Atmosphere - PO-336
Atmosphere - PO-336
The atmosphere is composed of a mixture of invisible gases. These gases make up the majority of
the atmosphere. There are also small particles of dust and debris in the lower levels of the
atmosphere
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The Breakdown of the Major Gases
At altitudes of up to 250 000 feet above sea level (ASL), the atmosphere is composed primarily of
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapour, and several other gases. Each of
these gases comprises a certain percentage of the atmosphere.
QUESTIONS
Q1. How much of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen?
Q3. From the standpoint of weather, which gas is the most important?
The Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. The troposphere starts at ground level and
extends to varying heights ASL (see Figure 13-1-1). Within the troposphere air pressure, density and
temperature decrease with altitude. Temperature will drop to a low of -56 degrees Celsius. Most
weather occurs in this layer of the atmosphere due to the presence of water vapour as well as strong
vertical currents caused by terrestrial radiation. Terrestrial radiation causes the troposphere to
extend to varying altitudes. There is more radiation
at the equator than at the poles.
The phenomenon known as the jet stream exists in the upper parts of the troposphere.
The top of the troposphere is known as the tropopause, which acts as a boundary between the
troposphere and the stratosphere.
The Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends 50 000 feet upwards from the tropopause. The pressure continues to
decrease in the stratosphere. The temperature will gradually rise to 0 degrees Celsius. It is in the
stratosphere that the bulk of the ozone layer exists. This prevents the more harmful solar radiation
from reaching the earth’s surface, which explains the rise in temperature.
The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, which acts as a boundary between the
stratosphere and the mesosphere.
The Mesosphere
The mesosphere is characterized by a decrease in temperature. The temperature will reach a low of
- 100 degrees Celsius at 275 000 feet ASL. It is in the mesosphere that meteorites will usually burn
up. The top of the mesosphere is known as the mesopause, which acts as a boundary between the
mesosphere and the thermosphere.
The Thermosphere
The highest of the four layers, the thermosphere is so named due to its intense temperatures. This
is the first layer to be affected by solar radiation and what few oxygen molecules there are in this
layer will absorb a high amount of that radiation. The actual temperature will vary depending on solar
activity, but it can exceed 15 000 degrees Celsius
QUESTIONS
Q1. Name the four layers of the atmosphere.
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Explain International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standard Atmosphere
QUESTIONS
Q1. Why is there an international standard atmosphere?
Q2. What is the basis for ICAO standard atmosphere in North America?
Q3. What are the four assumptions used in the ICAO standard atmosphere for North America?
Mobility. This property is the ability of the air to move from one place to another. This is
especially important as it explains why an air mass that forms over the arctic may affect
places in the south.
Capacity for Expansion. The most important of the three properties. Air is forced to rise for
various reasons. As the air pressure decreases, the air will expand and cool. This cooling
may be enough for condensation to occur and clouds to form, creating precipitation.
Capacity for Compression. The opposite of expansion, compression occurs when the air
has cooled and becomes denser. The air will sink, decreasing in volume and increasing in
temperature.
QUESTIONS
Q1. What are the three properties of the atmosphere?
Q3. What are the three factors affecting the properties of the atmosphere?
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Explain Cloud Classification
CLOUD CLASSIFICATION
Clouds are classified based on type of formation and cloud height.
Types of Formation
There are two main types of cloud formations:
Cumulus. Cumulus clouds are formed by air that is unstable. They are cottony or puffy, and
are seen mostly during warmer seasons. Cumulus clouds may develop into storm clouds.
Stratus. Stratus clouds are formed in air that is stable. They are flat and can be seen year
round, but are associated with colder temperatures.
Cloud Height
Clouds are also classified based on their height above ground level (AGL). There are four main
categories:
Low Clouds. The bases of low clouds range from the surface to a height of 6 500 feet AGL.
Low clouds are composed of water droplets and sometimes ice crystals. Low clouds use the
word stratus as either a prefix (eg, stratocumulus) or a suffix (eg, nimbostratus).
Middle Clouds. The bases of middle clouds range from 6 500 to 23 000 feet AGL. They are
composed of ice crystals or water droplets, which may be at temperatures above 0 degrees
Celsius. Middle clouds use the prefix of “alto” (eg, altocumulus).
High Clouds. The bases of high clouds range from 16 500 to 45 000 feet, with an average of
25 000 feet in the temperate regions of the earth. High clouds are composed of ice crystals.
High clouds use the prefix of “cirrus” or “cirro” (eg, cirrocumulus).
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Clouds of Vertical Development. The base of these clouds may be as low as 1 500 feet
AGL and may rise as high as the lower reaches of the stratosphere. They may appear as
isolated clouds or may be seen embedded in layers of clouds. Clouds of vertical
development are associated with thunderstorms and other phenomena which occur during
the summer months.
The following chart includes a brief description of the more common cloud types.
QUESTIONS
Q1. How are clouds classified?
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Explain Air Stability
AIR STABILITY
At the surface, the normal flow of air is horizontal. Disturbances may occur, which will cause vertical
currents of air to develop. This is normally caused by a change in temperature. If the air that is
displaced resists the change, then it is said to be stable. If it does not resist the change then it is
unstable. When air rises, it expands and cools.
Stable Air. If a mass of rising air is cooler than the air that it comes in contact with, then it will sink
back to its original position. Stable air may have the following affects on flight characteristics:
poor low-level visibility (fog may occur),
stratus type cloud,
steady precipitation,
steady winds, which can change greatly with height, and
smooth flying conditions.
Unstable Air. If a mass of rising air is still warmer than the new air around it, then the air mass will
continue to rise. Unstable air may have the following affects on flight characteristics:
good visibility (except in precipitation),
cumulus type cloud,
showery precipitation,
gusty winds, and
moderate to severe turbulence.
QUESTIONS
Q1. What may create vertical currents?
LIFTING AGENTS
Rising currents of air affect many weather conditions. There are five conditions that provide the lift
required to initiate rising currents of air.
Convection. The air is heated through contact with the earth’s surface. As the sun heats the surface
of the earth, the air in contact with the surface warms up, rises, and expands. Convection may also
occur when air moves over a warmer surface and is heated by advection.
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Orographic Lift. Orographic lift occurs when the sloping terrain forces the air upward.
Frontal Lift. When different air masses meet, the warmer air is forced upwards by the denser cold
air. This process may be exaggerated if the warm air mass becomes unstable.
Mechanical Turbulence. Air moving over the ground may be affected by terrain that is not as
pronounced as mountains. Forests, buildings, large ditches and quarries also affect the air through
friction. This friction causes eddies, which are usually confined to the first few thousand feet of the
troposphere. This process may be exaggerated if the air mass becomes or is already unstable.
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Convergence. In a low pressure system, the wind blows toward the centre of the system. The
excess air that collects here is forced upward to higher altitudes.
QUESTIONS
Q1. Explain how convection (as a source of lift) occurs.
CLOUD FORMATION
Clouds are formed by the lifting agents and air stability.
Clouds are formed in two ways. Either the temperature drops to the saturation point of the air or the
temperature is constant but the amount of water in the air increases.
Another example would be orographic lift, which is usually associated with stable air. After the air
has been forced up by the terrain, it cools and becomes dense. The effect is similar to positive
stability in an airplane.
QUESTIONS
Q1. What are the two ways in which a cloud forms?
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Explain the Polar Front Theory
Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere at any point due to the weight of the
overlying air. Pressure at the surface of the earth is normally measured using a mercury barometer
and is expressed in mm of mercury (mm Hg) or inches of mercury ("Hg). The barometer is
essentially an upside-down graduated, test tube that is partially immersed in a bowl of mercury. As
the pressure of the air over the bowl increases, the mercury is forced further up the test tube,
providing a higher reading.
Pressure is a force and, in meteorological work, it is common to use hectopascals (hPa) to measure
pressure. One hectopascal is 1 000 dynes (a unit of force) of force exerted on a 1 cm2 area.
The average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is normally expressed as 760 mm Hg (29.92
"Hg), which is the same as 1013.2 hPa. Public radio and television weather broadcasts (such as the
Weather Network or Environment Canada) will express pressure in kilopascals (kPa). One kPa is
equal to 10 hPa, so that 1013.2 hPa would be equal 101.32 kPa.
Barometer
Pressure Systems
There are pressure reading stations all over North America. Each station will send its readings to a
main forecasting office, which will plot the information on a weather map.
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Isobars. Areas of like pressure are joined by lines called isobars (from Greek isos [same]
and baros [weight]). On a weather map, isobars will look similar to contour lines found on a
topographical map. The isobars form roughly concentric circles, each circle being four hPa
different than the circles before and after it. Groups of isobars will indicate areas of relatively
high pressure, or relatively low pressure.
Low Pressure Areas. Low pressure areas (often called lows, cyclones, or depressions) are areas of
relatively lower pressure, with the lowest pressure in the centre. Lows will normally move in an
easterly direction at an average rate of 800 km per day during the summer and 1 100 km per day in
the winter.
Lows are associated with thunderstorms and tornadoes, and do not stay in one place for very long.
In the northern hemisphere, air moves around a low pressure in a counter-clockwise direction.
High Pressure Areas. High pressure areas (often called anti-cyclones) are areas of relatively higher
pressure, with the highest pressure in the centre. Winds are usually light and variable. High pressure
areas move very slowly, sometimes staying stationary for days at a time. In the northern
hemisphere, air moves around a high in a clockwise direction.
The cold air moves faster than the warm air and eventually envelopes it. The movement of the air at
the polar front is thought to be a cause for the circulation of air in the troposphere.
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QUESTIONS
Q2. Which direction does the air move around a low pressure in the northern hemisphere?
Q3. What is the transition zone between the polar air and the tropical air known as?
Explain That the Properties (eg, Pressure) of an Air Mass are Taken From the Area Over
Which it Forms
An air mass may be defined as a large section of the troposphere with uniform properties of
temperature and moisture along the horizontal plane. This means that if a horizontal cross-section
was taken of an air mass, one would see layers within the air mass where the temperature and the
amount of moisture would be the same throughout.
An air mass will take on the properties of the surface over which it has formed. An air mass, which
has formed over the Arctic would be cold and dry, while one, which formed over the Gulf of Mexico
would be warm and moist.
Maritime Air Mass. Since the air mass formed over water, this will be a moist air mass.
Arctic Air Mass. Since the air mass formed over the Arctic, this will be a cold air mass.
Polar Air Mass. Since the air mass formed over the Polar region, this will be a cool air mass.
Tropical Air Mass. Since the air mass formed over the Tropical region, this will be a warm air mass.
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North American Air Masses
These types of air masses are usually combined to describe the properties of temperature and
moisture. For example, over Atlantic Canada one might find a maritime polar air mass, which will be
cool and moist. Meanwhile prairie winters usually see continental polar or continental arctic, which
will be either cool and dry or cold and dry. The five air masses in North America indicated in the
figure above include:
QUESTIONS
Q1. What is the definition of an air mass?
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Explain the Creation of Wind
WIND
Wind is a major factor in flight planning and flight characteristics. Pilots must constantly be aware of
the direction and speed of wind during all parts of the flight, but especially during the landing
sequence.
Pressure Gradient
The pressure gradient is the rate of change of pressure over a given distance measured at right
angles to the isobars.
If the isobars are very close together, the rate of change will be steep and the wind speed will be
strong.
If the isobars are far apart, the rate of change will be shallow and the wind speed will be weak.
Pressure Gradient
Land and sea breezes are caused by the differences in temperature over land and water.
The sea breeze occurs during the day when the land heats up more rapidly than the water. This
creates a lower pressure area over the land. The pressure gradient caused by this change is usually
steep enough to create a wind from the water.
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The land breeze occurs at night when the land cools down faster than the water. This creates a
higher pressure over the land. The pressure gradient now moves the air from the land to the water.
Land and sea breezes are local and affect a small area only.
Diurnal Variation
Surface winds are generally stronger during the day than at night. This is due to the heating
processes, which occur during the day, creating vertical currents and pressure gradients. At night,
when the heating processes cease, the vertical currents diminish and the pressure gradients
become shallower.
Coriolis Force
As air moves from a high pressure system to a low pressure system, the air will not flow directly from
one to the other. The rotation of the earth causes a deflection to the right (in the northern
hemisphere). This force is known as Coriolis Force. Coriolis Force also explains why air moves
clockwise around a high, and counterclockwise around a low pressure system.
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QUESTIONS
Q1. Define pressure gradient.
Explain the Relationship Between Pressure Systems, and Wind Strength and Direction
QUESTIONS
Q1. What direction does the wind blow around a low pressure system in the northern hemisphere?
Q2. What direction does the wind blow around a high pressure system in the northern hemisphere?
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Explain Humidity
HUMIDITY
Humidity is a representation of the moisture or water vapour, which is present in an air mass. While
water vapour is a small percentage of the overall atmosphere, it is the only gas which can change
into a solid or a liquid in ordinary atmospheric conditions. It is this characteristic which causes most
weather to develop.
The moisture in an air mass originates from a body of water over which the air mass forms or
passes. This body of water may be a pond or an ocean. The size of the body of water determines
how much water is available for the air mass to collect, while the rate of evaporation will determine
how much of that water is collected by the air mass. Water may exist in the atmosphere in two
forms: invisible (gaseous) or visible (water droplets [liquid] or ice crystals [solid]).
Condensation
Condensation is a process by which a gas changes into a liquid by becoming denser. This is usually
caused by a cooling process. The air is cooled to a certain temperature at which the water vapour
will condense into water.
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Sublimation
Sublimation is a process by which a gas changes into a solid without first becoming a liquid. This is
usually caused by freezing. Sublimation occurs whenever snow, ice or hail fall from the sky. This
process usually occurs in the winter, but may occur during exceptional summer storms.
Dew Point
Dew point is the temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled, at a constant pressure, in
order to become saturated. The temperature and dew point are responsible for the creation of clouds
and precipitation.
If the difference between the temperature and the dew point is small, then the air is considered to be
nearly saturated and a small drop in temperature will see the formation of clouds or precipitation.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of water present in the air compared to the amount
of water which the same volume of air would hold if it were saturated. Temperature and pressure
must remain the same, otherwise the relative humidity will change. Saturated air will have a relative
humidity of 100 percent, while perfectly dry air will have a relative humidity of zero percent.
QUESTIONS
Q1. Define condensation.
Explain Temperature
TEMPERATURE
Temperature represents the amount of heat in a given object, such as the human body or air.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. In aviation weather reports, temperature is normally
expressed in degrees Celsius.
The Source
The source of the energy which warms the earth and its atmosphere is the sun. Solar radiation is
transmitted to the earth and its atmosphere. Some of the solar radiation is absorbed by the
stratosphere, while the rest passes through to be absorbed by the earth’s surface. The earth then
radiates heat into the troposphere through terrestrial radiation. It is terrestrial radiation that heats the
troposphere, and is why the further one gets from the surface of the earth, the lower the temperature
will be in the troposphere.
Diurnal Variation
During the day, the solar radiation exceeds the terrestrial radiation and the surface of the earth
becomes warmer. At night, solar radiation ceases, and the terrestrial radiation causes the surface of
the earth to cool.
This is called diurnal variation and causes the heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
Seasonal Variation
The axis around which the earth rotates is tilted compared to the plane of orbit around the sun. The
result is that the amount of solar radiation that strikes the surface of the earth varies from season to
season. In the northern hemisphere, the months of June, July, and August are warm, while the
months of December, January, and February are cold.
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The Heating Process
Air is a poor conductor of heat. The following are four processes which assist in getting warm air into
the higher levels of the atmosphere:
Convection. Air over a warm surface becomes buoyant and rises, allowing cooler air to
move into the vacant location. This vertical current of air distributes the heat to the higher
levels.
Advection. Horizontal movement of cool air over a warm surface allows the cool air to be
heated from below.
Turbulence. Turbulence created as the result of friction with the surface of the earth causes
a mixing process which moves the heated air to other areas of the atmosphere.
Compression. There are instances where air masses are forced down, such as air moving
down the leeward side of a mountain. The air pressure increases as the air mass moves
further down, compressing the air mass. This compression forces the particles together,
creating heat. This phenomenon is also called subsidence.
Radiation Cooling. At night the temperature of the earth decreases with terrestrial radiation
and cools the air in contact with the ground. Radiation cooling only affects the lower few
thousand feet of the atmosphere.
Advection Cooling. Air from a warm region moves over a cold region and cools the air.
Adiabatic Process. As air is warmed it will begin to rise and as it rises it will expand and
cool. In a rising current of air, the temperature decreases at a rate that is entirely
independent of the surrounding, nonrising air.
QUESTIONS
Q1. How is the atmosphere heated?
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Dew Point
The temperature of the air mass will change during the heating and cooling processes. As the
temperature nears the dew point, the air will become more saturated. This increases the relative
humidity and allows clouds to form.
Relative Humidity
As the relative humidity increases, the weight of the air mass also increases. When the dew point is
reached, the air will become saturated, and clouds will form. Once the air mass has reached 100
percent relative humidity, any addition of water or drop in temperature will cause precipitation.
Precipitation
Precipitation may be solid or liquid, depending on the temperature of the air mass. Snow will occur if
the air mass has a temperature below freezing. Rain will occur in an air mass which has a
temperature above freezing.
The temperature in the air mass will change with altitude, so that the water may freeze at higher
levels of the air mass. Frozen precipitation such as hail and even snow has been seen in the
summer months.
QUESTIONS
Q3. How is it possible for hail or snow to occur in the summer months?
There are seven main categories of precipitation listed by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO). Each one is created depending on temperature and cloud type. Types of precipitation
include:
Drizzle. Precipitation in the form of small water droplets which appear to float. In
temperatures near freezing, water droplets may freeze on contact with objects. This is known
as freezing drizzle.
Rain. Precipitation in the form of large water droplets. Freezing rain will occur when water
droplets, which have retained their liquid form in freezing conditions, make contact with an
object and freeze.
Hail. Formed in clouds, which have strong vertical currents (such as thunderstorms), hail is
the result of a water droplet which has been prevented from exiting the cloud by the vertical
currents, until it has reached a particular mass. The stronger the vertical currents, the larger
the hailstones. Softball-sized hailstones have been seen in the Prairies and tropical areas,
where large thunderstorms commonly occur.
Snow Pellets. If the water region where the cloud is receiving water from is shallow, then the
droplet will not form the hard shell that a hailstone would have. The pellet falls as a soft pellet
of snow.
Snow. Snow is the result of sublimation. Flakes are an agglomeration of ice crystals and are
usually in the shape of a hexagon or star.
Ice Prisms. Created in stable air masses at very low temperatures. Ice prisms are tiny ice
crystals in the form of needles. They can form with or without clouds. Sometimes confused
with ice fog.
Ice Pellets. Ice pellets are raindrops, which are frozen before contacting an object (as
opposed to freezing rain, which freezes after contact with an object). They generally rebound
after striking the ground.
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QUESTIONS
Q3. What is the difference between ice pellets and freezing rain?
Q7. What is the transition zone between the polar air and the tropical air known as?
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