. Actively participated in the 1942 Quit India.
• Accompanied Gandhi to Bengal during the Indian partition riots. Served as a Secretary to the
Relief and Rehabilitation Committee set up by the Congress Party.
• Authored Sucheta: An Unfinished Autobiography.

8.9. {MIH – Events} Kharsawan Massacre (Jharkhand) 1948 *

• Separate tribal state demand in 1912 after the Bengal partition into the Bihar and Orissa Provinces.
• Issues: Heavy taxation, poor education, civil and political rights, anger against British and Non-tribals.
• Simon Commission acknowledged the distinct nature of the region in 1930.
• Adivasi Mahasabha (1938) by Jaipal Singh Munda protested as part of the Praja Mandal movement.
• Adivasis of Kharsawan, opposed merger in Orissa after accession to the Union of India.
• Kharsawan massacre 1948: Orissa military police fired on protest a gathering (similar to Jaliawalan).

Congress and Prajamandal Movement

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• Against Princes in princely states for democratic power.
• Nagpur session of 1920: Congress supported but no direct involvement.
• All-India States People’s Conference: 1st session Bombay(1927). JL Nehru as President in 1935.

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• Congress Lucknow session(1936): Demand for self-determination rights in princely states like the rest
of India. Haripura Session of 1938: Extension of demand of Purna Swaraj. Tripuri Session 1939: Full-
fledged involvement in princely states’ movements.
• Quit India Movement, Congress formally extended the call for struggle to the people of states.

8.10. {MIH – Events} Perungamanallur Massacre

• Perungamanallur is a village in the Madurai district of Tamil Nadu.

The Massacre
• On April 3, 1920, 16 persons from the Piramalai Kallar community were shot dead, and many others
were tortured under detention for their opposition to the Criminal Tribes Act of 1911.
• The Black pillar with a burning torch on top in Perungamanallur now stands as a symbol of resistance
against the coloniser and his draconian law.
• Britishers used fingerprinting under the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) to resist.
• The CTA was initially enacted in 1871, and the Act was repealed after Independence.

8.11. {MIH – Events} Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission

• The Ramakrishna Movement is a Hindu spiritual movement inspired by the teachings of Sri Rama-
krishna (1836–1886), a mystic saint from Bengal, India.
• These are twin organisations of the Ramakrishna Movement or the Vedanta Movement.
• HQ: Belur Math on the bank of river Ganga in West Bengal.
• Ramakrishna Mission is a registered society engaged in the service of mankind, founded by Swami
Vivekananda (1863-1902). On the other hand, Ramakrishna Math is an Order of sannyasins.
• Propagates the Hindu philosophy of Vedanta (Advaita Vedanta) and four yogic ideals – Jnana, Bhakti,
Karma, and Raja yoga.

Advaita Vedanta
• Adi Shankara proposed the theory of Advaita.
• Philosophy of Advaita
 The individual soul (called Atman) is not different from Ultimate Reality (called Brahman).
 There is only one essential principle called Brahman and everything else is a kind of expression
of that one Brahman i.e. Atman is Brahman.
 Our ignorance makes us feel very separate from Ultimate.
 Because of this theory of one being, his teachings became popular as the Advaita (non-dual).

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8.12. {MIH – Events} Shaheed Diwas

 Observed on March 23. Death anniversary of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, and S. Rajguru.

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• On this day in 1931, they were hanged to death in Lahore’s Central Jail for the murder of British police
officer John Saunders.

Bhagat Singh
• Born on September 28, 1907, in Banga, Punjab (British India).
• His father was Kishen Singh Sandhu, and his mother was Vidyavati.
• Deeply influenced by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the freedom struggle.
• Joined Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) and became a vocal critic of Britishers.

Sukhdev Thapar
• Born on May 15, 1907, in Ludhiana, Punjab, British India (now part of Punjab, India).
• Belonged to a Punjabi Khatri family and was raised by his uncle after his father’s death.
• Revolutionary Activities:
 Member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) & Naujawan Bharat Sabha.
 Participated in a prison hunger strike in 1929.
 Notably involved in the Lahore Conspiracy Case (1929–1930).
 Assassination of Assistant Superintendent of Police J. P. Saunders on December 17, 1928, as retaliation
for the death of senior leader Lala Lajpat Rai.

Shivaram Rajguru
• Born on August 24, 1908, in Khed (near Pune), Maharashtra.
• Hailed from a Marathi Deshastha Brahmin family.
• Revolutionary Activities:
 Active member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
 Participated in the assassination of British police officer John Saunders in Lahore.

Legacy
• His birthplace, Khed, was renamed Rajgurunagar in his honor.
• Rajguru Wada (his ancestral house) is maintained as a memorial.

8.13. {MIH – Events} The Battle of Saragarhi

 September 12th, 2024 marks the 127th anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi (1897).

Historical Significance of Saragarhi

• Saragarhi was a communication post between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan, located in the rugged
terrain of the North West Frontier Province (now in Pakistan). Both forts, originally built by Maharaja

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Ranjit Singh, were strategically important for the British military.

The Battle Unfolds

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• The tribal army aimed to isolate Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan by severing the communication lines
between them. Despite being heavily outnumbered and with limited ammunition, the Sikh soldiers, led
by Havildar Ishar Singh, chose to stand their ground rather than surrender.
• Naik Lal Singh, though severely wounded, continued firing from his bed, and Daad, the non-combatant,
killed five enemies before being overpowered.
• The battle delayed the tribal advance, allowing British forces to regroup.
 Havildar Ishar Singh was born in a village near Jagraon and joined the Punjab Frontier Force
in his teens. He later became part of the 36th Sikh regiment and, by his early 40s, was entrusted
with the independent command of Saragarhi. He was a brilliant battlefield commander.
  Daad, the 22nd man at Saragarhi, was a Pashtun sweeper who fought bravely alongside the
Sikh soldiers but received no official recognition. Today, he is remembered as part of the
Saragarhi legacy.
• Queen Victoria awarded the Indian Order of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross) posthumously to
the 21 Sikh soldiers. Each soldier's family received two 'marabas' (50 acres) of land and 500 rupees.

8.14. {MIH – Events} The Indian National Flag *

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• Officially adopted on July 22, 1947; initially designed by Pingali Venkayya.

• The saffron symbolises strength and courage, while white represents peace and truth. The green colour
denotes fertility and growth.
• Ashoka Chakra: Navy blue wheel with 24 spokes, representing the eternal nature of law and order.
• Ratio: Rectangular with a 3:2 length-to-width ratio.
• Consisted of three stripes: red, white & green, representing multiple communities living in harmony..

Historical Milestones
• 1906: First flag hoisted in Kolkata, featuring red, yellow, and green stripes with Vande Mataram.
• 1907: Madame Cama's group hoisted an Indian flag in Germany.
• 1917: Annie Besant and Tilak introduced a flag with red and green stripes and a Union Jack.
• 1931: Congress adopted the design by Venkayya, adding saffron (earlier red) and the Ashoka Chakra.

Legal Aspects
• The Flag Code of India (2002) governs its display and use.
• Article 51A (a) mandates respect for the flag and anthem.
• Under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, offences related to the flag or anthem result
in a 6-year election disqualification.

8.15. {MIH – Freedom Struggle} Provisional Governments in British India

Azad Hind Government

• By Subhas Chandra Bose in Singapore on October 21, 1943.
• Functionaries: Bose- Head of State and held foreign affairs & war portfolios; A C Chatterjee -finance;
S A Ayer - publicity & propaganda; Lakshmi Swaminathan - women’s affairs.
• Territory claimed: Indian territory occupied by Japanese forces, de jure control over the Andaman and

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Nicobar islands in 1943. However, de facto military control remained with Japan.
• Citizenship: Indians living in Southeast Asia (expatriates in Malaya) pledged allegiance to it.
• Recognised by: Axis powers and their satellites including Germany, Japan, Italy, Croatia, China, Thailand,

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Burma, Manchuria, and the Philippines.
• Immediately after its formation, it declared war on Britain and the United States.

Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj

• 1942: Formation of Indian Independence League and idea of INA emerged.

• Formed initially under Mohan Singh and Japanese Major Iwaichi Fujiwara with Indian pris-
oners of war of the British-Indian Army.
• Later, in 1943, Subash Chandra Bose became the President of IIL and ed INA and gave the
call of "Chalo Dilli" and "tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe Azadi dunga".
Kabul Provisional Government
• 1st Provisional Govt. was formed in Kabul by Indian Independence Committee (IIC) in 1915.
• During World War I, Indian nationalists abroad (Germany and US), revolutionaries and Pan-Islamists
wanted to further freedom struggle with aid from the Central Powers.
• The IIC, with the help of the Ottoman Caliph and the Germans, tried to incite insurrection in India, mainly
among Muslim tribes in Kashmir and British India’s northwestern frontier.
• Functionaries: President: Raja Mahendra Pratap and PM: Maulana Barkatullah.
 Barkatullah was also one of the founders of the Ghadar movement, which began in California in 1913
and, along with Lala Har Dayal, aimed to overthrow British rule in India.

Shortcomings to calling them a government

• After the World Wars (in which the British emerged victorious), this support vanished.
• Both these governments never controlled Indian territory.
• The Kabul government was a government only on paper until its dissolution in 1919.

8.16. {MIH – Movements} 100 years of Self-Respect Movement (SRM) **

 2024 marks the start of the hundredth year of the Self-Respect Movement.
• The SRM founded in 1925 by E. V. Ramasamy (Periyar), was a continuation of the attempt to secularise
and modernise the Tamizh society that began with the Dravidian Movement.
• The movement being called ‘Suyamariyathai’ or Self-Respect symbolises that ‘Maanam’ or honour is a
basic human instinct distinguishing humans from other animals.
• Periyar identified the notion of self-respect with three other important concepts:
1. ‘Samathuvam’ (Equality)

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2. ‘Suthanthiram’ (Freedom)
3. ‘Samadharmam’ (Communism)
• The movement challenged the ideological hegemony of the Indian Independence struggle by demanding

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that equality between sexes and eradicating caste be put on an equal footing with national liberation.
 Sept has been celebrated as ‘Dravidian Month’ to commemorate the Dravidian Movement.

Contribution
• The Movement introduced and popularised self-respect marriages, which removed the necessity for
Brahmin priests and religious rituals that were not conducted in Sanskrit.
 Self-respect marriages were enacted into law in 1967.
• The movement advocated for women’s liberation from oppressive social norms by championing causes
such as widow remarriage, the right to divorce, the right to property, and even abortion. It granted
women autonomy, equality and dignity, symbolising a break from tradition.
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• It criticised ancient texts that degraded women and actively promoted contraception as a means of
empowering women to control their bodies.
• It was pivotal in its promotion of inter-caste marriages, which was seen as a push-back to the patriarchal
forces controlling the choice of partner and marriage.

Critique
• The Movement prioritised social reform over political independence. Though it was not opposed to
independence, it warned of a replacement of British rulers with elite Hindu caste groups.

Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy ‘Periyar’

• Born in 1879 in Erode (Tamil Nadu). Started as a Congress worker.
• Differences with Gandhiji over question of separate dining for Brahmin & non-Brahmin students.
• Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924: To demand the right to use a public path in front of the Vaikom temple for
all castes. Referred to as Vaikom Veerar (Hero of Vaikom).
• He resigned from the Congress party in 1925 and joined the Justice Party.
• Periyar supported the British, hoping that the British would, in turn, support his demand for Dravidstan,
a separate country for "Dravidians."
• Organised Self-Respect Movement, which opposed the dominance of Brahmins.
• Periyar launched the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) party in the 1940s, which espoused an independent
Dravida Nadu comprising Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, and Kannada speakers.
• Social reforms: His reform agenda focused on social, cultural, and gender inequalities and questioned
matters of faith, gender, and tradition.
• His extreme anti-Brahmin stand brought him into controversy.
• Revered as Thanthai Periyar (meaning Elder), the father of the Dravidian Movement.

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• His birth anniversary is celebrated as 'Social Justice Day' in Tamil Nadu.

8.17. {MIH – Movements} 100 Years of the Communist Party of India

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 CPI celebrates its centenary, reflecting on its role in India’s independence struggle, social movements
and defence of constitutional values against contemporary challenges.

Role in Freedom Struggle

• Foundation and Early Efforts: Established in 1925, CPI emerged to represent workers, peasants, women
and marginalised groups.
• Poorna Swaraj Demand: First to demand complete independence, influencing leaders like Gandhi,
Nehru and Bose.
• Constituent Assembly Advocacy: Advocated for a sovereign Constituent Assembly and a people-centric
political order, reflected in the Preamble’s “We, the People of India.”
• Resistance to British Colonialism: Faced persecution in cases like Kanpur, Meerut and Peshawar con-
spiracies but upheld people's causes.

Ideological Contributions
 Social Justice Focus: Addressed caste, patriarchy, and inequality alongside anti-colonial efforts.
 Condemnation of Untouchability: Opposed oppressive practices, with M Singaravelu denouncing un-
touchability at the Kanpur Conference.
 Inclusive Membership: Prohibited members of communal organisations, emphasising secularism.
 Mobilising Masses: Led revolutionary groups like All India Trade Union Congress, Kisan Sabha and Pro-
gressive Writers’ Association.
 Land and Workers’ Rights: Advocated for land reforms and workers' rights in Constituent Assembly
debates and movements like Telangana Rebellion exemplified CPI’s commitment to grassroots mobili-
sation for social justice.

8.18. {MIH – Movements} Alwar Peasant Movement & Neemuchana Massacre

Social Fabric of Alwar State: Relation between Court and the Rajputs
• The princely state of Alwar in Rajasthan came into existence shortly before the arrival of the British.
• Rajput states like Alwar followed a system that fell between absolute monarchy and republic. In this
system, the monarch and his fellow clan retainers shared a symbiotic relationship.
• The monarch was accountable to the clan retainers (were farmer-soldiers), on whose military labour he
always depended. The clan brothers often kept a check on the absolute powers of the monarch.
• In Alwar, the number of Rajput jagirdars was not much, and the jagirs were also small.
• The majority of the land holdings (“Khalsa”) were cultivated by peasants called Biswedars.
• However, the Biswedars were not granted permanent ownership of their lands and they could be

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easily evicted for the non-payment of taxes.

Background of the movement

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• British agents moulded the culture and administrative system of the Rajput states along the lines of the
European aristocracy, ending the court's dependence on the common Rajput jagirdars and Biswedars.
• Land settlement policy of 1923–24: State confiscated Biswedari rights of Rajput farmers and raised tax
rates to 50%. However, court reserved right to force Rajputs for compulsory military service.
• Additionally, concessions were granted to other non-martial castes, especially Brahmins, without the
Alwar court extracting any notable service from them.
• The policy led to resentment among the Rajput farmers and Biswedars of Thanagaji and Bansur tehsil
unitedly decided not to pay tax at the new rates and to agitate against it.
• The court confiscated the crops of those Biswedars who did not pay the exorbitant taxes, which the Raj-
puts got rid of by force.
• The Rajputs, thus, started collecting swords, spears, guns, etc., to fight the injustice done to them.
• Govind Singh and Madho Singh organised the Akhil Bhartiya Kshatriya Mahasabha.

Course of the movement

• On 13 May 1925, the Alwar state army surrounded the Neemuchana village from all sides and asked
the agitating Rajput farmers to end the movement.
• On the morning of May 14, the army closed all the roads and started firing indiscriminately with machine
guns on the village without any warning. They burnt the village to ashes.

Consequences
• Alwar court was forced to withdraw its decision and pay compensation to families of the deceased.
• Gandhiij described it ‘more vicious than Jallianwala Bagh’ incident and termed it a dual dictatorship.

8.19. {MIH – Movements} Kittur Rebellion *

 The Department of Posts issued a Commemorative Stamp to mark 200 Years of Kittur Vijayotsava,
marking Rani Chennamma’s victory against British rule in 1824
• Rani Chennamma was born in 1778 in the small village of Kakati in Karnataka. She was brave and well-
trained in horse riding, sword fighting and archery.
• She was the second wife of Mallasarja of the Desai family, the rulers of Kittur. However, after her son
died in 1824, she adopted Shivalingappa, making him heir to the throne.
• However, the East India Company refused to recognise Shivalingappa as the kingdom's successor under
the ‘doctrine of lapse’. Under the doctrine, any princely state without a natural heir would collapse and
be annexed by the Company, and the Britishers launched an attack on Kittur in October 1824.
• The Kittur army, under Rani Chennamma, retaliated, opened tremendous fire, and emerged victorious.

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• However, this victory was short-lived. On December 3, 1824, the British army attacked the Kittur Fort and
captured it. Rani Chennamma and her family were imprisoned, where she died in 1829.

8.20. {MIH – Movements} Ram Mandir Movement

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 There are very few chances of asking in UPSC; however, we can not ignore the possibility of
asking for factual information. So just scroll through once.

Evolution of Movement
Medieval Period
• Maratha demand of Ayodhya, Kashi and Mathura from the Nawab of Awadh in 1751 and 1756. Later,
subsided with defeat in the third battle of Panipat (1761).

British Period
• First judicial submission: Hafizullah in Faridabad court (1822) presence of a mosque built by Babar on
the birthplace of Lord Ram, near Sita Rasoi.
• Hanumangarhi Riots (1855): Major General GD Outram reported a clash between Hindus led by Naga
Sadhus and Bairagis and Muslims led by Shah Ghulam Hussein".
• 1856 Attack by Amir Ali Amethawi recorded in Hadiga-I-Shuhuda, written by Mirza Jan.
• Court petition (1886) by Mahant Raghubar Das to build a Ram Chabutra in the complex was declined.

Post Independence Period

• Faizabad administration reported (1949) that the land belonged to the government.
• Hindu Mahasabha Resolution 1949: 'liberation' of Ram Janmabhoomi at Ayodhya, Krishna Janmab-
hoomi at Mathura and Vishwanath at Kashi.
• As per Liberhan Commission Abhiram Das placed Ram lalla idol in mosque in 1949.
• Then PM Jawahar Lal Nehru directed removal of idol, but District magistrates and local MLAs declined.
• Vishwa Hindu Parishad Dharma Sansad 1984 reiterated formed "Ram Janmabhoomi Mukti Yagna
Samiti" for the “liberation”.
• February 1986: All-India Muslim Personal Board meeting in Delhi urged support.
• February 3, 1986: Hashim Ansari (On behalf of the Sunni Waqf Board) moved to Allahabad High Court
against the Faizabad court decision seeking possession of Babri mosque.
• December 1986: Faizabad district judge KM Pandey permitted Hindus to offer prayers therein.
• December 1986: All-India Babri Masjid Conference led by Syed Shahabuddin, created Babri Masjid
Movement Coordination Committee (BMMCC).
• Shilanyas movement 1989: By VHP, gathering consecrated bricks (Ram Shila) from all over the country.
• Palampur resolution 1989: Called for a negotiated settlement or legislation without court interference.
• Rath Yatra 1990 from Somnath to Ayodhya, violence and police killings at many places.

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• Demolition Day 1992: A mob demolished the Babri Masjid, and the UP government was dismissed.
• Acquisition of Certain Areas at Ayodhya Act 1993 authorised govt. to acquire the disputed land.
Presidential reference under Article 143 (1): To determine the old status of the temple was also raised.

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•
• Justice Liberhan Commission Report 2009 found many leaders guilty in Babri demolition.
• Allahabad High Court Judgement 2010: It divided land in a 2:1 ratio to Shri Ram Lala Virajman and
Nirmohi Akhara and Sunni Central Waqf Board, respectively. Later, it was challenged in SC.
• Supreme Court Judgement 2019: Five-judge bench unanimously awarded the entire disputed land to
Hindu petitioners with direction to allot alternate land for the mosque.
• Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra Trust was formed to carry out the construction.

8.21. {MIH – Movements} Santhal Hul *

 Hul Diwas (June 30) in Jharkhand marks the anniversary of the 1855 Santal rebellion.
Santhal Hul
Causes of Uprising
• Revenue Policies: After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the East India Company (EIC) implemented revenue
policies and law-and-order rules to control India.
• Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, landlords
had perpetual land rights if they paid fixed revenue to the British.
• Impact on Santhals: Tribal lands were auctioned when peasants couldn't pay rent, leading to a loss of
control over land and traditional systems.
• Damin-i-Koh (1832): EIC demarcated this area for Santhals, promising non-interference.
• Rising Rent: Increased demands from the British led to exorbitant rents.
• Economic Strain: Santhals, using the barter system, faced cash payment issues, leading to borrowing at
high interest rates from moneylenders.

Rebellion
• On June 30, 1855, the Santhal revolt (Hul revolt) began, led by Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav, and their
sisters Phulo and Jhano.
• Santhals formed troops, including farmers and women, capturing parts of Rajmahal Hills, Bhagalpur,
and Birbhum. Over 10,000 Santhals militarised, destroying storehouses and disrupting communication.
• With landlord support, the British used heavy weapons to suppress the revolt. Sidhu and Kanhu were
arrested, and the rebellion ended in 1856.

Outcome
• It was brutally repressed, and the movement ended with the suppression of the Santhals.
• The Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act of 1876 prohibits the transfer of Adivasi lands to non-Adivasis, en-

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suring that land can only be inherited, thus maintaining Santhal self-governance over their land.
• The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, stemming from the Birsa Movement, restricts the sale of
Adivasi and Dalit lands.

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8.22. {MIH – Movements} Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC)

• The SGPC is the apex governing body of all Sikh gurdwaras in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and the
Union Territory of Chandigarh. Established in 1920 in Amritsar, the SGPC initially aimed to administer
the Darbar Sahib and other historically significant gurdwaras.
• In the 19th century, Punjab, under British control, experienced a rise in Christian missionary activities and
the influence of the Arya Samaj movement. In response, the Singh Sabha movement emerged within
the Sikh community to combat the perceived "degradation of Sikh thought and principles".
• Despite these movements, control of the Darbar Sahib and other gurdwaras remained with powerful
mahants (priests), who had tacit support from the British.
• These mahants treated the gurdwaras as personal fiefdoms, encouraging practices that violated Sikh
tenets, such as idol worship and discrimination.
• The SGPC was established to replace the unpopular mahants and ensure Sikh gurdwaras were gov-
erned according to Sikh religious principles. After its creation, the SGPC faced resistance, often leading
to violent confrontations, but it eventually gained control of many gurdwaras.
• The British passed the Gurdwaras Act of 1925, legally recognising the SGPC and turning it into a dem-
ocratic body for the governance of Sikh gurdwaras.
 The Gurdwara Election Commission (GEC) is a statutory body under the 1925 Act. The Un-
ion Home Ministry appoints the Chairman and coordinates elections with the Punjab govern-
ment.

8.23. {MIH – Organisation} All India Muslim League

 All India Muslim League (AIML) completed 118 years.

• In pursuit of their divide-and-rule policy, the British authorities encouraged the aristocratic elements to
establish political power to safeguard the separate interests of Muslims.
• Founded in 1906 in Dhaka (present-day Bangladesh) under the leadership of the Aga Khan (the First
President of AIML), the Nawab of Dacca, Khwaja sali mullah Bahadur, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
• At its founding, the League was mostly a collective of elite Muslim men. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who
joined the League in 1913, was then in Congress.

Significant events involving Muslim League

Strained Relations Between Muslims and the Government
• After the Morley-Minto Reforms, the gulf between the Muslims and the government has become stead-

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ily wider. This was because:
 Revocation of Partition of Bengal in 1911.
 The government rejected establishing the University of Aligarh in 1912.

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 Refusal of Britain to help Turkey in the Italian and Balkan Wars.

Lucknow Pact, 1916

• In December 1916, the Congress under Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Muslim League under Muhammad
Ali Jinnah signed the Lucknow Pact. Both parties demanded further constitutional reforms as a step
towards self-government.
• The pact called for more Indians in the provincial and central legislatures and the central and provincial
executive council. The Congress agreed to separate electorates.

Delhi Proposals (1927)

• Members of AIML decided to give up separate electorates (agreed to joint electorates) if their four
proposals were accepted:
 The Separation of Sind from the Bombay Presidency.
 Reforms in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.
 One-third seats for the Muslims in the Central Legislature.
 Representation based on population in the Punjab and Bengal (Muslim-majority provinces).

Division within AIML (1927)

• Later, some of the members of AIML opposed the joint electorates for Muslims. This led to the division
of AIML into two groups in 1927:
 Those who supported the joint electorates were led by Jinnah (known as Jinnah League).
 Those who opposed the joint electorates were led by Sir Muhammad Shafi (Shafi League).

Lahore Resolution (1940)

• During its general session in Lahore (1940), the AIML passed a resolution (Pakistan resolution) demand-
ing a measure of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the subcontinent.
• March 23 is observed as Pakistan National Day to commemorate this resolution.
• The resolution also demanded that in other parts of India where the Muslims are a minority, adequate,
effective, and mandatory safeguards shall be specially provided in the constitution for them and other
minorities to protect their religious, cultural and other rights and interests in consultation with them.

8.24. {MIH – Reorganization} Utkala Dibasa

 April 1 is celebrated as Utkala Dibasa. On this day in 1936, a separate Odisha was carved out.
• It is one of two Indian states whose formation date predates Independence (the other is Bihar).

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• Odisha is also the first state in the country to be consciously created on a linguistic basis.

Odisha in Modern History

• By 1760, the British had annexed Northern Circars, comprising the southern coast of Odisha, as a result

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of the Second Carnatic War. Later, it became part of the Madras Presidency.
• After the Marathas were defeated in the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803), the northern and western
districts of Odisha became part of the Bengal Presidency.

Movement for an Odia-speaking state

• In the 19th century, the movement for a separate Odia-speaking state emerged.
• Utkal Sabha was formed in 1882 for the same.
 The region is referred to as Utkal in the Mahabharata.
• In 1903, the still-active Utkal Sammilani was formed under the leadership of Madhusudan Das.
• Formation of Bihar and Orissa Province, 1912: The Bengal Presidency’s non-Bengali-speaking regions
were finally carved out.
• Madhusudan Das also joined the legislature of the united Bihar and Orissa provinces and continued the
statehood movement there.
• Orissa Province was finally created in 1936 due to “administrative & political prudence”.
• Carved out from the existing Bihar & Orissa Province, Madras Province, and Central Province.
• However, 26 princely states, a part of the Eastern States Agency, continued to exist within Orissa Prov-
ince’s borders until Independence.

8.25. {MIH – Revolts} Satnami Community & Satnami Revolt

 The community protested against the desecration of a Jaitkhamb (a structure of sacred importance).
Chattishgarh has the tallest Jatikham in Baloda Bazar district, at the birthplace of Guru Ghasidas.
• The Satnami community was founded in 1657 by Birbhan in Narnaul (present-day Haryana).
• The 15th century Bhakti poet Kabir popularised the expression sat naam (literally “true name”).
• The sect is thought to be an offshoot of the Ravidassia sect, as Udhodas, the guru of Birbhan, was the
disciple of Saint Ravidas. Udhodas was the society's first priest or spiritual guru.
• The Satnamis trace their theological lineage to Guru Ghasidas, an 18th century saint.
• Three principles:
1. Adorn the attire of a Satnami devotee.
2. Earn money through proper means.
3. Do not tolerate any injustice or oppression in any form.
• Emphasises social equality and rejects caste-based discrimination.
• Remnants of earliest satnamis contributed to the formation of another sect, known as Sadhs (i.e., sadhu,

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“good”), in the early 19th century, who also designated their deity as satnam.
 Ravidassia is a tradition based on the teachings of Guru Ravidass. It is a religious sect of the
Sikhism, founded in the 14th century. A member of the Ravidassia sect is called a “Ravidassia”.

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Guru Ghasidas Jaitkham

Revival of Satnamis
• Revived in the mid-eighteenth century in present-day Uttar Pradesh under the leadership of Jagjivandas,
who was influenced by a disciple of the Sufi mystic Yari Shah (1668–1725).
 He projected an image of an overarching creator God as nirguna (“devoid of sensible qualities”), best
worshipped through a regimen of self-discipline and by use of the “satnam” alone.
• The most important Satnami group was founded in 1820 in the Chhattisgarh region by Ghasidas.
 His Satnam Panth (“Path of the True Name”) succeeded in providing a religious and social identity
for large numbers of Chhattisgarhi leather workers.
 Saguna is worship of God with form, and nirguna is worship of God without form.

Satnami Revolt
• Occurred in 1672 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in Narnaul (present-day Haryana).
• Reasons: Revival of Islamic Jiziya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects), banning music & art, and de-
stroying Hindu temples.
• Triggering cause: Mistreatment of a Satnami by a Mughal official.
• Eventually defeated by a larger Mughal army.

8.26. {MIH – Events} Havildar Abdul Hamid *

• Abdul Hamid laid his life down while fighting Pakistan Army’s Patton tanks in the Battle of Asal Uttar.
• Hamid was awarded Param Vir Chakra — India’s highest gallantry award — posthumously.

Battle of Asal Uttar

• Location: Situated in Punjab, Asal Uttar, near the India-Pakistan border.
• Pakistan Army launched an offensive capturing many parts of Khem Karan in September 1965.

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• They aimed to reach the bridge over the Beas River and cut off large areas of Punjab, including Amritsar,
from the rest of India.
• Indian army Lt. Gen Harbaksh Singh advised stout defence of the Asal Uttar road junction.

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• One of the largest tank battles fought during the 1965 India-Pakistan War.
• Hamid was awarded Param Vir Chakra — India’s highest gallantry award — posthumously.

8.27. {WH – Events} 35 years of Tiananmen Square Massacre

• In April 1989, students from universities in Beijing convened in Tiananmen Square to outline a series of
demands focused primarily on political and economic reforms.
• May 1989: As the situation in Beijing grew more intense, martial law was declared.
• June 1989: Heavily armed soldiers and armoured vehicles advanced into the city centre to forcibly
remove the pro-democracy protesters from Tiananmen Square.

Dismantling of Hong Kong Tiananmen Square Memorial 2021

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• The 8-metre "Pillar of Shame" remembered the victims of China’s 1989 Tiananmen Square protests.
• The statue at the University of Hong Kong depicted a mass of torn and twisted bodies in a tall pile.
• Erected in Hong Kong in 1997 during an annual candlelight vigil to commemorate the event.
• Its removal is seen as an attempt to silence the pro-democracy protests.

Hong Kong Protests Against China 2019

• 2019 protests were to oppose the government's plan to allow extradition to mainland China.
• The protest recalled the pro-democracy Umbrella Movement (2014) five years ago.

Pillar of Shame

• It is a series of works by Danish sculptor Jens Galschioet, all the same height and typically
made of bronze, copper and concrete, erected in Hong Kong, Mexico & Brazil to remind of
events of injustice.

Boxer rebellion
• A Chinese secret society initiated the uprising, the Yihetuan (Righteous and Harmonious Fists).
• This group practised a form of martial arts that resembled boxing, at least to Western eyes.
• The 'Boxers' embarked on an armed campaign to drive all foreigners out of China.
• In June 1900, the growing violence forced foreign diplomats, missionaries, soldiers and Chinese Christians
to take refuge in the Legation Quarter of Peking (Beijing) and issue a call for international help.
• An eight-nation alliance quickly dispatched a 20,000-strong international force to help.
• The rebellion officially ended in September 1901 with the signing of the Boxer Protocol.
• The rebellion contributed to the removal of the Qing dynasty in 1911.

8.28. {WH – Events} 50 years of Carnation Revolution in Portugal

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• The Carnation Revolution toppled the longest fascist dictatorship in Europe & ushered in democracy.
• Antonio Oliveira Salazar ruled Portugal from 1932 to 1968, but the regime lasted for another six years
under his successor, Marcelo Caetano, finally crumbling on April 25, 1974.

8.29. {WH – Events} Juneteenth

• Observed on June 19 every year. Juneteenth, a portmanteau of “June” and “nineteenth,” is the oldest
nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States.

History of Juneteenth
• In 1863, US President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring the freedom
of all enslaved people. However, this proclamation did not immediately free all slaves.
• Major General Gordon Granger arrived in Texas and issued General Order No. 3, announcing the end of
slavery in Texas and proclaiming that all enslaved people were free.
• On June 19, 1865, the last enslaved African Americans in the Confederate states were freed.
• In 2021, the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act made Juneteenth a federal holiday.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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 9. Indian Society

9.1. {Issues} Legality of Live in Relationships

• No law specifically addressing live-in relationships.

• Badri Prasad vs. Dy. Director of Consolidation (1978): The live-in relationships in India are legal but
subject to caveats like age of marriage, consent and soundness of mind.
 A long period of cohabitation will assume the couple is legally married unless the reverse is proven.
 The legality of the live-in relationship stems from Article 19 (a) and Article 21 of the IC.
• S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal and Anr (2010): Living together is a right to life protected by Article 21 of
the IC, and thus, despite being considered immoral by society, it is not an offence under the law.
• Velusamy vs. D Patchaimal (2010): The SC established legal criteria for live-in relationships:
1. Must have voluntarily cohabited and held themselves out to the world as being akin to spouses for
a significant period of time.
2. Must be of legal age to marry and otherwise qualified to enter into a legal marriage.

9.2. {Issues} SOFI report

 The UN’s State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report suggests that private invest-
ments, including FDIs, are linked more to rising obesity and non-communicable diseases than to im-
provements in undernutrition.
• A comprehensive annual analysis of global hunger and malnutrition.
• Published jointly by five UN agencies:

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 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD),
 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),

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 UN World Food Programme (WFP), and
 World Health Organization (WHO).

9.3. {Issues} World Inequality Lab

• Based in Paris, focuses on inequality and social, economic & environmental justice research.
• Report: World Inequality Report
• World Inequality Database
 Open-source database, a collaborative effort of over 100 researchers on five continents to access
high-quality wealth and income inequality data.

9.4. {Labour} Central Sector Schemes for Labour Welfare

• Aatmanirbhar Bharat Rojgar Yojana (ABRY), 2020: To incentivise employers for creation of new em-
ployment and restoration of loss of employment during Covid-19 pandemic.
• Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan (PMSYM), 2019: Voluntary contributory scheme with matching
contribution by GoI for old-age social security to unorganized sector workers.
• National Career Service (NCS), 2015: Establish Model Career Centres (MCCs) for Skill Development,
Career Counselling and Job Placement.
• Employees' Pension Scheme (EPS), 1995: Implemented through Employees' Provident Fund Organiza-
tion (EPFO) to give retirement benefit for employees in the organized sector.
 Unorganised worker: Defined under Unorganized Workers' Social Security Act, 2008, as a home
based worker, self-employed worker or a wage worker in the unorganized sector or a worker in organized
sector who is not covered by any of Acts mentioned in Schedule-II of Act.

Employees' Provident Fund Organization (EPFO)

• Statutory body under Ministry of Labour and Employment by Employee Provident Fund and Miscel-
laneous Provision Act, 1952.
• It administers:
 Employees' Provident Fund (EPF)
 Employees' Pension Scheme (EPS).
 Employees' Deposit Linked Insurance (EDLI): This scheme provides life insurance coverage with the
insured amount linked to the employee's provident fund balance.

Employees State Insurance Corporation (ESIC)

• Statutory body under Ministry of Labour and Employment created in 1948 to administer Employees

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State Insurance (ESI) Scheme offered as per the Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948.
• Provides benefits like Disablement Benefit, Maternity Benefit & Medical Benefit.

9.5. {Population} Census in India

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• Article 246 of the Constitution designates the census as a Union subject (entry 69, 7th schedule). The
Census Act of 1948 governs the conduct of the census.
• The 84th Constitution Amendment, 2001, mandates that delimitation should not occur until after the
first Census conducted after 2026.

Preparations and Execution

• States must report changes in administrative units to the Registrar General of India (RGI).
• The Office of the RGI manages the census process under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Administrative unit boundaries are frozen three months before the census. House-listing census is
conducted before the actual population census.
• Information collected is confidential and protected by the Census Act.

9.6. {Population} Decline in China’s Population

• India overtook it as the most populous country in the world in 2023 with China’s TFR (2020 Census)=
1.3 births per woman, way below the replacement rate of 2.1.
⇨ Working-age population: Population between 15 to 59 years, seen as productive in an economy.
⇨ Replacement rate: Number of children per woman to replace in the present generation in the future.
⇨ TFR is the number of children a woman, on average, is expected to bear in her lifetime.

9.7. {Population} PM’s Economic Advisory Council (PMEAC)

• Non-constitutional, non-permanent and independent body to advise to GoI, specifically the PM.
• Established in September 2017 for two years, it replaced the former PMEAC.

Organisation
• A Chairperson chairs the PMEAC, which consists of eminent economists as members.
• It now has a Chairperson, a Member Secretary and two part-time members.
• There is no fixed definition of the exact number of members and staff of the PMEAC.
• NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission to serve as the Nodal Agency for the PMEAC.

9.8. {Population} Super-Aged Society

 South Korea has become a "super-aged" society. 10.24 million people in South Korea are now aged 65
or above, representing 20 % of South Korea's population.
• South Korea is now the second Asian country, after Japan, to become a ‘Super-Aged’ Society.

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• The UN classifies countries with more than 7% of the population 65 or older as an "ageing society," those
with over 14% as an "aged society", and those with more than 20% as a "super-aged" society.
 According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) 2023 data, India's elderly population will exceed

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20% of the total by 2050.

9.9. {Population} 'Women and Men in India 2023' report

 The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) released the 25th issue of its re-
port ‘Women and Men in India 2023’.

Highlights of the report

• Population of India is expected to reach 152.2 Crore by 2036, with female percentage of 48.8% (48.5% in
2011) and sex ratio of 952 (943 in 2011).
• Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) was reduced to 97 (per lakh live births) in 2018-20.
• Decreased Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 28 and made female and male IMR equal in 2020.
• Under 5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) decreased from 43 in 2015 to 32 in 2020.
• Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) has been increasing from 2017-18. Male LFPR increased from 75.8
to 78.5, and female LFPR increased from 23.3 to 37 by 2022-23.

9.10. {Population} UN World Population Prospects Report

 The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-has releasedDESA) releases the World Popula-
tion Prospects Report every two years since 1951.
• The UN report projects a peak in the world population by the mid-2080s, followed by a decline by 2100
due to decreasing fertility rates.
• India's population will continue to grow until the mid-2060s due to population momentum despite
crossing the replacement fertility rate.
 Population momentum is the tendency for a population to continue growing even after fertility rates
decline. It's a result of a population's age structure.

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 10. Personalities in News

10.1. {Personalities} President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

• India celebrates Teachers’ Day annually on September 5, the birth anniversary of former President
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975).

As Philosopher
• Radhakrishnan is credited for shaping Western understanding of Indian philosophy.
• He was a leading proponent of non-dualist Advaita Vedanta tradition in the 20th century.

As Educator
• Radhakrishnan, a respected academic, valued teaching highly and often said, "Teachers should be the
best minds in the country". He developed deep personal bonds with students.
• He served as vice-chancellor of Andhra University and Banaras Hindu University. Held prestigious
King George V Chair at Calcutta University. He also held the Spalding Chair of Eastern Religion and
Ethics at the University of Oxford.

As Statesman
• He was nominated to the League of Nations Committee on Intellectual Cooperation in 1931. Also
represented India at UNESCO. He served as India’s ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1949 to 1952.
• He was elected as the first Vice-President of India (1952) and the second President of India (1962).

Important Awards

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• He was awarded Knighthood in 1931 by King George V.
• He got the Membership of the Order of Merit in 1963 from the UK.
• He was awarded the Bharat Ratna (the highest civilian award) in 1954.

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10.2. {Personalities} Atal Bihari Vajpayee **

• Born on December 25, 1924, in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh.

• In 1939, he became the Swayamsevak (volunteer) in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). In 1944, he
was elected general secretary of the Arya Samaj’s youth branch, Arya Kumar Sabha, in Gwalior.
• He entered national politics during the Quit India Movement of 1942.
• In 1947, Vajpayee started working as a journalist for the newspapers Rashtradharma (a Hindi monthly
by Deendayal Upadhyaya), Panchjanya (a Hindi weekly), and the dailies Swadesh and Veer Arjun.
• Later, influenced by Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Vajpayee joined the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) in 1951.
• He has been elected to the Lok Sabha nine times and to the Rajya Sabha twice. Contesting from New
Delhi, he won the seat and served as External Affairs Minister in the Morarji Desai-led government.
• He was a founding member of the Janata Party in 1977, following the unification of anti-Congress forces
during the Emergency. In 1980, Vajpayee and other BJS leaders established the Bharatiya Janata Party
(BJP) and became its first president.
• Vajpayee faced a no-confidence motion in Parliament (April 15, 1999). He lost by a single vote, leading
to President K.R. Narayanan's dissolution of the Lok Sabha and the establishment of a caretaker govern-
ment, with Vajpayee continuing as Prime Minister.
• He took oath as PM for the first time in 1996 (13 days), Second time in 1998-1999 (13 Months) and Third
time in 1999-2004 (Full term). He was the first non-Congress PM to serve a full term.

Key Achievements and Policies of AB Vajpayee

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• Golden Quadrilateral: A massive highway network project connecting India's major cities, revolutionis-
ing connectivity and boosting economic activity.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Launched to provide free and compulsory education to children aged 6-14 to

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•
improve literacy rates and educational access.
• Delhi-Lahore Bus Service: Initiated to foster peace and improve relations between India and Pakistan.
• Agra Summit: A diplomatic effort to resolve issues between India and Pakistan, though it did not result
in a formal agreement.
• Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests: Conducted in 1998, they established India as a nuclear power and asserted its
strategic autonomy.
• Architect of Coalition Politics (NDA): Successfully led the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), demon-
strating the ability to manage a coalition government.
• Pravasi Bharatiya Divas: It was established in 2003 to celebrate the contributions of the Indian diaspora
and strengthen their connection with India.
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Launched to improve rural road connectivity, enhancing access to
markets, healthcare, and education for rural populations.
• Telecom Revolution: Implemented policies that broke the BSNL monopoly, making telecommunications
more accessible and affordable.
• Kargil War: Managed the Kargil conflict with Pakistan in 1999, ensuring India's territorial integrity and
demonstrating strong leadership.
• Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA): It was enacted in 2002 to strengthen anti-terrorism operations,
though it was repealed in 2004 due to concerns about human rights violations.
• Chandrayaan-1 Mission: In 2003, Vajpayee made announcement Chandrayaan-1 mission. This mission,
which was launched in 2008.

What is a caretaker government?

• Also known as an interim government. It is a temporary administration that assumes power and per-
forms essential functions until a new government is elected or a political crisis is resolved.
• Responsible for the day-to-day operations and ensuring stability during the transitional period.
 Lahore Declaration is an agreement between India and Pakistan to reduce the risk of accidental or
unauthorised use of nuclear weapons.

Awards and Literary contributions

• Poetry Book: Meri Ikyavana Kavitaem, Samvedna – An Album with Jagjit Singh. Sakti Se Santi, Kucha
Lekha, Kucha Bhashana, Rajaniti ki Rapatili Rahem, Back to Square One are other prominent works.
• He was awarded Padma Vibhushan (1992) and India's highest civilian honour Bharat Ratna in 2015.
• Good Governance Day is celebrated annually on December 25th, coinciding with his birth anniversary,

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to honour his contributions to governance and development in India.

10.3. {Personalities} Ayya Vaikundar: The Visionary Reformer

Born in 1809 CE in a poor Nadar family in the village of Poovandan Thoppu, near the town of Tamaraik-

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•
kulam, about five miles from Kanyakumari.
• Founder of the Ayyavazhi sect, primarily in southern Tamil Nadu.
 Shares some concepts with Hinduism, yet differs in its views on good and evil and dharma.
• First person to lead religious and social reform as a people's movement.

Teachings
• Focus on equality, fraternity, and the eradication of caste-based discrimination.
• Did not engage in any religious conversion and spearheaded the reform without distorting the culture of
the communities.
• Organised Samapanthi-bhojana or community eateries for people from all backgrounds.
• Also encouraged all devotees to wear turbans and dhotis, promoting equality.
• Established Nizhal Thangals as community worship spaces, which did not have any idol or deity, and
only Tamil was used for worship.
• Pioneered education for the lower castes and opposed discriminatory taxes.
• Introduced simplified, inclusive marriage customs without a Brahmin priest or Sanskrit mantras.

10.4. {Personalities} Fakir Shah Hussain and Madho Lal

 Love of Sufi saint Fakir Shah Hussain and Brahmin boy Madho Lal, is celebrated during Pride month.
• Hussain (1538-1599) faithfully followed Orthodox Islam but later shifted to believing that the world is an
ephemeral playground.
• Their name is taken as "Madho Lal Hussein", inspired by the Sufi principle of fana.
• The Sufi principle of fana involves a profound love for God, which merges the individual self with the
Divine so that the lover and the Beloved become one.
• Naved Alam (penned the Verses of "Madho Lal Hussein") refers to them as “the Donysius of Punjab”.
• In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus is the god of wine-making, orchards and fruit, vegetation,
fertility, festivity, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, and theatre.
• However, scholars disagree on whether the relationship between the two was a spiritual bond of a
Murshid (spiritual guide) and Murid (novice seeking enlightenment) or “transgressed” beyond it.
• Hussain supported Rai Abdullah Khan Bhatti (Dulla Bhatti), who fought the oppressive tax imposed on
peasants and was hanged by Emperor Akbar.
• Many versions claim that Hussain's sayings were compiled in a secret book, "Baharia," which is now lost.
• Some scholars suggest he encouraged scandalous rumours because he followed the Malamati tradition

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of seeking opprobrium.
• Practitioners of Malamati tradition of opprobrium go out of their way to become disreputable and
eschew the hubris that accompanies fame & acclaim and serves as a barrier between them & the Divine.

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Mela Chiraghan: The festival of lamps
• An annual Urs (death anniversary) in March at the Saint’s shrine near the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore.
• Patrons: Mughals, British, and Sikh emperor Maharaja Ranjit Singh (merged the saint's Urs with the fes-
tival of Basant).
• The festival was said to be celebrated by people coming from Amritsar to Lahore, singing some vulgar
verses called ‘Sakhnia’. Traditionally, the final day of the three-day festival was reserved for women.
• The three-day festival attracts large crowds where devotees sing and dance (called dhamaal) around a
fire in red robes, evoking the image of a Sufi saint as a moth attracted to a Candle’s flame.
• The popularity of the festival declined after Pakistan’s former president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq banned
the playing of dhol and the use of phallic symbols during the celebration.
10.5. {Personalities} Guru Gobind Singh (1667-1708)

● Tenth and last of the human form Gurus of Sikhism.

● Son of Guru Tegh Bahadur (the 9th Guru) and Mata Gujri. Early name: Gobind Das.
● Guru Tegh Bahadur was killed by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1675 for refusing to adopt Islam.
● Takhat Shri Harimander Ji Patna Sahib (Bihar): Birth Place of Guru Gobind Singh Ji.
● Fought twelve battles. Guru’s four sons (Char Sahib Zaday) were killed in campaigns against tyranny.
● Char Sahib Zaday: Baba Ajit Singh, Baba Jujhar Singh, Baba Zorawar Singh, Baba Fateh Singh
● Vichitra Katha: Autobiography of Guru Gobind Singh.
● Veer Bal Diwas marks the martyrdom of Sahibzada Baba Zorawar Singh and Baba Fateh Singh.

Guru Govind Singh’s Contributions

● Divine messenger, a warrior, a poet, and a philosopher and wrote martial poetry & music.
● Guru Granth Sahib and Bhai Mani Singh added verse of Guru Teg Bahadur in Adi Granth (Compiled
by Guru Arjan Dev) to complie Guru Granth Sahib.
● Also credited for the Dasam Granth (Tenth Volume), which consists of sacred hymns.
● Created the Khalsa Order (1699) with the necessity of five Ks.

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● Introduced the “turban” in Sikhism to cover hair.

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● Before dying in 1708, he declared Guru Granth Sahib the permanent Sikh Guru.

10.6. {Personalities} Guru Nanak Dev

 Guru Nanak Jayanti, celebrated on November 15 in 2024, coincided with Kartik Purnima. Also known
as Gurpurab, it marks the birth anniversary of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, the founder of Sikhism.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji (c. 1469–1539 CE)

• Birth: Born in 1469 in Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan).
• Enlightenment: Guru Nanak got his enlightenment in Sultanpur in 1496.
• Founder of Sikhism: Established the Sikh faith, rejecting caste discrimination and advocating for devo-
tion to one formless, all-powerful, and truthful God.
• Rejection of Rituals: Denounced idol worship, pilgrimages, and caste distinctions, promoting a practical,
ethical, and truthful way of life.
• Core Teachings: God is conceptualised as Nirguna (attributeless) and Nirankar (formless).
• Three Pillars of Sikhism
 Nam Japna: Contemplating and chanting the name of one God.
 Kirat Karna: Earning an honest livelihood through righteous work.
 Vand Chhakna: Sharing one’s wealth with others to promote social equality.
• Death: Guru Nanak passed away in 1539 at Kartarpur, Punjab.

Key Aspects of Guru Nanak Dev Ji's Life and Teachings

• Egalitarian Society: Promoted equality through Langar (shared community meal), Pangat (eating to-
gether without discrimination), and Sangat (collective decision-making).
• Oneness of God: Emphasized the message of “Ek Onkar Satnam,” advocating that all are equal.
• Core Values: His teachings centered on forgiveness, patience, kindness, and compassion, essential for
fostering societal harmony.
• Just Society: He advocated "kirat karo" (honest work), "naam japo" (devotion), and "vand chhako" (shar-
ing with others) to create a balanced and responsible community.
• Karma and Dharma: Emphasized that karma (actions) should be the basis of dharma (righteousness),
linking spirituality with social responsibility.
• Charity and Service: Promoted the concept of “dasvandh”, encouraging individuals to donate a tenth
of their earnings to help the needy.
• Gender Equality: Taught that both men and women are equally valued and share God’s grace, advocat-
ing for gender justice.

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• Respect for Women: Stressed that women deserve equal respect and opportunities, a significant teach-
ing in the context of modern gender equality.
• Promoting Peace: Guru Nanak Dev Ji’s philosophy of oneness, compassion, and service offers a pathway

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to peace and social cohesion.
• Spiritual Leadership: As a spiritual guide, he emphasised the role of a Guru in providing illumination,
dispelling doubts, and guiding towards truth.

Sikhism
• Founding and Core Beliefs: Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century.
• God & Soul: Sikhism believes in one God, aiming to reconnect with God by overcoming ego and desires.
• Equality and Social Justice: Guru Nanak promoted social equality and opposed the caste system, advo-
cating for equal treatment for all individuals.
• Guru Granth Sahib: The Guru Granth Sahib is the eternal Guru after the ten Gurus, containing hymns
that promote universal values.
• The Khalsa and Five Ks: Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa in 1699, with Sikhs wearing the Five
Ks as symbols of their faith.
• Gurdwaras and Takhts: Sikhs worship in Gurdwaras, with Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar being the most
significant. The Five Takhts are key institutions in Sikhism.
• Service (Seva): Seva (selfless service) is a core principle of Sikhism, encouraging individuals to serve
humanity without expecting rewards.
• Sikh Population in India: As per the census 2011, the Sikh population in India is around 20 million (1.7%
of the total population).

10.7. {Personalities} Guru Padmasambhava

• The International Buddhist Confederation will organise an International Conference on the Life and Living
Legacy of Guru Padmasambhava at Nalanda, Bihar.
• Guru Padmasambhava was one of the most revered figures in Buddha Dhamma and is credited with the
dissemination of Buddhism across the Himalayan belt.
• Also known as Guru Rinpoche (Precious Guru) and the Lotus from Oḍḍiyāna, he was a tantric Buddhist
Vajra master from medieval India who taught Vajrayana in Tibet.
• He came to Tibet in the 8th century and helped construct Samye Monastery, the first Buddhist monastery
in Tibet. He was a Tantrist and a member of the Yogachara sect.
• In Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava is considered a Buddha that Buddha Shakyamuni foretold.
• The contemporary Nyingma school of Buddhism considers Padmasambhava their founding figure.

Yogachara (Vijnanavada)
• Yogachara is an influential idealistic school of Mahayana Buddhism.

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• Yogachara attacked both the complete realism of Theravada Buddhism and the provisional practical
realism of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism.
• The name of the school is derived from the title of an important text, the Yogacharabhumi-shastra.

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Tibetan Buddhism
• It is a branch of Vajrayana Buddhism that evolved from the 7th century C.E.
• It is based mainly on the rigorous intellectual disciplines of Madhyamika and Yogachara philosophy
and utilises the Tantric ritual practices that developed in Central Asia, particularly in Tibet.
• Characteristic of Tibetan Buddhism: System of “reincarnating lamas”, the traditional merger of
the spiritual and temporal authority in the office and person of the Dalai Lama, and divine beings
considered symbolic representations of the psychic life.

International Buddhist Confederation

 • It is the biggest religious Buddhist confederation, established in 2010 and headquartered in Delhi, India.
It is established under the patronage of the supreme Buddhist religious hierarchy.
• The architect of the International Buddhist Confederation is Lama Lobzang.

10.8. {Personalities} Guru Ravidas

• Bhakti movement and founder of the Ravidassia religion during the 15th to 16th century CE.
• Born in Varanasi in so called “lower caste” (Leather workers) family.
• Critic of caste discrimination and gender inequality.
• Worshipped formless God, Nirguna sampradaya (sant parampara).
• Spiritual Guru of Meera Bai. Guru Granth Sahib also contains verses of Guru Ravidas.
• Envisioned “Begampura”, a city without grief or fear, no discrimination.

10.9. {Personalities} Guru Tegh Bahadur

• Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth Sikh Guru. He was born in Amritsar in 1621 and became leader of
Sikhs from 1665 until his death in 1675.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur is revered as the ‘Protector of Humanity’ (Srisht-di-Chadar).
• He wrote extensively; many of his hymns are part of Guru Granth Sahib.
• He built the city of Anandpur Sahib (in Rupnagar/Ropar district, on the edge of Shivalik Hills, near the
Sutlej River, in Punjab).
• Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of Guru Tegh Baha-
dur's execution and cremation.
• He stood up for the Kashmiri Pandits, who sought his help against Aurangzeb's religious oppression.

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• He was publicly beheaded on the orders of Aurangzeb as he resisted the forced conversion to Islam.
• As per the Nanakshahi calendar released by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, his martyr-
dom is remembered as the Shaheedi Divas every year on 24 November.
• Inspired by Guru Tegh Bahadur, his son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, went on to formalise the Sikh community

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into the distinguished and symbolic society known as the Khalsa.

10.10. {Personalities} Humayun

 The newly inaugurated Humayun Museum in New Delhi.

• Reign: 1530-1540, 1555-1556. Died from a fall from his library in 1556.

Major Battles
• Battle of Dadrah, 1532: Defeated the Afghans and besieged Chunar fort (Gateway of eastern India).
• Battle of Chausa (Buxar), 1539: Was defeated by Sher Shah Suri.
• Battle of Kannauj, 1540: Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and established Sur Empire. Humayun
took refuge in the court of the Safavid Persian ruler, Shah Tahmasp.
• Battle of Sirhind, 1555: Defeated Sikander Suri and occupied Delhi

Contributions in Architecture
• Built Dinpanah City in Delhi.
• His wife, Hamida Benu Begum constructed Humayun’s Tomb (UNESCO WHS).

Contributions in Painting and Literature

• Laid the foundation for Mughal painting. He gave patronage for painting and calligraphy.
• He invited two Persian artists—Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad to establish a studio in his court.
• He founded the Nigaar Khana - painting workshop.
• He started the project of illustration of Hamza Nama, which was continued by Akbar.
• His sister, Gul Badan Begum authored ‘Humayun-Nama’.

10.11. {Personalities} Jagannath Shankarseth

• Request to rename Mumbai Central Station after Nana Jagannath Shankarseth.

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• Jagannath Shankarsheth Murkute, known as Nana Shankarsheth, was an Indian philanthropist, social re-
former and educationalist.

Birth and Background

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• Born on February 10, 1803, into the wealthy Murkute family in Murbad, Thane.
• Shankarsheth was a member of the Bombay Presidency assembly in 1861 and later became an advisor to
the governor of the Bombay Presidency in 1862.

Education and Philanthropy

• Opened the first-ever school for girls in Mumbai in 1849.
• Played a crucial role in establishing the Elphinstone Educational Institution (formerly known as the Bom-
bay Native Institution) and founding the Bombay Native Education Society.
• Contributed to English School, the Sanskrit Seminary, and the Sanskrit Library in South Mumbai.
• Contributed generously to Hindu temples and played a role in social reforms, including efforts to sup-
press widow-burning (sati) and provide a cremation ground for the Hindu community.
• Supported construction of the Dr Bhau Daji Lad Museum and the Bhavani-Shankar Mandir and Ram
Mandir temples in Mumbai.

Development works
• One of the founding members of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, along with Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy
and David Sasson.
• First Indian nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council and the Bombay Board of Education.
• First Indian member of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai.
• Supported foundation of Bombay Association, the first political organisation in Mumbai, in 1852.
• His contributions earned him the nickname “Maker of Modern Bombay.”

Asiatic Society of Mumbai

• Originated from the Literary Society of Bombay, founded in 1804 by Sir James Mackintosh to pro-
mote helpful knowledge, particularly concerning India.
• Affiliated with the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland since 1830, it was known as the
Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (BBRAS).
• Over time, it merged with the Bombay Geographical Society in 1873 and the Anthropological Society
of Bombay in 1896.
• Became free from the Royal Asiatic Society and renamed the Asiatic Society of Bombay in 1954.
• The Central Government of India funds the society.
• Objectives: Promotes research studies in various fields related to India and Asia, publishing journals,
maintaining a library and museum, and establishing institutes and centres.

Bombay Association

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• Founded by Jagannath Shankarshet to voice public concerns against British rule.
• Main members: Naoroji Fursungi, Jamshedji Jejibhai, Vinayak Shankarshet, Dadabhai Naoroji.
Sir Jamshedji Jejibhai was the first president.

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•

10.12. {Personalities} Lachit Borphukan

 125-foot bronze 'Statue of Valour' of Lachit Borphukan at his burial site in Assam.
• Revered army commander of the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826).
• Famous for his leadership in Battle of Saraighat (1671), where he defeated the Mughal forces led by Raja
Ramsingh-I and prevented the Mughals from recapturing Assam.
• Renowned sculptor Ram Vanji Sutar, a Padma Bhushan awardee known for crafting the Statue of Unity
in Gujarat, built the statue of Lachit Borphukan.

10.13. {Personalities} M.T. Vasudevan Nair

 M.T. Vasudevan Nair, a renowned Indian writer and scriptwriter who was particularly celebrated in Mal-
ayalam literature and cinema, has passed away.
• His novel Naalukettu (The Ancestral House) changed Malayalam literature by depicting the decline of
matrilineal joint-family systems and made him a literary icon.
• As a filmmaker his directorial debut Nirmalyam won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film.
• He Won the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award (twice) and the Jnanpith Award (1995).
• His works were often translated into English, and he was also honoured with the title of Doctor of Letters
by both the University of Calicut and Mahatma Gandhi University.

10.14. {Personalities} Mahayogi Vemana

• 17th century CE saint, born in Gandikota, (Andhra Pradesh).

• An Achala yogi, Philosopher, social reformer and poet of the Telugu language.

Poems of Yogi Vimana

• Categorised into social, moral, satirical and mystic nature.
• Preserved on palm leaves or orally (vocal), later published as a book (shatakam) by Charles Philip Brown
(ICS) two times in 1829 and 1839.
• Most of his poems end with “Vishwadaabhi Rama vinura Vema” (Hey! Abhirama listen Vemana).
• Abhirama was his friend, Abhirama’s guru taught Vemana moksha.

Social Work
• Worked for Social change, moral values, and eradication of social evils.
• Condemned idol worship and social inequality, irrespective of caste, creed or religion.

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10.15. {Personalities} Margaret Elizabeth Cousins

• Margaret Elizabeth Cousins (Gretta Cousins): Irish-Indian educationist, suffragist,Theosophist.

• Moved to India with her husband, poet and literary critic James Cousins, in 1915.

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• 1906: Attended National Conference of Women (NCW) meeting in Manchester, joined Irish NCW branch.
• 1907: Attended London Convention of Theosophical Society.
• 1908: Co-founded the Irish Women's Franchise League with Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington.
• 1910: Participated in Parliament of Women, advocating for women's rights, leading to her arrest.
• 1913: Upon the reading of the Second Home Rule Bill, protesters broke windows at Dublin Castle, leading
to arrest and imprisonment in Tullamore Jail.
 Demonstrated for recognition as political prisoners and initiated a hunger strike for release.
• 1915: Moved to India, presumably continuing their activism and involvement in social causes.

Contributions in India
• Initially worked for New India, Annie Besant's newspaper, dismissed for supporting Easter Uprising.
• 1916: Became the first non-Indian member of the Indian Women's University at Poona.
• 1917: Co-founded Women's Indian Association (WIA) with Annie Besant & Dorothy Jinarajadasa.
 Edited the WIA's journal, Stri Dharma, advocating for women's rights and empowerment.
• 1919: Drafted the first demand for women’s voting rights in India, presented to the Southborough
Committee in London.
• 1922: Became the first woman magistrate in India.
• 1927: Co-founded the All India Women's Conference, later serving as its President in 1936.
• Member of the Flag Presentation Committee and presented the National Flag of India to the Constituent
Assembly on 14 August 1947.

10.16. {Personalities} Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai (1815-76)

 MS Pillai was an outstanding Tamil scholar born in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.

• The celebrated Tamil scholar U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, known for his discovery of the Sangam classics,
became his student at 17. He compiled Pillai's biography in Tamil, which was translated into English by
Sridharam K. Guruswamy. as "A Poet's Poet".

Literary contributions
• He was hailed as ‘Pillai Tamil Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai’ as he sang a lot of Pillai Tamil texts.
• Pillai is said to have composed 90 Sthalapuranas (history of ancient temples) about various temples and
imparted puranams to his pupils.
• He is remembered for contributing to Tamil studies and Saiva Agamas (Rules of Saivites).

10.17. {Personalities} Nandalal Bose *

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 December 3rd marks the birth anniversary of Nandalal Bose, a pioneer of modern Indian art and a prom-
inent figure in the neo-Bengal school.
• Notably, the illustrations in the Constitution of India were conceived and created by Nandalal Bose and

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his team in Santiniketan.
• He was mentored by Abanindranath Tagore and became renowned for his distinctive “Indian style” of
painting. In 1922, he became the principal of Kala Bhavan in Santiniketan.
• He drew inspiration from diverse art traditions, including Japanese Nihonga, Mughal and Rajasthani min-
iatures, palm-leaf manuscripts, and Ajanta Cave murals.
• His paintings frequently depicted scenes from Indian mythology, village life, and women in various roles.

Notable Works
• Bose created a linocut print of Mahatma Gandhi walking with staff in 1930, an iconic image symbolising
the non-violence movement.
• He also painted the original Indian flag, which was slightly different from its present form.
• Bose also designed emblems for India’s highest honours, including the Bharat Ratna and Padma Shri.

Honours and Legacy

• In 1954, he became first artist to be elected Fellow of Lalit Kala Akademi, India's National Academy of
Art. He received the Padma Vibhushan in 1954 for his contributions to art.
• Vishvabharati University honoured him by conferring on him the title of 'Deshikottama'.
• In 1976, the Archaeological Survey of India recognised his works as “art treasures” under the Antiquities
and Art Treasures Act, 1972, for their artistic and aesthetic value.

10.18. {Personalities} Saint Francis Xavier

 The exposition of Saint Francis Xavier's sacred relics in Goa is a 45-day spiritual event starting in Novem-
ber, attracting pilgrims and tourists for veneration, marked by a religious ceremony.
• Francis Xavier, venerated as Saint Francis Xavier, was a Catholic missionary and saint who was a co-
founder of the Society of Jesus.
• He was born in Javier, Kingdom of Navarre (in present-day Spain); he was one of the first seven Jesuits.
• Arrival in Goa: Saint Francis Xavier arrived in Goa in 1542 to restore Christianity among Portuguese
settlers. Also referred to as “Goencho Saib” (Lord of Goa).
• Journey: His body was exhumed and transported to Malacca, then to Goa in 1554. Now, the relics are
placed in the Basilica in 1624.
 Body of St. Xavier is considered miraculous as it did not decompose despite being buried multiple times.

10.19. {Personalities} Sakthan Thampuran: The Powerful Ruler of Cochin

• Born as Raja Rama Varma Kunjipillai (Rama Varma IX) in 1751 to Ambika Thampuran and Chendose

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Aniyan Namboodiri of the Cochin royal family. He was raised by his aunt, who named him "Sakthan"
(meaning "powerful"). He was a significant ruler of the Cochin kingdom from 1790 to 1805.
• The title "Thampuran" is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word "samrat," meaning emperor.

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 The Cochin kingdom, which was part of the Late Chera Empire, encompassed the regions
between Ponnani in Malappuram and Thottappally in Alappuzha in present-day Kerala.

Political Strategies
• He advised maintaining friendly relations with both the Dutch and English traders.
• He orchestrated Mysore's attempt to invade the Travancore kingdom, which led to the Powney treaty
and it freed the Cochin kingdom from its allegiance to Mysore and formalised its relations with the British.

Reforms and Governance

• He abolished the institution of Yogiatirippads, who were spiritual heads of major temples and had pre-
viously conspired against the Cochin king. He entrusted temple management to the government.
• He established a reputation for maintaining law and order, significantly reducing crime in his kingdom.
• He personally oversaw revenue management, strengthening the kingdom's finances.
• In 1797, he initiated the Thrissur Pooram, which has since become one of Kerala's most famous temple
festivals. This event was conceived as an alternative to the Arattupuzha Pooram and provided an op-
portunity for major temples in Thrissur to pay respects to Lord Shiva at the Vadakkumnathan Temple.

Development of Thrissur
• He moved the capital of the Cochin kingdom from Thrippunithura to Thrissur.
• He developed the Thekkinkadu Maidanam and the surrounding Swaraj Round, which became the foun-
dation for the city's road system and infrastructure.

10.20. {Personalities} Sant Tukaram

• The Maharashtra government approved the proposal to rename Pune

airport as Jagadguru Sant Tukaram Maharaj Airport.
• Sant Tukaram was a revered 17th century Hindu saint and poet from
Maharashtra.
• Born in Dehu, a village near Pune (on the banks of the Indrayani River).
• He played a key role in the Bhakti movement. He devoted his entire
life to Kirtan and writing Abhangas.
 His poems are known as ‘abhangas’ in Marathi. These `abhangas’
are written from 1632 to 1650.
 Most of his ‘abhangas’ deals with human beings, family, sacrifice
and personal emancipation.

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 Abhangs centres around devotion to Vithoba, a form of Lord Krishna worshipped in Pandharpur.
• Sant Tukaram and his work are central to the Warkari sect spread across Maharashtra. He is credited with
starting the Wari pilgrimage.

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• Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was spiritual Guru of Sant Tukaram. Babaji Chaitanya was a follower of
Sant Dnyaneshwar. Shivaji Maharaj eventually became a follower of Sant Tukaram.

Social reforms
• He advocated gender equality. His followers belong to all the castes and women as well.
• Tukaram emphasised a life of devotion to God and loving service to mankind over the performance of
religious rites and ceremonies.
• His work often addressed social inequalities and promoted spiritual equality, regardless of caste. Despite
initial opposition from societal figures, Tukaram eventually gained widespread respect.

Literary contribution
• The Mantra Gita, a translation of the Bhagavad Gita in the abhyanga form, is ascribed to Tukaram. It
interprets the Gita from a Bhakti perspective.
• Tukaram Gatha, a Marathi book, is a compilation of all the literary works of Sant Tukaram.

10.21. {Personalities} Shankaracharyas *

• Shankaracharya means ‘teacher of the way of Shankara’.

• It is a religious title used by the heads of the four cardinal mathas or peeths — in Dwarka (Gujarat),
Joshimath (Uttarakhand), Puri (Odisha), and Sringeri (Karnataka).
• These Maths were founded by the eighth-century religious scholar and philosopher Adi Shankara.
• The Vijayanagara kingdom began to patronise the Sringeri Matha in the 14th Century.

Adi Shankaracharya (Adi Shankara)

• Birth: 11th May 788 AD, at Kaladi (poised to be declared a national monument) near Kochi, Kerala.
• He took Samadhi at the age of 33 at Kedar Tirth.
• He was a devotee of Shiva, a disciple of Govindacharya and a mystic Bhakti poet.
• Wrote Sanskrit commentaries on the Vedic canon (Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita).
• The followers of Shankaracharya are called as Smratas.
• Opposed Buddhist philosophers. Gave concept of Nirguna Brahman (God without attributes).
• Knowledge (Gyan): Way to salvation; Ritualistic actions are Secondary, not leading to liberation.
• Major Works: Brahmasutrabhasya (Bhashya or commentary on the Brahma Sutra), Bhaja govinda Stotra,
Nirvana Shatakam, Prakaran Granths.
• Disciples: Padmapada, Totakacharya (wrote “Totakashtakam”), Hasta Malaka, Sureshwara.

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• Ultimate non-dual nature of reality (Advaita Vedanta): Individual soul (Atman) = Supreme reality
(Brahman). The atman is pure non-intentional consciousness, and brahman is its essential core.
• Maya: Illusion that the material world is separate from Brahman. Realisation of Maya and recognising
one's true identity as Atman is key to liberation (moksha).

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• Doctrine of Neti-Neti (not this, not that): It is a self-inquiry approach to realise attributeless and lim-
itless nature of Brahaman. It also finds significance in Buddhism.
• 'Statue of Oneness' of Adi Shankaracharya at Mandhata mountain at Omkareshwar, M.P. and another
12-foot statue of Adi Shankaracharya at Kedarnath, UK, in 2021.

Significance of Mandhata
• Located on the Narmada River has 2 of the 12 Jyotirlingas – Omkareshwara and Amareshwara.
• Has Shaivite, Vaisnavite & Jain temples dating back to the 14th & 18th centuries.
• Island's Om shape gave it the name ‘Omkareshwar – the Lord of Omkara’.
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10.22. {Personalities} Swami Vivekananda *

• Born in Kolkata, India, on January 12 (celebrated as National Youth Day, 1863.

• Early name: Narendranath Datta | Mentor: Ramakrishna Paramahansa
• Advocated for religious tolerance, universality of religions and the commonality of spiritual truths.
• Emphasised the teachings of Vedanta. Propounded idea of service to humanity as form of worship.
• His Speech starting with salutation “Sisters and Brothers of America", at Chicago World Parliament of
Religions (1893) introduced Hindu philosophy to global world.
• Founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
• Set up the Ramakrishna Math (Belur Math) in Kolkata, West Bengal.
• Believed in "Daridra Narayana" - serving the poor and needy as a service to God.
• Promoted the idea of spiritual nationalism, India's strength lies in its spiritual heritage.
• Encouraged a synthesis of modern scientific thinking with ancient spiritual wisdom.

10.23. {Personalities} Thiruvalluvar Day **

• First celebrated in 1935, now regularly celebrated after the Pongal celebration as "Mattu Pongal".
• Valluvar year (Thiruvalluvar year): Officially recognised Tamil calendar system.
• Ancient saint, poet, and philosopher, revered as "Valluvar" by Tamils.
• Details of his birth, religion and early life are not conclusive.
 Valluvar is also a sub-caste group - priests of the Pallava kings.
• Discarded the birth-based caste system.
• Gave “five jewels” required for a country: No illness, wealth, good crops, happiness, safety and security.

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Tirukkural
• Primary work of Thiruvalluvar, literal meaning “Sacred Couplets”.
• Written about ethics, governance, love, and spirituality.

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• Three main sections: Aram (Virtue), Porul (Wealth), and Inbam (Love).

10.24. {Personalities} 300th anniversary of Ahilya Bai Holkar *

• Established Maheshwar (MP) on the Narmada River as the capital of the Holkar Dynasty.
• Born in 1725 in Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar district. Her father, Mankoji Shinde, was from a respectable
Dhangar (Gadariya) family who served as the Patil (title like village head).
• She married Khande Rao Holkar, son of Malhar Rao Holkar, an army commander to Peshwa Bajirao.

Battle of Kumbher (1754)

• Khande Rao and his father, Malhar Rao Holkar, laid siege to Kumher (Kumbher) fort of Jat
Raja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur.
 • Khande Rao was supporting Imad-ul-Mulk and the Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur's
general, Mir Bakhshi. On the other hand, Suraj Mal had sided with Mughal emperor's rebellious
Wazir Safdar Jang.
• After Khande Rao's death, Ahilyabai was stopped by her father-in-law from committing sati.
• Malhar Rao Holkar died in 1766, 12 years after the death of his son Khande Rao. Then Khande Rao's only
son, Male Rao Holkar, became the ruler of Indore in 1766, under Ahilyabai's regency.
• Male Rao Holkar, too, died in April 1767. Then Ahilyabai took over as ruler of Malwa with Tukoji Rao
Holkar (Malhar Rao's adopted son and a soldier in his army ) as her military head.
• She worked to preserve and encourage India’s spiritual integrity and displayed administrative ingenuity
and political impartiality.

Contributions
• Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country as a tribute to Lord Shiva.
• She carried out renovations in Somnath temple, Kashi Vishwanath temple Varanasi (1780), Trambak,
Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites.
• Patronised artists like Marathi poet Moropant, Shahir Ananta Gandhi & Sanskrit scholar Khushali Ram.
• She promoted Maheshwari saris (from Maheshwar) and paved the way for empowering women.
• Ahilyabai repealed a traditional law that allowed the state to confiscate property of childless widows.
• She made efforts to develop the city of Indore and conserve forests and animals.

Legacy
• She was described as "a very able ruler and organiser" by Jawaharlal Nehru in 'A Discovery of India'.

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10.25. {Personalities} Diwan Todar Mal's Jahaz Haveli

About Diwan Todar Mal

Wealthy merchant from Sirhind. He served as a revenue official (Diwan) under Mughal emperor Shah

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•
Jahan but was later removed by Aurangzeb.
• Remembered for his role in the aftermath of the execution of the two younger sons of Guru Gobind
Singh, Sahibzada Fateh Singh and Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and their grandmother, mata Gujri.
• After refusing to convert to Islam, Guru Gobind Singh’s sons were bricked alive in Sirhind in 1704 under
the orders of Wazir Khan, the Mughal governor of Sirhind.
• Their bodies were left without rites due to fear of retribution from Wazir Khan. Todar Mal stepped for-
ward to claim and cremate the bodies of the young martyrs.
• Wazir Khan demanded that Todar Mal purchase the land for cremation by covering it with gold coins
and placing them vertically. Todar Mal fulfilled his demands, spending a fortune to secure the land, which
became the site for their cremation.
• Maharaja Karam Singh of Patiala later built a gurdwara at this location. The region was renamed from
Sirhind to Fatehgarh Sahib in honour of the martyrdom and gurdwara.
 In honour of the bravery and sacrifice of Sahibzada Fateh Singh and Sahibzada Zorawar Singh,
the Government of India declared December 26 as “Veer Baal Diwas” in 2022.

About Jahaz Haveli

• It was built in the 17th century, and its structure resembled a ship. It was built with Nanakshahi bricks.
• In 2009, the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) took possession of the haveli.

10.26. {Personalities} Karsandas Mulji **

• Born in Bombay in 1832 in a Gujarati Vaishnav family.

• He was an active member of the Gujarati Gnanprasarak Mandalli (Gujarati Society for the Spread of
Knowledge), founded by the Students’ Society of Elphinstone College.
• As an Elphinstone College alumni, he was classmates with prominent Gujarati reformists such as poet
Narmad and educationist Mahipatram Neelkanth.
• Contributed articles to Rast Goftar & co-founded Streebodh, a women’s magazine launched in 1857.
• Published a weekly called Mumbainu Bajar (the Bombay Market) for some time.
• During his tenure as Assistant Superintendent of Rajkot state, he published a monthly journal titled
Vignanvilas on science and industry.
 Rast Goftar, an Anglo-Gujarati newspaper founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1851.
• Due to support to window remarriage, he was evicted from his family and was excommunicated
from caste due to an overseas journey by him.

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Fight against exploitation
• Founded Satyaprakash in 1855. Exposed the misdeeds of Vaishnav priests, including their exploitation
of women devotees. Died in 1871 and remembered as the winner of the Maharaj Libel Case.

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Background of Jivanlalji Maharaj issue
• Vaishnav priest Jivanlalji refused to appear in the Bombay High Court in a case initiated by Dayal Moti-
ram in 1858. He coerced Vaishnavite followers to agree to three conditions:
 No Vaishnav could write against the Maharaj;
 No Vaishnav could take him to court;
 And if anyone sued him, the followers would bear the case cost and ensure that the Maharaj did not
have to appear in court.
• Karsandas criticised this coercive agreement terming it gulamikhat (agreement of slavery).
• Another young priest, Jadunath Maharaj, tried to restore the sect’s influence by asthetic liberal views.

Maharaj Libel Case 1862

• Narmad challenged the Vaishnavite priests’ coercive and immoral practices in his article in Satyaprakash.
• The article titled "Hinduono Asal Dharma ane Haalna Pakhandi Mato" (The Primitive Religion of the
Hindus and the Present Heterodox Opinions) accused priests of sexual liaisons with female devotees.
• Alleged that the book of Gokulnath, grandson of Vallabhacharya (founder of Pushtimarg sect of Vaish-
navism), endorsed immorality.
• The Maharaj filed the lawsuit ("greatest trial of modern times since the trial of Warren Hastings") against
Karsandas and the paper’s publisher, Nanabhai Ranina.
• Final judgement favoured Karsandas and established that everyone, including priests, is equal under the
law. It rejected the State’s traditional role as gaubhrhaman pratipa (Protectors of cows & Brahmins).

10.27. {Personalities} Mahaparinirvan Diwas: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

• Mahaparinirvan Diwas is observed annually on December 6 to commemorate the death anniversary

of Bharat Ratna Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
• The term "Mahaparinirvan" is derived from Buddhist texts. It refers to Lord Buddha's death and signi-
fies 'nirvana after death.' It is considered liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

About Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

• He was appointed the Military Secretary to the Maharaja of Baroda but faced untouchability and
moved back to Bombay.
• Conferred with the title of "Bodhisattva" at "Jagatik Buddhism Council" in 1954 in Kathmandu, Nepal.
 A bodhisattva is a being on the path to becoming enlightened and attaining Buddhahood.
• Voice of the oppressed: He launched newspaper Mooknayaka and Bahiskrit Bharat (addressed the
issues of the “depressed” classes) and established the Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha in 1923.

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• Historic Movements: Led the Mahad March (1927) for Dalits' right to access public water sources.
Spearheaded the temple entry movement at Kalaram Temple (1930) to challenge caste hierarchies.
• Poona Pact of 1932: Played a pivotal role in replacing separate electorates with reserved Dalit seats.

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• Political Engagement: He formed the Independent Labour Party (1936) was formed to represent la-
bourers and the depressed classes.
• Economic Contributions: Ambedkar's doctoral thesis inspired the establishment of the Finance Com-
mission of India. His ideas were also instrumental in framing the guidelines for the RBI Act, 1934 and
influencing the creation of the RBI itself.
• Religious Conversion: He declared at the Yeola Conference (1935) that he would leave Hinduism. He
embraced Buddhism, along with thousands of followers in Nagpur.
• Dalit Buddhist Movement: He was a key figure in the Dalit Buddhist movement, leading a mass conver-
sion of Dalits to Buddhism in 1956.
• First Law Minister: He was the first Law Minister of Independent India and played an important role
in drafting the Indian Constitution.
• Infrastructure and Resource Management: He championed systemic advancements such as the foun-
dation of Employment Exchanges, the establishment of the National Power Grid System, and pivotal pro-
jects like the Damodar Valley Project, Hirakud Dam Project, and Sone River Project, showcasing his fore-
sight in infrastructure and resource management.
• Architect of the Constitution: As Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, crafted a Constitu-
tion that upheld equality and protected marginalised communities like SCs, STs, and OBCs.
• Bharat Ratna: In 1990, Dr. Ambedkar was posthumously awarded India's highest civilian award.
• Literary works: 'Who Were Shudras?' and 'The Problem of the Rupee'.

10.28. {Personalities} Razia Sultan's tomb

• Razia Sultan tomb in Delhi is a protected monument under ASI. Built by her half-brother, Bahram.
• The 14th century traveller Ibn Battuta mentioned that Razia's tomb had become a pilgrimage centre.

Restriction within an ASI-protected monument

• No person shall do any act which causes or is likely to cause damage or injury to any part of
the monument or discharge any firearms;
• Or cook/consume food except in areas, if any, permitted to be used for that purpose or beg
for alms;
• Or violate any practice, usage or custom applicable to or observed in the monument;
• Or bring any animal for any purpose other than the maintenance of the monument;
• Or bring any vehicle except in areas reserved for the parking thereof.

10.29. {Personalities} Sarojini Naidu *

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Sarojini Naidu's Life and Contributions
• She was born in Hyderabad on February 13, 1879, and pursued her degrees from King’s College (London)

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and Girton College (Cambridge).
• She addressed the Indian National Congress (INC) and Indian Social Conference in Calcutta in 1906.
• She received the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal in 1911 for flood relief work, which she returned in 1919 to
protest the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• She joined Mahatma Gandhi in 1914, playing a significant role in organising non-violent resistance.
• Women’s Rights Activism: In 1917, co-founded the Women’s Indian Association with Muthulakshmi
Reddy; advocated for universal suffrage in London with Annie Besant.
• She maintained close contact with the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), founded on October
31, 1920. She represented the Indian National Congress at the East African Indian National Congress
in 1924. She was elected as the first Indian woman president of INC in 1925.
• Founding member of All India Women’s Conference (founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927).
• Civil Disobedience: Imprisoned for participating in the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 (Darasana, Gujarat) and
later during the Quit India Movement in 1942.
• Also participated in second Round Table Conference in 1931 as a representative of Indian women.
• In 1947, she was appointed as United Province’s first female governor, advocated for Hindu-Muslim
unity, and worked to ensure a peaceful partition process despite opposing the division.

Literary Achievements
• Nightingale of India: Earned the title for her poetic prowess, beginning her writing journey at 12.
• Key Publications: The Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1915), The Broken Wing (1919), The
Sceptred Flute (1948), The Feather of the Dawn (1961, posthumously edited by her daughter).

Enduring Legacy
• Death and Legacy: Passed away on 2 March 1949; her efforts in women’s empowerment and the inde-
pendence struggle continue to resonate.
• National Women’s Day: Her birthday is honoured as National Women’s Day in India, celebrating her
impact on women’s rights.

10.30. {Personalities} Subramania Bharati *

• Also known as Mahakavi Bharathiyar. He was a Tamil poet, freedom fighter, and social reformer.
• He knew 32 languages, including three foreign languages. He considered Tamil and all other Indian
languages to be in no way inferior to English.
• His writings on nationalism and independence played an important role in inspiring the masses in Tamil
Nadu to support the Indian freedom struggle. Bharati's compositions are mostly short lyrical outpour-

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ings on patriotic, devotional, and mystic themes, earning him the title of a lyrical poet.
• His best-known works include "Kaṇṇan Pattu" (Songs to Krishna), "Panchali Sapatham" (Panchali's
Vow), and "Kuyil Pattu" (Kuyil's Song).
He translated Vedic hymns, Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, and the Bhagavad Gita into Tamil.

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•
• He started his career as the Assistant Editor of the Tamil daily Swadesamitran in 1904 and later edited
the Tamil weekly "India" and the English newspaper "Bala Bharatham" with M.P.T. Acharya.
• Assisted Sri Aurobindo in the "Arya" journal and later "Karma Yogi" in Pondicherry. His translation and
adaptation of "Vande Mataram" became a potent rallying cry for the nation's freedom fighters.
• Bharati wrote "Panchali Sabatham," an epic poem based on the Mahabharata, criticising social injus-
tices and advocating for reform.
• He faced persecution for his views from the British authorities and orthodox elements within his own
community, which led to his exile in 1908.

Razia Sultan
• First and only woman ruler of Delhi. First female Muslim ruler of the Indian subcontinent.
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• Daughter of Sultan Iltutmish (a Turkic slave (mamluk) of his predecessor Qutb ud-Din Aibak), ruled
during the Delhi Sultanate era from 1236 to 1240.
• Refused to be addressed as a Sultana (as per her gender) as that word meant “wife or mistress of a Sultan”
but claimed the title “Sultan.”
• Razia first administered Delhi during 1231–1232 when her father was out on the Gwalior campaign.
• Before her, Iltutmish had groomed his eldest son, Nasiruddin Mahmud, to be his successor, but this son
died unexpectedly in 1229. Iltutmish nominated Razia as his heir apparent after returning to Delhi.
• Iltutmish was succeeded by Razia's half-brother Ruknuddin Firuz, whose mother, Shah Turkan, planned
to execute Razia. Razia instigated the general public against Shah Turkan.
• Then she ascended the throne after Ruknuddin was deposed in 1236. She was ousted by a group of
nobles in 1240 after a rule of less than four years.
• She attempted to regain the throne but was defeated by her half-brother and successor, Muizuddin Bah-
ram, and killed shortly after.

10.31. {Personalities} Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Early Life
• Born in 1824 in Tankara, Gujarat as Mool Shankar to Karshanji Lalji Tiwari and Yashodabai.
• His Guru Virjanand Saraswati (Blind) gave him the name Dayanand and asked for revival of Hinduism.

Preachings
• Veda are Infallible, gave the call of “Go Back to Vedas”. Advocated for Suddhi movement.
• Revival of Vedic knowledge and the purity of Vedic religion, not a return to Vedic times.
Criticized Hindu belief in maya (illusion) and insisted that salvation was not the only motto.

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•
• Social service as a route to salvation. Opposed Islam and Christianity.
• God, the soul, and matter (prakriti) were separate and eternal entities.
• Against idol worship, caste system, ritualism, fatalism, infanticide, sale of grooms, child marriages, etc.

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• He also stood for the liberation of women and upliftment of the depressed class.
• Subscribed to the Vedic notion of chaturvarna system.
• Ideal age for a girl to be between 16 and 24, and for men between 25 and 40.
• Welcomed advances in sciences. Believed in the theory of karma and reincarnation.

Contributions
• Maharshi’s first major authorship was Panchmahayajya Vidhi in 1874 AD.
• “Satyartha Prakash”, “Veda Bhashya Bhumika” and “Veda Bhashya”.
• Founded Arya Samaj in Mumbai in 1875 to promote social service. Later HQ: Lahore.
• Credited to have first used the term swaraj (self-rule)- “India for Indians” in 1876, which was later
picked up by the likes of Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
• The Paropkarini Sabha in Ajmer to publish and preach his works and Vedic texts in 1882.

Death and Legacy

• Under suspicious circumstances in 1883, after his public criticism of the Maharaja of Jodhpur.
• The first DAV School was established in Lahore with Mahatma Hansarj as the headmaster.
• Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, India’s second President, called Dayanand “a maker of modern India”.

10.32. {Personalities} Vinayak Damodar Savarkar **

• Born in 1883 in Nashik, Maharashtra, to father Damodarpant and mother Radhabai.

• Studied at Fergusson College in Pune and went to study law at Gray's Inn Law College, England.
• Freedom fighter, lawyer, social reformer, and the founder of the Hindutva philosophy.
• Given the title of ‘Veer’ for being courageous to fight for his ideologies.
• First to acknowledge the mutiny of 1857 as the first struggle for Independence.
• Founded the two-nation theory in his book ‘Hindutva’ calling Hindus and Muslims two separate nations.
In 1937, Hindu Mahasabha passed it as a resolution.
• Charged as a co-conspirator in Gandhi’s assassination (1948) but acquitted due to lack of evidence.

Contribution to National Movement

• Favoured preparation for war including Swadeshi, boycott of foreign goods; imparting national educa-
tion, creating a revolutionary spirit; & carrying patriotism into military forces.
• Inspired by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Savarkar formed Mitra Mela (1899), with aim to attain complete political independence of India.
• Group was renamed Abhinava Bharat, Close resemblance to 'Young Italy' movement of Guiseppe Maz-

136
zini & that of revolutionary societies in Russia.
• Founded the Free India Society, in London, in 1906, based on the thoughts of the Italian nationalist
Giuseppe Mazzini (Savarkar had written a biography of Mazzini).

Magnum 2025 – A&C, History & Society

• Member of India House (founded by Shyamji Kishan Verma in 1905 in London).
• Organized celebration of 50th anniversary of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 at Tilak House, London.
• Legal defence to his friend Madan Lal Dhingra (Accused in a murder case of a British officer).
• Arrested on charges of plotting an armed revolt against the Morley-Minto reform (Indian Councils Act
1909). Tried to escape but was arrested.
• Arrived in the Andaman Islands in July 1911, where he stayed until 1921 when he was moved to Ratnagiri,
Bombay Presidency, where he was imprisoned until 1924 and interned until 1937.
• Continued his pro-Hindu, anti-British politics and was President of the right-wing Hindu Mahasabha
(he was not its founder) | He opposed the Quit India struggle in 1942.
• Strong critic of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.
Literary Contributions
• Wrote “Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? (1923)” coining the term Hindutva in Ratnagiri jail under his pen-
name Mahratta.
• “The History of the War of Indian Independence” on 'Revolt of 1857'.

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