Theory of Metal forming

Cold Forming of Metals

• Cold forming: The forming of blank metal into a shape.
• A variety of machines can be used for this operation depending on
the metal and desired end product.
• Common machines used for cold forming include power presses,
metal shears, and press breaks.
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 8.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

low carbon steel

26
Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H.
Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 27
Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu?
pDo2 pDd2
-
Copper %CW = 4 4 x 100
Cold pDo2
Work
4
Do2 - Dd2
= x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2

(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
(15.2 mm)
28
 31

2. Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and
warm working often expressed in terms of
melting point:
• 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
 32

Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
• Low spring back

Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
 37

3. Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about
one-half of melting point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
 38

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation
of the metal - far more than possible with
cold working or warm working
• Why?
• Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temperature
• Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
• Ductility is significantly increased
 39

Advantages of Hot Working

• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No work hardening occurs during forming
 40

Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk
forming
• Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
• Shorter tool life
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC) • Three Annealing
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500
40 3. Grain Growth
400 30

ductility Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch

20
4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300
K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
42
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery

•During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy

is relieved. In addition, physical properties such as
electrical and thermal conductivities are recovered to their
precold-worked states.

43
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (a),(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig.
8.21 (a),(b) are courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
44
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig. 8.21

(c),(d), Callister &
Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.21
(c),(d) are courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General Electric
After 4 After 8 Company.)
seconds seconds
45
Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 140,
rolling direction John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

46
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig. 8.21
(d),(e), Callister &
Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.21
(d),(e) are courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General Electric
Company.)

coefficient dependent After 8 s, After 15 min,

on material and T. 580ºC 580ºC • Empirical Relation:
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
n n
at time t. d - d o = Kt
47
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 8.22,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

º
48
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A series of cold rolling operations are to be used to reduce the thickness of a plate
from 50 mm down to 25 mm in a reversing two-high mill. Roll diameter =700 mm
and coefficient of friction between rolls and work= 0.15. The specification is that
the draft is to be equal on each pass. Determine (a) minimum number of passes
required and (b) draft for each pass?
A single pass of cold rolling operation is to be used to reduce the thickness of a
plate from 25 mm down to 20 mm in a reversing two-high mill. Roll diameter
=1000 and its speed=30m/min. The specification is that the draft is to be equal on
each pass. Determine (a) minimum number of passes required and (b) draft for
each pass?