2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Calculus II
Cesar O. Aguilar

4. Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

In this chapter, we introduce parametric equations on the plane and polar
coordinates.

4.1 Parametric Equations

Consider the following curve C in the plane:

Fig. 4.1: A curve that is not the graph of a function y = f (x)

The curve cannot be expressed as the graph of a function y = f (x) because there
are points x associated to multiple values of y, that is, the curve does not pass the
vertical line test. We may still be interested in describing the points (x, y) on the
curve. For example, if the curve is the trajectory of a particle moving on a plane
then the position (x, y) of the particle is a function of time t:

x = x(t)

y = y(t)

This is an example of a set of parametric equations and the variable t is called the
parameter of the parametrization. In some examples, the parameter could instead
be an angle variable θ:

x = x(θ)

y = y(θ)

The main point is that the points (x, y) can be expressed or depend on a third
parameter. Parametric equations also come with a domain for the parameter,
usually we denote the domain with I = [a, b], and it could be infinite I = [a, ∞),
or I = (−∞, ∞), etc.

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Example 4.1.1
Make a sketch of the curve C parametrized by

2
x = x(t) = t

y = y(t) = t + 1.

The domain of the parameter is −3 ≤ t ≤ 3 . Eliminate the parameter t to find a

Cartesian equation of the curve.

Solution: Partition the interval I into = [−3, 3]

t 0 = −3, t 1 = −2, t 2 = −1, … , t 7 = 3 and evaluate (x(t i ), y(t i )) and plot

points. The resulting curve is given below. The orientation is clockwise.

Fig. 4.2: Curve x(t) = t

2
, y(t) = t + 1 for −3 ≤ t ≤ 3

The initial point is (9, −2) and final point is (9, 4). It seems as though the curve is a
parabola. To find a Cartesian equation, start with
2
x = t

y = t + 1

and from the y-equation we get t = y − 1 and thus x = (y − 1)

2
. ∎
Example 4.1.2
Sketch the curve C parametrized by the equations below on the interval
]. Indicate the orientation of the parametrization with arrows. Eliminate
3π
I = [0,
2

the parameter to find a Cartesian equation of the curve.

x = x(θ) = 2 cos(θ)

y = y(θ) = 3 sin(θ)

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Solution: Use the estimate √2 ≈ 1.4 . Evaluate the parametric equations along
convenient θ values:

θ 0 π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2

x(θ) 2 2
√2
0 −2
√2
−2 −2
√2
0
2 2 2

y(θ) 0 3
√2
3 3
√2
0 −3
√2
−3
2 2 2

Fig. 4.3: Curve x(θ) ,

= 2 cos(θ) y(θ) = 3 sin(θ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 3π/2

The curve seems to be a portion of an ellipse. Recall that an ellipse centered at

(x 0 , y 0 ) with horizontal radius a and vertical radius b has Cartesian equation

2 2
(x − x 0 ) (y − y 0 )
+ = 1
2 2
a b

Thus, we suspect that the Cartesian equation of the curve is

2 2
x y
+ = 1
4 9

To eliminate the parameter start with

x = 2 cos(θ)

y = 3 sin(θ)

and then
x
= cos(θ)
2
y
= sin(θ)
3

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Now cos 2 (θ) + sin 2 (θ) = 1 and thus

2 2
x y
2 2
( ) + ( ) = cos (θ) + sin (θ)
2 3

and thus

2 2
x y
+ = 1.
4 9

∎
In general, a parametrization of a general ellipse

2 2
(x − x 0 ) (y − y 0 )
+ = 1
2 2
a b

is given by

x = x(t) = x 0 ± a cos(t)

y = y(t) = y 0 ± b sin(t)

with interval I depending on how much of the ellipse we want to parametrize. To get
a full rotation of the ellipse, we need an interval of length 2π, and if we take
I = [0, 2π] we start at (a, 0) and get a counter-clockwise (CCW) orientation with a

full rotation.

Example 4.1.3
Draw the ellipse and find a parametrization starting at the point (3, 1) with a full
rotation with CCW orientation.

2 2
(x − 3) (y + 2)
+ = 1
7 9

Example 4.1.4
Sketch the curve parametrized by the equations

x(t) = − cos(t)

y(t) = 2 + sin(t)

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

where − 2 π
≤ t ≤ 2π . Indicate the terminal and final point of the parametrization.

Example 4.1.5
Find a parametrization of the ellipse centered at (−1, 3), with clockwise
orientation, starting at (−1, 2) and passing through the point (−7, 3), and going
around one and a half times (end point is (−1, 4)).

Solution: First determine a CCW orientation and then change the signs
accordingly. The ellipse is:

Fig. 4.4: Ellipse centered at (−1, 3) of radii a = 6 and b = 1

The general equations of the parametrization of an ellipse in this case is

x(t) = −1 + 6 cos(t)

y(t) = 3 + 1 sin(t)

We need the interval to be I = [− π2 , 5π

2
]. This gives a CCW orientation. To

change the orientation, we can change the sign in front of the cos(t) term:

x(t) = −1 − 6 cos(t)

y(t) = 3 + 1 sin(t)

∎
A familiar type of curve is the graph of a function:

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Fig. 4.5: A curve C is the graph of a function f if whenever (x, y) is a

point on C then y = f (x)

Every point (x, y) on the curve has y = f (x) . Therefore, a parametrization is

x = x(t) = t

y = y(t) = f (t)

with a ≤ t ≤ b .

Example 4.1.6
Parameterize the graph of the function y = 2x 3 where −1 ≤ x ≤ 2 with left-to-
right orientation. Then find a right-to-left orientation.

Solution: A parametrization is

x = x(t) = t

3
y = y(t) = 2t

with −1 ≤ t ≤ 2. We can find a right-to-left parametrization by changing all t's to

−t and changing the interval to −b ≤ t ≤ −a. In this case, a right-to-left

parametrization is then

x = x(t) = −t

3 3
y = y(t) = 2(−t) = −2t

with interval −2 ≤ t ≤ 1 . ∎
Example 4.1.7
Parameterize the line segment through the points (−1, 2) and ( 27 , 11).

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Solution: The slope of the line is

11 − 2 9
m = = = 7
2
+ 1 9/7
7

The equation of the line is then y = 7x + 9 . A parametrization of the entire line is

x = t

y = 7t + 9

and since we only want the line segment where −1 ≤ x ≤

2

7
then the interval is

I = [−1,
2

7
.
] ∎
Example 4.1.8
For each set of parametric equations, eliminate the parameter to find a Cartesian
equation for the curve.
(a) x(t) = √ t + 1 y(t) = √ t ,

(b) x(t) ,
= −4 + 2 cos(t) y(t) = 3 − 3 sin(t)

(c) x(t) = t
2
, y(t) = t
6
− 2t
4

(d) x(t) 2
= sec (t) − 1 y(t) = tan(t),

Recall that the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) through the
point (x 0 , f (x 0 )) is

y = y 0 + m(x − x 0 )

dy
where m ′
= f (x 0 ) =
dx
(x 0 ) .

Fig. 4.6: Equation of tangent line at x 0 is y ′

= f (x 0 ) + f (x 0 )(x − x 0 )

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Example 4.1.9
2

Find equation of line tangent to the graph of f (x) = −√ 9 (1 −

x

4
) through the
√
point (1, − 3 2 3 ).

Example 4.1.10
Find the equation of the line tangent to the given ellipse and passing through the
3√ 3
point P = (1, −
2
) .

2 2
x y
+ = 1
4 9

Solution: We could solve for y in terms of x:

2
x
y = −√ 9 (1 − )
4

However, in some cases we may only have a parametric equation for a curve and
even if we had a Cartesian equation we may not be able to solve for y (could use
implicit differentiation). Use instead a parametrization

x(t) = 2 cos(t)

y(t) = 3 sin(t)

0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

We now need a way to find the slope of the tangent line in terms of the parametric
equations. We do know that y = f (x) near P and thus y(t) = f (x(t)). Therefore,
by the chain rule
′ ′ ′
y (t) = f (x(t)) ⋅ x (t)

and therefore
′
y (t)
′
f (x(t)) =
′
x (t)

dy
Because f ′ (x) =
dx
this is sometimes written as

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II
′
dy y (t)
=
′
dx x (t)

Hence, in this case

dy 3 cos(t)
=
dx −2 sin(t)

At what t value do we evaluate? It has to correspond to the t value where the

parametrization passes through the point P . The value t ∗ where the
parametrization passes through the point P occurs when

√3
∗ ∗
2 cos(t ) = 1, 3 sin(t ) = −3 .
2

From cos(t ∗ ) = 1/2 either t ∗ = π/3 or t ∗ = 5π/3 . In this case, need to take
t = 5π/3. Hence, we obtain
∗

3 cos(t) 3(1/2)
m = = = √ 3/2
∗
−2 sin(t) t=t
−2(−√ 3/2)

Therefore, equation of line is

3√ 3
y = y 0 + m(x − x 0 ) = − + √ 3/2(x − 1)
2

which simplifies to

y = √ 3/2x − 2√ 3.

∎
Recall that a line is horizontal when its slope is zero and a vertical line could be
thought of as a line with infinite slope. Since
′
y (t)
m =
′
x (t)

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the tangent line is horizontal at a t value when y ′ (t) = 0 and is vertical when
x (t) = 0.
′

Example 4.1.11
Consider the parametrized curve

2
x(t) = t

3
y(t) = t − 3t + 3

t ∈ (−∞, ∞)

(a) Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve at the point (4, 1).

(b) Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is horizontal.
(c) Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is vertical.
(d) Find a Cartesian equation for the curve.

Solution: The curve is shown in Figure 4.7.

1. We compute
′ 2
y (t) 3t − 3
m = =
′
x (t) 2t

The curve passes through the point P = (4, 1) when t 2 = 4, so t = ±2 but

need y(t) = t 3 − 3t = 1. At t = 2 get y(2) = 8 − 6 + 3 = 5 but at
y(−2) = −2 + 3 = 1. Hence, t value is t = −2. Hence,
∗

2
3(−2) − 3 9
m = = − .
2(−2) 4

Equation of line is

9 9
y = − (x − 4) + 1 = − x + 10
4 4

2. Tangent line is horizontal when y ′ (t) = 0 which occurs at t values t = ±1.

The points are therefore (x(1), y(1)) = (1, 1) and (x(−1), y(−1)) = (1, 5).
3. Tangent line is vertical when x ′ (t) = 0 which occurs at t = 0. The point is
(x(0), y(0)) = (0, 0).

4. To find a Cartesian equation notice that

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2 6 4 2 2 3 2 2 2
(y − 3) = t − 6t + 9t = (t ) − 6(t ) + 9t

and thus (y − 3) 2 = x
3
− 6x
2
+ x is a Cartesian equation.

Fig. 4.7: Curve x(t) = t

2
, y(t) = t
3
− 3t + 3

∎
The arc length of a curve C is the length of the curve. For example, the arc length
of a circle of radius r is L = 2πr. In general, given a parametrization x = x(t),
y = y(t), on the interval I = [a, b] of a curve C , the arc length can be computed

as

b 2 2
dx dy
L = ∫ √( ) + ( ) dt
a
dt dt

Example 4.1.12
Find the arc length of the given parametric curve.
(a) x(t) = t
3
, y(t) =
3

2
t
2
,0 ≤ t ≤ √3

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√3 2 2
dx dy
L = ∫ √( ) + ( ) dt
0
dt dt

√3

= ∫ √ (3t 2 ) 2 + (3t) 2 dt

√3

= ∫ √ 9t 4 + 9t 2 dt

√3

3t√ t + 1 dt
2
= ∫
0

= 7 (by substitution)

(b) Of the graph of y = f (x) = x

3/2
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 . A parametrization is
x(t) = t and y(t) = t . Then
3/2

L = ∫ √ (1) 2 + (3/2t 1/2 ) 2 dt

4
9
= ∫ √1 + x dt
0
4

8
3/2
= [(1 + 27/4) − 1] (by substitution)
27

(c) Show that the arc length of a circle of radius r is 2πr.

4.2 Polar Coordinates

Polar coordinates is a coordinate system to represent points in 2D space; it is an
alternative to the Cartesian coordinate system. In some problems, it is more natural
to use polar coordinates than Cartesian coordinates.

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Fig. 4.8: A point P with polar coordinates (r, θ)

r - distance from origin (directed) and can be negative

θ - angle measured from a chosen horizontal axis and increasing CCW (can be

negative)

Polar coordinates rely on the idea that once an origin is fixed, every point in the 2D
plane lies on some circle. It is convention to list polar coordinates with first r and
then θ like (r, θ), e.g., the polar coordinates (4.3, 1) means r = 4.3 and θ = 1.

Example 4.2.1
Draw the points with given polar coordinates.
(a) (r, θ) = (5, 4π/3)

(b) (r, θ) = (−2, 5π/6)

(c) (r, θ) = (2, −π/6)

(d) (r, θ) = (−3, 3π/2)

Given the polar coordinates (r, θ) of a point P , its Cartesian coordinates (x, y) are

x = r cos(θ)

y = r sin(θ)

On the other hand, given the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) of a point P then a set of
polar coordinates (r, θ) of P are

2 2
r = √x + y

y
θ = arctan ( ) ± {π, 2π}
x

May need to add π or 2π if want 0 ≤ θ < 2π since the range of arctan is

(−π/2, π/2). Notice we take r > 0 and may need r < 0 if we ask that

−π/2 ≤ θ < π/2.

Example 4.2.2
Find the Cartesian coordinates of the points with given polar coordinates.
(a) (r, θ) = (5, 4π/3)

(b) (r, θ) = (−2, 5π/6)

Example 4.2.3

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Find the polar coordinates of the points with given Cartesian coordinates. (Note:
arctan(3) ≈ 1.25)

(a) P 1 (1, 3)

(b) P 2 (1, −3)

(c) P 3 (−1, 3)

(d) P 4 (−1, −3)

Unless specified otherwise, in this course, we will use the following convention:

r ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π

In some problems, it is easier to work with mathematical objects expressed in polar

coordinates.

Example 4.2.4
Convert the given equations from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates.
(a) y = x
2

(b) x 2 + y
2
= 121

(c) x 2 + (y − 3)
2
= 9

Solution:

1. r sin(θ) = r
2 2
cos (θ) which can be factored as

2
r(r cos (θ) − sin(θ)) = 0

Now r = 0 represents only the origin. The other points on y = x

2
therefore
satisfy r cos 2 (θ) − sin(θ) = 0 which can be written as

π
r = tan(θ) sec(θ), θ ≠
2

2. Since x 2 + y 2 = r 2 then r 2 = 7 or r = √7.

3. Expanding gives x 2 + y 2 − 6y + 9 = 9 and then r 2 − 6r sin(θ) = 0 or
r(r − 6 sin(θ)) = 0. Use r = 6 sin(θ) because when θ = π get also r = 0.

∎
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Conversely, we may want to convert an equation from polar coordinates to

Cartesian coordinates.

Example 4.2.5
Convert the given equations from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates and
identify the curve.
(a) r cos(θ) − 4 = 0

(b) r 2 = 4r cos(θ)

(c) r =
4

2 cos(θ)−sin(θ)

(d) r = 2 cos(θ) − sin(θ)

Solution:

1. x − 4 = 0 or x = 4 (vertical line)
2. x 2 + y 2 = 4x and completing square gives (x − 2) 2 + y 2 = 4 (circle at
(2, 0) of radius 4)

3. Write as 2r cos(θ) − r sin(θ) = 4 and then 2x − y = 4 or y = 2x − 4 (line)

y
4. Get r = 2 xr − r and thus r 2 = 2x − y or x 2 − 2x + y 2 + y = 0 and
complete square to get (x − 1) 2 + (y +
1

2
)
2
=
5

4
.

∎
Regions and curves in polar coordinates

Example 4.2.6
Sketch the region on the 2D plane with given polar coordinates description.
(a) 1 ≤ r ≤ 3 and − π4 ≤ θ ≤
π

(b) −∞ < r < ∞ and 2π

3
≤ θ ≤
5π

Example 4.2.7
Sketch the curve in the 2D plane with polar coordinates description r = 1 + sin(θ) .
(Note: √2/2 ≈ 0.7 )

Solution: Create a table of (r, θ) coordinates by varying θ at step-size π

4
:

π π π
θ 0 4 2
3
4
π
5π

4
3π

2
7π

r(θ) 1 1 +
√2

2
2 1 +
√2

2
1 1 −
√2

2
0 1 −
√2

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Table 4.2: (r, θ) pairs for r = 1 + sin(θ)

Fig. 4.9: Cardioid

This curve is called a cardioid. Since r(θ) = 1 + sin(θ) , we can obtain a

parametrization for this curve as follows:

x(θ) = r(θ) cos(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) cos(θ)

y(θ) = r(θ) sin(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) sin(θ)

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

In general, if a curve is expressed in polar coordinates as r = r(θ) for a ≤ θ ≤ b

then a parametrization for the curve is:

x(θ) = r(θ) cos(θ)

y(θ) = r(θ) sin(θ)

a ≤ θ ≤ b

∎
Example 4.2.8
Find the equation of the line tangent to the cardioid through the point when θ =
π

4
.

′
dy y (t)
Solution: Recall that m =
dx
= ′
x (t)
if given a parametrization x = x(t) and
y = y(t) . Here we have

x(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) cos(θ)

y(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) sin(θ)

We get
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cos(θ) sin(θ) + (1 + sin(θ)) cos(θ)

m =
2
cos (θ) − (1 + sin(θ)) sin(θ)

and evaluating at θ = π/4 we obtain m = −(1 + √ 2) . The point on the curve at

θ = π/4 is (x 0 , y 0 ) = (1 + √ 2/2)√ 2/2, (1 + √ 2/2)√ 2/2) and thus the

equation of the line is y = y 0 + m(x − x 0 ) . ∎

Arc length in polar coordinates

Recall that the arc length of a curve parametrized by x ,

= x(t) y = y(t) , for
a ≤ t ≤ b, is

b 2 2
dx dy
L = ∫ √( ) + ( ) dt
a
dt dt

Given a curve in polar coordinates r = r(θ) , for say θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ θ1 , we have a

parametrization

x(θ) = r(θ) cos(θ)

y(θ) = r(θ) sin(θ)

Then the arc length of the curve r = r(θ) is

θ1 2 2
dx dy
L = ∫ √( ) + ( ) dθ
θ0
dθ dθ

This simplifies to

θ1 2
dr
L = ∫ √ (r(θ)) 2 + ( ) dθ
θ0
dθ

Example 4.2.9
Setup, but do not evaluate, the integral that evaluates to the arc length of the
cardioid r = 1 + sin(θ), for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution: A complete revolution of the cardioid requires 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π . Now

r(θ) = 1 + sin(θ) and then

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x(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) cos(θ)

y(θ) = (1 + sin(θ)) sin(θ)

Now r ′ (θ) = cos(θ) and thus

2π

L = ∫ √ (r(θ)) 2 + (r ′ (θ)) 2 dθ
0

2π

= ∫ √ 2 + 2 sin(θ) dθ
0

∎
Example 4.2.10
Find the arc length of the curve r = θ
2
, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ √5 .

Solution: Compute

√5 √5

L = ∫ √r 2
+ (r )
′ 2
dθ = ∫ √ θ 4 + 4θ 2 dθ

0 0

√5

θ√ θ + 4 dθ
2
= ∫
0

19
=
3

Fig. 4.10: The curve r = θ

2

∎
Areas in polar coordinates
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The area of a wedge of radius r and sweeping an angle of θ is

1
2
A wedge = r θ.
2

Fig. 4.11: Area of a wedge is A =

1

2
2
r θ

Given say the cardioid r = 1 + sin(θ), we can divide the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π so

that we obtain a partition of wedges of the area enclosed by the cardioid:

Fig. 4.12: Approximating the area enclosed by a cardioid with wedges

The sum of the area of the wedges approximates the true area A enclosed by the
cardioid:
n
1 ∗ 2
A ≈ ∑ r(θ i ) Δθ
2
i=1

As n → ∞ we obtain the true area:

n 2π
1 ∗
1
2 2
A = lim ∑ r(θ i ) Δθ = ∫ r(θ) dθ
n→∞ 2 0
2
i=1

In general, for a curve given in polar coordinates r = r(θ) , the area enclosed by
the curve as θ ranges from θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ θ 1 is
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θ1
1 2
A = ∫ r(θ) dθ.
θ0
2

Example 4.2.11
Find the area enclosed by the cardioid r = 1 + sin(θ) above the x-axis.

Solution: Apply the formula:

π
1 2
A = ∫ (1 + sin(θ)) dθ
0
2
π
1 2
= ∫ (1 + 2 sin(θ) + sin (θ)) dθ
0
2
π
π 1 1 − cos(2θ)
= + 2 + ∫ dθ
2 2 0
2
π π π
= + 2 + = 2 + 3
2 4 4

∎
Example 4.2.12
Consider the curve r = 2 − cos(θ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
(a) Sketch the curve.
(b) Find the area enclosed by the curve.
(c) Setup the integral that evaluates to the arc length of the curve. Simplify the
integrand but do not attempt to evaluate the integral.
(d) Use the Trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to estimate the arc length of the curve.
(e) Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is vertical.

Solution:

1. Evaluating x(θ) = r(θ) cos(θ) and y(θ) = r(θ) sin(θ) from θ = 0 to θ = 2π

at step-size of π/4, we obtain the following graph:

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Fig. 4.13: Limacon

2π
1 2
A = ∫ r(θ) dθ
0
2

2π
1
2
= ∫ (2 − cos(θ)) dθ
0
2
2.
2π 2π 2π
1
2
= (∫ 4 dθ − 4 ∫ cos(θ) dθ + ∫ cos (θ) dθ)
2 0 0 0

9π
=
2

2π

L = ∫ √ r 2 + (r ′ ) 2 dθ
0

2π

3. = ∫ √ (2 − cos(θ)) 2 + sin 2 (θ) dθ

2π

= ∫ √ 5 − 4 cos(θ) dθ

4. Recall that the Trapezoidal rule is for estimating an integral

∫ f (x) dx.
a

Partitioning [a, b] into n equal subintervals, each subinterval has length

Δx =
b−a

n
. The Trapezoidal rule is then

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Δx
T = [f (x 0 ) + 2f (x 1 ) + 2f (x 2 ) + ⋯ + 2f (x n−1 ) + f (x n )]
2

where x 0 , x 1 , … , x n are the points obtained after subdividing the interval

[a, b]. We wish to apply the Trapezoidal rule to

2π

L = ∫ √ 5 − 4 cos(θ) dθ

Hence, here f (θ) = √5 − 4 cos(θ), n = 4, Δθ =

2π

n
, and the points
=
π

to evaluate f are θ 0 = 0, θ 1 = π2 , θ 2 = π, θ 3 = 3π/2, and θ 4 = 2π. Hence,

Δθ
T = [f (θ 0 ) + 2f (θ 1 ) + 2f (θ 2 ) + 2f (θ 3 ) + f (θ 4 )]
2

π
= [√ 1 + 2√ 5 + 2√ 9 + 2√ 5 + 1]
4

π
= (8 + 4√ 5) ≈ L
4

5. Recall that given a parametrized curve x = x(t) and y = y(t) , the slope of
the line tangent to the curve at t is
′
y (t)
m =
′
x (t)

The tangent line is vertical when x ′ (t) = 0 . Here,

2
x(θ) = (2 − cos(θ)) cos(θ) = 2 cos(θ) − cos (θ)

y(θ) = (2 − cos(θ)) sin(θ) = 2 sin(θ) − cos(θ) sin(θ)

Then
′
x (θ) = −2 sin(θ) + 2 cos(θ) sin(θ)

= 2 sin(θ)(cos(θ) − 1)

In the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, x ′ (θ) = 0 when θ = 0 and θ = π. Hence, the

points are (x(0), y(0)) = (1, 0) and (x(π), y(π)) = (−3, 0). This agrees
with the sketch of the curve.

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

∎
Example 4.2.13
Consider the following polar curve r(θ) = sin(2θ) , for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
(a) Sketch the curve.
(b) Find an expression for the arc length of the curve for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 .

(c) Use Simpson's rule with n = 4 subintervals to estimate the arc length of the
curve on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. Label the grid points θ 0 , θ 1 , θ 2 , θ 3 , θ 4 , and
leave your answer in symbolic form.
(d) Find the area enclosed by the curve.

Solution:

1. Evaluating x(θ) = r(θ) cos(θ) and y(θ) = r(θ) sin(θ) from θ = 0 to θ = 2π

at step-size of π/16, we obtain the curve shown in Figure 4.14.

Fig. 4.14: The polar curve r(θ) = sin(2θ)

2. Since r ′ (θ) = 2 cos(θ) , the arc length of the curve along for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 is

π/2

L = ∫ √ r(θ) + (r ′ (θ)) 2 dθ

π/2

= ∫ √ sin 2 (2θ) + 4 cos 2 (θ) dθ

3. Let f (θ) 2 2
= √ sin (2θ) + 4 cos (2θ) . Applying Simpson's rule, we obtain that
π/2
Δθ =
4
and then the grid points are θ 0 = 0, θ 1 = π/8, θ 2 =
= π/8 π/4 ,
θ3 = 3π/8, and θ 4 = π/2. The symbolic form of Simpson's rule is then

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2/24/25, 11:02 AM Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates | Calculus II

Δθ
S = [f (θ 0 ) + 4f (θ 1 ) + 2f (θ 2 ) + 4f (θ 3 ) + f (θ 4 )]
3

4. The area enclosed by the curve is

2π
1
2
A = ∫ r (θ) dθ
0
2

2π
1 2
= ∫ sin (2θ) dθ
2 0

2π
1
= ∫ (1 − sin(4θ)) dθ
4 0

1 1 2π

= (θ + cos(4θ))
4 4 0

1 1 1
= (2π + cos(8π) − cos(0))
4 4 4

= π/2

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