Technical Bulletin

Membrane Filtration Processes

Document No. TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452)

This document is property of X-Flow B.V. in Enschede. Nothing from this document may be duplicated and/or published without
written approval of the owner.  2006 X-Flow B.V.
X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

Contents
1 Introduction ______________________________________________________________________3

2 Pressure driven processes _________________________________________________________4

2.1 Microfiltration _________________________________________________________________5
2.2 Ultrafiltration _________________________________________________________________6
2.3 Nanofiltration _________________________________________________________________6
2.4 Reverse Osmosis _____________________________________________________________7
3 Types of membranes ______________________________________________________________8
3.1 Membrane Materials ___________________________________________________________8
3.2 Membrane forms ______________________________________________________________8
4 Membrane operation modes _______________________________________________________10
4.1 Cross-flow configuration _______________________________________________________10
4.2 Dead-end configuration________________________________________________________11

Tables
Table 1: Typical properties of different membrane systems ______________________________________________ 9

Figures
Figure 2-1: Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration / Reverse Osmosis _______________________________ 4
Figure 2-2: Approximate pore sizes Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis_____________ 5
Figure 3-1: Plate & Frame, Spiral Wound and Tubular/Capillary membranes_________________________________ 8
Figure 4-1: Cross-flow system ____________________________________________________________________ 10
Figure 4-2: Membrane surface during cross-flow______________________________________________________ 10
Figure 4-3: Dead end system during filtration ________________________________________________________ 12
Figure 4-4: Membrane surface during dead-end filtration _______________________________________________ 12
Figure 4-5: Dead-end system during backwash_______________________________________________________ 12
FFigure 4-6: Membrane surface during dead-end backwash ____________________________________________ 12

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 2 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

1 Introduction

Membranes are used to satisfy many separation requirements. Membrane processes can be
subdivided according to a number of criteria, e.g.:

• medium (gas-gas, gas-liquid or liquid-liquid)

• driving force (pressure difference, concentration or temperature gradient, electrical
potential etc.)
• pore size (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration etc.).

The processes described in this document are confined to pressure driven, liquid-liquid
separations.

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 3 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

2 Pressure driven processes

Various pressure-driven membrane processes can be used to concentrate or purify a dilute

(aqueous or non-aqueous) solution. The characteristic of these processes is that the solvent is
the continuous phase and that the concentration of the solute is relatively low. The most common
solvent is obviously water, which contains a large variety of solutes. The particle or molecular
size and chemical properties of the solute determine the structure and pore size of the
membrane to be installed to retain the solute.

Various processes can be distinguished related to the particle size of the solute and
consequently to membrane structure. These processes are micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano
filtration and reverse osmosis. The principle of the four processes is illustrated in Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1: Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration / Reverse Osmosis

The driving force, the pressure that is applied across the membrane or Trans Membrane
Pressure (TMP), pushes the solvent and various solute molecules through the membrane,
whereas other molecules or particles are rejected to various extents depending on the structure
of the membrane. Going from micro filtration through ultra filtration to reverse osmosis, the size of
the particles or molecules that are retained diminishes and consequently the pore sizes in the

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 4 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

membrane becomes smaller 1. This implies that the resistance of the membranes to the solvent
passing the membrane increases and hence the driving force, the Trans Membrane Pressure,
has to be increased.

A schematic drawing of the separation ranges involved in these various processes is given in
Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: Approximate pore sizes Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis

It should be noted that the boundaries between the different processes are not as sharp as they
may seen from Figure 2-1. Boundaries may vary depending on the author.

2.1 Microfiltration

Microfiltration is most commonly used as a particle filter. A microfiltration membrane will retain
particles larger than it’s pore size, typically 0,1 – 1 µm (or 100-1000 nm). It can be applied to
separate yeast in fermentation broths for example. In these types of applications it is important
that the membrane retains particles (e.g. yeast), but does not retain other substances in the feed
stream like proteins or polysaccharides. For water filtration the contemporary view is that a
microfiltration membrane is too open. Although it can retain bacteria and protozoa (usually
several µm in diameter), it is not capable to provide any significant virus retention.

1
Reverse Osmosis is strictly not referred to as a sieving process, the membrane is so dense that it depends on
diffusion, therefore the term pore size is typically not used for RO

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 5 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

2.2 Ultrafiltration

Ultrafiltration, with a typical poresize of 0,01 – 0,1 µm (or 10-100 nm) is the better solution for
water filtration, capable of not only retaining particles and bacteria, but viruses to a large extent
as well.

Because of it’s smaller pore size over microfiltration, Ultrafiltration can retain smaller substances
like proteins, as long as they are not completely dissolved. As an example, this phenomenon is
being used in dairy industry, to concentrate proteins from whey. In this case the product not what
passes the membrane, but what is retained by it (a concentrated protein stream).

In water treatment, a combination of coagulation (adding chemicals to the water that coagulate
dissolved organics into non dissolved “flocs”) and Ultrafiltration is used when both particle
retention as well as organics reduction is required.

2.3 Nanofiltration

Nanofiltration is most commonly used to retain relatively large, but dissolved molecules and ions.
A nanofiltration membrane will retain these substances to an extent that depend on it’s pore size,
which typically ranges from 0,001 – 0,01 µm (or 10-100 nm).

A relatively open nanofiltration membrane, like the X-Flow capillary nanofiltration membrane,
retains large dissolved molecules, like humic substances, some pesticides and herbicides veryy
well. Divalent ions, like Calcium and Magnesium (responsible for hardness in water) are retained
to a lesser extent. A relatively tight nanofiltration membrane may retain divalent ions up to 90-
99%. Monovalent ions, like Sodium and Chloride in seawater, are hardly retained by
nanofiltration membranes.

Nanofiltration, like reverse osmosis, is affected by the charge of the particles being rejected.
Thus, particles with larger charges are more likely to be rejected than others. Nanofiltration is not
effective on small molecular weight organics, such as methanol

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 6 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

2.4 Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis, also known as hyperfiltration, is the finest filtration known. This process will
allow the removal of particles as small as ions from a solution. Reverse osmosis is mainly used
to desalinate water, e.g. to produce potable water from seawater. The most common use for
reverse osmosis is in purifying water. It is used to produce water that meets the most demanding
specifications that are currently in place.

Reverse osmosis uses a membrane that is semi-permeable, allowing the fluid that is being
purified to pass through it, while rejecting the contaminants that remain. The separation of ions
with reverse osmosis is aided by the charge of the constituents that are being retained. This
means that dissolved ions that carry a charge, such as salts, are more likely to be rejected by the
membrane than those that are not charged, such as small organics. The larger the charge and
the larger the particle, the more likely it will be rejected

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 7 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

3 Types of membranes

Membranes can be manufactured from different materials and in different form.

3.1 Membrane Materials

Membranes can be made out of the following materials:

• Sythetic polymers (e.g. Polyether Sulphone)
• Modified natural product (e.g. Cellulose Acetate)
• Ceramic material (e.g. Silicium Carbide)
• Others (e.g. metals, porous glass etc.)

For more detailed information about membrane materials, reference is made to the X-Flow
Technical Bulletin “Membrane Materials”.

3.2 Membrane forms

Membranes are produced in different forms. The simplest form is a flat sheet. To obtain a
significant membrane area the flat sheets are stacked in a “plate and frame” construction, rather
like in a heat exchanger. This is represented at the top of Figure 3-1.

F, C and P refer to Feed, Concentrate and

Permeate respectively.

Another way to achieve the same goal is to roll

up the flat sheet membrane. The sheets are kept
apart by means of a “spacer”, usually a very
course woven plastic. This results in a “spiral
wound” module. Spiral wound modules are most
commonly used for Reverse Osmosis
membranes, i.e. desalting applications.

The third option available is to manufacture

tubular or capillary membranes. A bundle of
tubes or fibers is then cast into a housing by
means of a resin.

Figure 3-1: Plate & Frame, Spiral Wound and Tubular/Capillary membranes

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 8 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

Different membrane forms have different properties as well as different advantages and
disadvantages. Some of these are represented in Table 1.

Table 1: Typical properties of different membrane systems

Membrane Performance with Compactness Energy Price per m2

system solids in feed consumption
Plate & frame Fair Bad Fair Bad
Spiral wound Bad Good Fair Excellent
tube Excellent Fair Good Fair
Capillary Good Good Excellent Good

From the table it is clear that spiral wound membranes (most RO membranes) do not perform
well with water that contains suspended solids. The solids clog the spacer area and cannot be
removed very easily. The tubular and capillary membranes do not have this problem and cope
with solids very well.

Capillary membranes can be operated “inside-out” or “outside in”.

Inside-out means that the feed stream, containing the solutes that need to be retained, is
pumped into the inside of the capillary. The filtrate leaves the capillary from the outside, solutes
are retained within the capillary.

Outside-in means that the feed stream is pumped from the outside to the inside of the capillary.
The filtrate leaves the capillary from the inside, solutes are retained on the outside of the
capillary.

X-Flow membranes are typically operated “Inside-out”. The advantages of this approach and the
disadvantages of “Outside-in” are described in the X-Flow Technical Bulletin TBU-GEN-04
“Inside-out vs Outside-in”.

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 9 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

4 Membrane operation modes

There are different ways to operate a membrane system. Since solutes are retained on the
membrane, it is obvious these will build up an increasingly thick layer of foulant (cake), which in
turn generates a resistance to flow through the membrane. Hence, the Trans Membrane
Pressure will have to be increased to keep the production capacity constant.

In general, two modes of membrane operation can be distinguished:

1. Cross-flow operation
2. Dead-end operation

4.1 Cross-flow configuration

In order to avoid/limit the phenomenon of cake build-up on the membranes, early developments
in membrane filtration incorporated a cross-flow mode of operation. In cross-flow, a relatively
large flow is pumped across the membrane, thereby creating turbulence at the membrane
surface. A relatively small amount of fluid actually passes the membrane as product. The cross-
flow configuration is illustrated in Figure 4-1 and Figure 4-2.

FEED BLEED /
CONCENTRATE

Feed Pump Cross-flow Pump

PERMEATE

Figure 4-1: Cross-flow system

This particular system incorporates two

cross-
pumps, one for feeding the system and one
for generating the cross-flow velocity of the
fluid at the membrane surface. The applied
cross-flow velocity is typically 1-5 m/s, thus
requiring a relatively large cross-flow pump
with a matching power consumption.

Figure 4-2: Membrane surface during cross-flow

The feed suspension is initially concentrated in the cross-flow loop. Because of the constant
bleed of the cross-flow loop, an equilibrium is reached after a certain time.

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 10 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

The same applies for the layer of solutes that builds up on the membrane surface. After a certain
time, the solutes that are deposited on the membrane reaches an equilibrium with the amount of
solutes removed from the membrane surface by the turbulence created by the cross-flow.

From this operating method it is obvious that not all of the feed suspension is turned into treated
product. A portion of the feed leaves the system through the bleed discharge as concentrate. For
such a system, the recovery is defined as the portion of the feed that is actually treated. If 10% of
the feed leaves the plant as concentrate, then the recovery is 90%. The concentration of the
bleed (and thus the cross-flow loop), is 10 times as high as the feed concentration.

Cross-flow systems are usually very robust and reliable. The system is fairly simple and
straightforward, because it is a continuous process. Once started most cross-flow systems run
for a long period before being cleaned. However, cross-flow systems do have some major
drawbacks:
• power consumption is relatively high, often in the order of several kWh per m3 of product
• shear forces that the feed fluid is exposed to may be damaging to the fluid.
• Large footprint due to pump and large diameter piping.

4.2 Dead-end configuration

In order to avoid the above mentioned drawbacks, dead-end systems were developed for
applications with relatively low amounts of retainable solutes. In a dead end system, there is no
circulation. All of the fluid that is pumped into the system passes the membrane, thereby
retaining the solutes on the membrane surface.

The dead end configuration is illustrated in Figure 4-3 and Figure 4-4.

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 11 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

PERMEATE

Backwash Pump

FEED CONCENTRATE

Feed Pump

PERMEATE

Figure 4-3: Dead end system during filtration

The latter figure clearly illustrates the

fact that the retained solutes form a
cake layer on the membrane surface.
As the cake layer grows, the
resistance to flow through it increases.
In order to keep the production
capacity constant, the Trans
Membrane Pressure across the
membrane needs to be increased.
Figure 4-4: Membrane surface during dead-end filtration

PERMEATE

Backwash Pump

FEED CONCENTRATE

Feed Pump

PERMEATE

Figure 4-5: Dead-end system during backwash

Contrary to cross-flow, solutes are not

removed from the membrane surface
during filtration. Therefore, the solutes
layer on the membrane surface will
have to be removed on a regular
basis. This is accommodated by
means of a backwash, as represented
in Figure 4-5.
F
Figure 4-6: Membrane surface during dead-end backwash

The need for performing a backwash makes this a discontinuous process i.e. periodically filtration
is stopped and a backwash is executed, after which filtration is resumed.

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 12 of 13

X-Flow B.V. Technical Bulletin
Know-How Centre Membrane Filtration Processes

During a backwash, a small portion of the permeate produced during filtration is pumped through
the membrane in reverse flow. The backwash lifts up the cake layer and removes it from the
plant, rendering the membrane surface clean again.

The main advantages of a dead end system are:

• Low power consumption, typically in the order 0,02 - 0,05 kWh per m3.
• Small footprint and compact design

TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0603 (replaces TBU-GEN-TECH-01-0452) Page 13 of 13