100% found this document useful (16 votes)
410 views17 pages

Hot Topics in Infection and Immunity in Children II 1st Edition Illustrated Ebook Download

This book, based on the 2004 course 'Infection and Immunity in Children' at Keble College, Oxford, serves as a resource for pediatricians in Europe to stay updated on developments in the field. It includes contributions from various experts covering topics such as emerging infections, vaccines, and immune responses in children. The editors express gratitude to contributors, institutions, and sponsors that supported the course and publication.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
100% found this document useful (16 votes)
410 views17 pages

Hot Topics in Infection and Immunity in Children II 1st Edition Illustrated Ebook Download

This book, based on the 2004 course 'Infection and Immunity in Children' at Keble College, Oxford, serves as a resource for pediatricians in Europe to stay updated on developments in the field. It includes contributions from various experts covering topics such as emerging infections, vaccines, and immune responses in children. The editors express gratitude to contributors, institutions, and sponsors that supported the course and publication.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 17

Hot Topics in Infection and Immunity in Children II - 1st

Edition

Visit the link below to download the full version of this book:

https://medipdf.com/product/hot-topics-in-infection-and-immunity-in-children-ii-
1st-edition/

Click Download Now


Preface

This book is based on the course “Infection and Immunity in Children 2004” which
was held at Keble College Oxford, UK in June 2004. This is the second book in this
series covering topics in infection and immunity during childhood. These courses,
and their companion books, have been put together to provide opportunities for pae-
diatricians in Europe to keep abreast of the latest developments in the field. At the
time of writing a third course is already at an advanced stage of planning for June
2005 with a completely new programme once again.
As with the first book, the contributions to this text are brilliant and written by
an inspiring group of individuals. We hope this text will direct all readers to strive
for excellence in the management of children with infectious diseases.

Andrew J. Pollard and Adam Finn


January 2005

v
Acknowledgments

We are indebted to all of the contributors to this text who have generously provided
their carefully written manuscripts in good time for editing and publication. We are
also grateful to the staff of Keble College, Oxford, UK who hosted Infection and
Immunity in Children 2004 on which the text is based.
We are particularly grateful to Julia Bremble for administration of the Course,
to Sue Sheaf who assisted with the preparation of the edited manuscripts and to our
colleagues and families who supported our own activities in this venture. Our grati-
tude also for the support provided by the European Society for Paediatric Infectious
Disease (ESPID), the British Paediatric Allergy Infection and Immunity Group
(BPAIIG), and the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH). Lastly,
we are pleased to acknowledge the generous and unrestricted financial support of
Acambis, Aventis Pasteur, Baxter, Chiron Vaccines, GlaxoSmithKline vaccines, and
Wyeth Vaccines who made the meeting possible.
The Editors are especially grateful to Nigel Curtis for providing the photo-
graphs of the contributors to this volume taken at the course “Infection and
Immunity in Children 2004, Keble College, Oxford, UK”.

vii
Contents

Contributing Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. Emerging Infections and Children: Influenza and Acute


Necrotizing Encephalopathy
Sarah S. Long

1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.Epidemiology of Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.Mortality from Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.Influenza-Associated Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1. An Illustrative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2. History of Emergence of Acute Necrotizing Encephalopathy . . . . . . . . 5
4.3. Clinical Manifestations of ANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4. Pathogenesis of ANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5. Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2. Chickenpox Party or Varicella Vaccine?


Sophie Hambleton and Ann M. Arvin
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2. VZV Disease in Unvaccinated Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Varicella Vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1. Safety, Immunogenicity, and Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2. The US Varicella Vaccination Program: Design and Coverage . . . . . . . 14
3.3. Impact of the US Varicella Vaccination Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1. Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2. Hospitalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.3. Deaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4. Issues of Concern in the Varicella Vaccine Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1. Identification and Vaccination of Varicella-Susceptibles . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2. Breakthrough Varicella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3. Herpes Zoster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3. The ABC of Epstein-Barr Virus Infections


Upton D. Allen
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2. Epidemiology and Model of Human Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ix
x Contents

2.1. Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Model of Human Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3. EBV-Related Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1. Infectious Mononucleosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2. X-Linked Lymphoproliferative Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3. B-Cell Lymphoproliferative Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4. Chronic Active EBV Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4. Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1. Serologic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2. Nucleic Acid Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. EBV and the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1. EBV-Encoded Genes in Different States of EBV Infection . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.1. Lytic Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.2. Latent Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.3. Healthy Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.4. Immunodeficient Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2. Evasion of Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3. Acquired Disturbances in Immune Surveillance for EBV . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.1. Immune Dysregulation due to Space Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.2. Immune Dysregulation due to Organ Transplantation . . . . . . . . 34
6. Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.1. Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2. PTLD Burden and Associated Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3. Detecting EBV Lymphoproliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.4. EBV Viral Load as a Marker of EBV Lymphoproliferation . . . . . . . . . 35
6.5. Treatment of PTLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4. The Immune Response to Viral Lower Respiratory


Tract Infection
Caroline A. Lindemans and Jan L. L. Kimpen
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2. Epidemiology and Clinical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1. Respiratory Syncytial Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.1. The Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.2. RSV Respiratory Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2. Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.1. The Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.2. Influenza Respiratory Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3. Adenovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1. The Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2. Adenovirus-Induced Respiratory Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4. Parainfluenza Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5. Rhinovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6. Human Metapneumovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7. SARS Coronavirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Immunology of Viral Lower Respiratory Tract Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1. Innate Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Contents xi

3.2. Adaptive Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50


3.3. Immature Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4. Genetic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4. Virus Infection in the Immunocompromised Host . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1. Immunocompromised Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2. Impaired Innate Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5. Respiratory Viruses and Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.1. Virus Infections and Asthma Exacerbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2. Viral Respiratory Tract Infections and the Inception of Asthma . . . . . . 54
6. Viral Evasion of the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1. Viral Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2. The Interferon Antiviral Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.3. Evasion of Apoptosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4. Immune Evasion Techniques by Adenoviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5. Chronic Granulomatous Disease: From Genetic Defect


to Clinical Presentation
Johan Bylund, David Goldblatt, and David P. Speert
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2. Biochemistry and Genetics of the NADPH-oxidase and its Deficiency . . . . 68
3. Animal Models of CGD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4. Roles of ROS in Health and Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1. Microbial Killing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2. Cell Death Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3. Regulation of Inflammatory Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4. Other Effects of ROS with Possible Implications for the Development
and Resolution of Inflammation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5. Clinical Characterization of CGD and Current Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1. Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2. Inflammatory Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3. Current Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4. Newer Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6. Novel Primary Immunodeficiencies


Capucine Picard and Jean-Laurent Casanova
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2. Mendelian Susceptibility to Mycobacterial Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.1. Complete Interferon- Receptor 1 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2. Complete Interferon- Receptor 2 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.3. Partial Recessive IFNR1 and IFNgR2 Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.4. Partial Dominant IFNR1 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5. IL-12R1 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.6. IL-12 p40 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.7. Partial STAT1 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.8. Complete STAT1 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
xii Contents

3. Inherited Disorders of the NF-B Signaling Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93


3.1. NEMO Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2. IB Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3. Interleukin-1 Receptor-Associated Kinase-4 Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

7. Periodic Fever
Sarah S. Long
1. A Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2. Approach to the Child with Recurring Fevers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.1. History of Episodes and Intervening Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.2. Physical Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.3. Laboratory Evaluations and Imaging Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3. Differential Diagnosis of Periodic Fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1. Periodic Fever, Aphthous Stomatitis, Pharyngitis,
and Cervical Adenopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1.1. Epidemiology and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1.2. Clinical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1.3. Treatment and Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2. Cyclic Neutropenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2.1. Epidemiology and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2.2. Clinical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2.3. Etiology and Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2.4. Treatment and Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3. Familial Mediterranean Fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.3.1. Epidemiology and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.3.2. Clinical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.3.3. Etiology and Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.3.4. Treatment and Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.4. Hyper-Immunoglobulinemia D and Periodic Fever Syndrome . . . . . . . 110
3.4.1. Epidemiology and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.2. Clinical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.3. Etiology and Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.4.4. Treatment and Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5. Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Associated Periodic Syndrome . . . . . 111
3.5.1. Epidemiology and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.2. Clinical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5.3. Etiology and Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5.4. Treatment and Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. Case Denouement and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

8. BCG Vaccine
Stephen Sze Shing Teo and Delane Shingadia
1. History of BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2. Phylogeny of BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Contents xiii

2.1. How BCG Differs from M. bovis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117


3. The Immunological Response to BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.1. Host Response to M. tuberculosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2. Host Response to BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4. Efficacy of BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1. Early Studies of BCG Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1.1. Student Nurses in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1.2. Trial in American Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2. BCG Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.1. Medical Research Council Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.2. Tuberculosis Prevention Trial, Madras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3. Meta-analyses of BCG Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4. Duration of Efficacy of BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5. Explanations for Variability in Observed BCG Efficacy in Trials . . . . . 125
4.5.1. Latitude and Environmental Mycobacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.2. BCG Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.3. Different Routes of Administration of BCG Vaccine . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.4. Genetic Differences Between Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.5.5. Methodological and Statistical Rigor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5. Complications of BCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1. Classification of Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2. Frequency of Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3. Specific Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.1. Local Lymphadenitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.2. Disseminated BCG Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6. BCG Vaccination Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1. World Health Organization Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1.1. WHO Indications for BCG Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1.2. WHO Contraindications to BCG Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.1.3. WHO Recommendations Regarding BCG Vaccination
and HIV Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2. Policy in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3. Variations Within Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.4. Policy in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.4.1. Indications for BCG Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.4.2. Contraindications to BCG Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4.3. Selective Versus Universal BCG Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7. The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

9. Helminth Infections of Children: Prospects for Control


Peter J. Hotez, Sonia Arora, Jeffrey Bethony, Maria Elena Bottazzi, Alex
Loukas, Rodrigo Correa-Oliveira, and Simon Brooker
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2. Global Disease Burden of Helminth Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3. Anthelminthic Drugs in the Control of Childhood Helminth Infections . . . . 139
4. Downstream Alternatives to School-Based De-worming: Rationale and
Promise for Developing Anthelminthic Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
xiv Contents

4.1. Anti-hookworm Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140


4.2. Anti-schistosomiasis Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

10. Rabies on the Doorstep


David A. Warrell
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2. Implications of Having Enzootic EBLV in Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.1. How prevalent is EBLV among British bats? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.2. Can EBLV be transmitted to other mammals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.3. How effective are standard rabies vaccines and rabies immune
globulin against EBLV? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.4. To whom should pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis be given in
the United Kingdom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3. Other Rabies-Related Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4. The Global Problem of Rabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5. Rabies in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6. Diagnosis of Rabies in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7. Survival from Rabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8. Pre- and Post-exposure Prevention of Rabies by Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.1. Post-exposure Prophylaxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2. Passive Immunization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.3. Pre-exposure Prophylaxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9. Control of Rabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

11. Prevention of Typhoid Fever


Myron M. Levine and Philippe Lepage
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2. Secondary Prevention of Typhoid Morbidity and Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3. Primary Prevention of Typhoid Morbidity and Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.1. Environmental Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.2. Identification, “Epidemiologic Neutralization,” and Treatment of
Chronic Typhoid Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.3. Typhoid Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3.1. Disease Burden and Target Populations for Immunization . . . . . 164
3.3.2. Ty21a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.3.3. Vi Polysaccharide Vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.4. New Live Oral Typhoid Vaccine in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.5. Vi Conjugate Vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4. Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Contents xv

12. Dexamethasone in the Treatment of Pediatric


Bacterial Meningitis in Developing Countries:
Is it Beneficial?
Elizabeth Molyneux
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2. Context of Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3. Why Steroids? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4. Causes of Bacterial Meningitis in Children in Developing Countries . . . . . 176
4.1. Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5. Studies of Adjuvant Steroid Therapy in Children with Bacterial Meningitis
in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.1. The Blantyre Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.1.1. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6. What Affected Mortality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7. What Affected Hearing Loss? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8. What was the Role of HIV in Outcome in the Steroid Treated
and Placebo Group? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9. Overall Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13. Should Dexamethasone be Part of Routine


Therapy of Bacterial Meningitis in
Industrialised Countries?
Peter McIntyre
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2. Steroids and Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3. Steroids and Bacterial Meningitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.1. The 1997 Meta-Analysis (5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.1.1. Included Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.1.2. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.1.3. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.2. The 2003 Cochrane Review (6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.1. Included Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.2. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.3. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.3. The Netherlands Adult Trial (8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.3.1. Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.2.2. Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.4. Dexamethasone in Practice—Pneumococcal Meningitis,
Sydney 1994–99 (11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.4.1. Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.4.2. Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
xvi Contents

14. How to Interpret a CSF—The Art and the Science


Tom Connell and Nigel Curtis
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2. Variation in CSF Normal Values with Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.1. Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.2. White Cell Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.3. Neutrophil Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.4. Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.5. Glucose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3. Can CSF Abnormalities be Caused by Convulsions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4. CSF Eosinophilia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.1. Eosinophilic Meningitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.2. Shunt Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5. Interpretation of Blood-Contaminated CSF (“Traumatic Taps”) . . . . . . . . . 205
6. Distinguishing Viral and Bacterial Meningitis on the Basis of CSF Findings 206
6.1. “Scary Facts” About CSF Findings in Meningitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2. CSF Scores and Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.3. Approach for Patients with Mild CSF Pleocytosis Only . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7. Alternative Methods for Distinguishing Bacterial and Viral Meningitis . . . 209
7.1. Rapid Antigen Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.2. Inflammatory Cytokines and Other Marker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.3. The Future: Molecular Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

15. Reverse Vaccinology and Vaccines for


Serogroup B Neisseria meningitidis
Dominic F. Kelly and Rino Rappuoli
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
1. Reverse Vaccinology—An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2. Serogroup B N. meningitidis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3. Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Index .......................................................... 225


Contributing Authors

Upton D. Allen Johan Bylund


Division of Infectious Diseases Department of Pediatrics
Hospital for Sick Children B.C Research Institute for Children’s and
University of Toronto Women’s Health
University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Sonia Arora Canada
Department of Microbiology and Tropical
Medicine Jean-Laurent Casanova
The George Washington University Unité d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie
Medical Center Pédiatriques
Washington, DC Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades
USA 149, rue de Sèvres
75015 Paris, France, EU
Ann M. Arvin and
Lucile Salter Packard Professor of Pediatrics Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des
and Microbiology and Immunology Maladies Infectieuses
Stanford University School of Medicine Unité Mixte de Recherche Université René
300 Pasteur Drive, Room G311 Descartes-INSERM U550
Stanford, CA 94305-5208 Faculté de Médecine Necker-Enfants
USA Malades
156 rue de Vaugirard
Jeffrey Bethony 75015 Paris, France, EU
FIOCRUZ-Rene Rachou Research Center
Belo Horizonte, Brazil Tom Connell
Department of Paediatrics,
Maria Elena Bottazzi University of Melbourne; and Paediatric
Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Unit,
Tropical Medicine Department of General Medicine
The George Washington University Medical Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne
Center, Washington, DC, USA Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia

Simon Brooker Nigel Curtis


Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases Associate Professor
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Department of Paediatrics,
Medicine, London, United Kingdom University of Melbourne; and Head of
Paediatric Infectious Diseases Unit,
Rodrigo Correa-Oliveira Department of General Medicine
FIOCRUZ-Rene Rachou Research Center Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne
Belo Horizonte Parkville, VIC 3052
Brazil Australia

xvii
xviii Contributing Authors

David Goldblatt Sarah S. Long


Immunobiology Unit, Institute of Professor
Child Health Drexel University College of Medicine
University College London and Great Chief, Section of Infectious Diseases
Ormond Street Children’s Hospital NHS St. Christopher’s Hospital for Children
Trust London, United Kingdom Philadelphia, PA

Dr Sophie Hambleton Alex Loukas


Columbia University Department of Microbiology and Tropical
Department of Pediatrics Medicine
650 W 168 St, #BB427 The George Washington University Medical
New York Center
NY 10032 Washington, DC, USA

Peter J. Hotez Peter McIntyre


Department of Microbiology and Tropical National Centre for Immunisation
Medicine Research and Surveillance of
The George Washington University Medical Vaccine Preventable
Center Diseases, The Children's Hospital at
2300 Eye Street, NW Westmead, Westmead
Washington, DC 20037 NSW, Australia

Dominic Kelly Elizabeth Molyneux


Department of Paediatrics Paediatric Department
University of Oxford College of Medicine
John Radcliffe Hospital P.O. Box 360
Oxford OX3 9DU Blantyre
United Kingdom Malawi
Africa
Jan L.L. Kimpen
Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital Capucine Picard
KB 03.023.2 Unité d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie
P.O. Box 3508 Pédiatriques
3508 AB Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades
149, rue de Sèvres
Philippe Lepage 75015 Paris, France, EU
Département de Pédiatrie, Université de Liège and
4000 Liège, Belgium Laboratoire de Génétique Humaine des
Maladies Infectieuses
Myron M. Levine Unité Mixte de Recherche Université René
University of Maryland School Descartes-INSERM U550
of Medicine Faculté de Médecine Necker-Enfants
685 W. Baltimore St. Malades
Baltimore, MD 21201, USA 156 rue de Vaugirard
75015 Paris, France, EU
Caroline A. Lindemans
Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital Rino Rappuoli
KE04.133.1 Chiron Vaccines
P.O. Box 85090 Sienna
3508 AB Italy
Contributing Authors xix

Delane Shingadia Stephen Teo


Centre for Child Health Centre for Child Health
Royal London Hospital Royal London Hospital
38 New Road 38 New Road
London E1 2AX London E1 2AX
United Kingdom United Kingdom

David P. Speert David A Warrell


Department of Pediatrics University of Oxford
B.C Research Institute for Nuffield Department of Clinical
Children’s and Women’s Health Medicine
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, John Radcliffe Hospital,
Canada Oxford OX3 9DU
Keble College

Sarah Long
The Audience

Ann Arvin
Upton Allen

Jan Kimpen

You might also like