Journal of Marine Science and Application

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11804-024-00393-7

REVIEW

Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

Xiao Huang1,2, Guangyun Niu1, Yuanji Xie3, Xiaopeng Chen1, Haibao Hu1 and Guang Pan1

Received: 24 June 2023 / Accepted: 04 August 2023

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Biofouling on ships and offshore structures has always been a difficult problem to solve, which not only jeopardizes the structural strength but
also brings great economic losses. Ultrasonic cavitation is expected to solve this problem due to its characteristics of no damage to structures
and no pollution. Starting from the phenomenon and mechanism of ultrasonic cleaning, this paper introduces the application of ultrasonic
cavitation in ship, pipeline and oil cleaning as well as ballast water treatment. By reviewing the existing studies, limitations such as insufficient
ultrasonic parameter studies, lack of uniform cleanliness standards, and insufficient cavitation studies are summarized to provide traceable
research ideas for improving ultrasonic cavitation technology and to guide the expansion and improvement of its applications.

Keywords Ultrasonic cavitation; Cavitation mechanism; Ultrasonic cleaning; Ship and marine engineering; Application status

1 Introduction emissions caused by biofouling, the risk of biological inva‐

sion is also inevitable (Goldsmit et al., 2018). Biofouling
The formation of organisms can cause damage to the will also increase the structural weight of the offshore plat‐
surface of immersed ships, submarines, and offshore plat‐ form, which will result in a high center of gravity, as well
forms (Salters and Piola, 2017) (Figure 1). With moderate as decrease its stability and resistance to wind and waves,
biofouling, a 100 000 DWT ocean liner will experience a conceal the structural defect, and raise the risk of accidents
30% increase in navigational resistance and will con‐ (Wang et al., 2018a). Therefore, the industry regularly
sume more than 10 tons of fuel per day (Song and Cui, cleans ships and offshore structures.
2020). The shipping industry loses approximately more
than 30 billion dollars each year due to biofouling (Schultz
et al., 2011). In addition to the high economic costs and

Article Highlights
• In order to study the application potential of ultrasonic cleaning, it
is necessary to analyze and summarize the cleaning mechanism of
ultrasonic cavitation.
• The study focuses on the application of ultrasonic cavitation in
ship and marine pipeline, ballast water treatment, oil cleaning and Figure 1 Biofouling of ships, submarines, and marine platforms
separation.
• The study analyzes and summarizes the strengths and limitations
The accumulation of organisms on submerged surfaces
in previous studies by reviewing the existing studies.
• The study provides traceable research ideas for improving ultra‐ (Figure 2(a)), also called biofouling, has been a known
sonic cavitation technology and its applications. problem for centuries. The traditional means of biofouling
control relies on antifouling coating, sandblasting, mechan‐
* Xiao Huang ical brush turning, and high-pressure water jet and under‐
[email protected]
water cavitation jet cleaning technology. Antifouling coat‐
1
School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical ings were previously extensively employed, but their use
University, Xi’an 710072, China is currently prohibited because they pose a significant en‐
2
Research & Development Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical vironmental hazard. Sandblasting and mechanical brush
University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China turning produce good cleaning results; however, they are
3
Academy of China Changfeng Electro-Mechanical Technology, Beijing not widely used due to expensive labor costs and lengthy
100143, China docking times, which are inefficient for ship operations.
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

The use of high-pressure water jets and underwater cavita‐ (Feng, 2003). This phenomenon is an extremely complex
tion jets to clean submarines may cause hull and anechoic and fast-moving natural occurrence. Rayleigh first system‐
tile damage and other issues (Figure 2(b)), indicating that atically described the bubble equation of motion for an ide‐
cavitation intensity cannot be precisely regulated. al incompressible fluid in 1917 (Rayleigh, 1917). Plesset
later obtained the classical Rayleigh – Plesset equation by
considering viscosity and surface tension on the basis of
Rayleigh’s research (Plesset, 1949), which built a founda‐
tion for subsequent research on the dynamics of air bubbles.
Keller and Miksis (1980) further developed the model, in
which the wave and incompressible Bernoulli equations
have been used extensively. Lezzi and Prosperetti (1987)
created a bubble dynamics model for the compressibility
(a) Biofouling formation mechanism (Salters and Piola, 2017) of the far-field fluid by adopting the perturbation. These
models have been extremely influential in the theoretical
investigation of bubble dynamics in a free field. However,
isolated bubbles rarely occur and are constantly coupled
with different boundary conditions, resulting in highly
complex dynamics. Zhang et al. (2023) proposed the uni‐
fied bubble theory, which can simultaneously consider the
effects of boundaries, bubble interaction, ambient flow
field, gravity, bubble migration, fluid compressibility, vis‐
cosity, and surface tension while maintaining a unified and
elegant mathematical form. They conducted numerical ex‐
(b) US nuclear submarine anechoic tile damage periments comparing the present theory with the classical
Figure 2 Biofouling formation mechanism and submarine anechoic theories proposed by previous scholars, and the results
tile damage showed that the unified theory has higher accuracy and appli‐
Without the use of cleaning agents, ultrasonic cavitation cability. Since then, numerous scholars have conducted in-
technology provides excellent cleaning effects for com‐ depth studies on cavitation phenomena, allowing for the
plex and delicate structures due to its tunability. In recent cross-fertilization of vacuole dynamics with other disci‐
years, this technology has been widely utilized in fields plines, which expands the possibilities for ultrasonic cavi‐
such as food processing, chemical, medical, and other tation technology.
fields, including disinfection of fruits and vegetables, instru‐ The inner temperature and pressure may theoretically ap‐
ment cleaning, and ultrasonic lithotripsy (Zhang et al., proach 5 000 K and 50 MPa, respectively, at the collapse
2014; Zwaschka et al., 2018; Agi et al., 2018; Alenyorege stage of the cavitation bubble (Suslick, 1990). Microjets
et al., 2020; Liao and Wang, 2020; Yu et al., 2022; Xue, with speeds of up to 300 m/s (Figure 3) and strong shock
2022). This paper provides some research ideas and sug‐ waves are also generated (Figure 4(a)). Simultaneously,
gestions for improving and expanding the application of chemical substances such as hydroxyl groups are produced
ultrasonic cavitation cleaning technology by introducing in the liquid, creating “hot spots” (Didenko and Suslick,
its current situation and research progress in ship and ma‐ 2002; Gogate and Pandit, 2001; Suslick et al., 1986). Flynn
rine engineering and summarizing the limitations and and Church classified cavitation bubbles into stable and
shortcomings of the current research and application. transient cavitations based on different bubble kinetic char‐
acteristics (Flynn and Church, 1984). Stable cavitation refers
350 d0=100 µm, L0=150 µm
Maximum jct velocity (m/s)

2 Mechanism of ultrasonic cavitation cleaning 300

d0=200 µm, L0=200 µm
d0=400 µm, L0=300 µm

When ultrasonic waves (frequency greater than 20 kHz) 250

are applied, tiny bubbles (cavitation nuclei) in liquids un‐
200
dergo a sequence of dynamic processes, including oscilla‐
tion, expansion, contraction, and collapse. At the instant of 150
bubble collapse, the energy contained within the bubble is
100
rapidly released, which results in high temperatures, exces‐ 4 6 8 10 12
sive pressure, and even luminescence within the cavitation Acoustic pressure amplitude (MPa)
area. The bubble rapidly contracts and collapses simultane‐ Figure 3 Variation of the maximum jet velocity with the acoustic
ously, releasing shockwaves and even high-speed jets pressure amplitude (Zhao et al., 2021)
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

to the oscillatory growth cycle of bubbles, maintaining bubble to cycle from explosive growth to violent collapse.
their stable oscillatory state near their equilibrium size. The shock wave generated by the collapse can break the
Transient cavitation is the collapse of bubbles, in which fouling. Therefore, ultrasonic cavitation for dirt removal
the radius of the cavitation bubble varies by several orders has become a focus of research and development for nu‐
of magnitude within a single oscillation cycle, causing the merous scholars and businesses.

(a) Diagram of pressure field distribution at different times (The shock wave maintains a high pressure
of 4.28×107 Pa at 0.097 μs) (Zhang et al., 2021)

(b) Numerical schlieren (left of each panel) and pressure field (right of each panel) of a wall-attached bubble
(D=0.2; Tian et al. (2023))

(c) High-speed imaging (1×1012 frame/s) of bubble jet (d) Diagram of acoustic streaming (Mat-Shayuti et al., 2019)
formation and slamming (Abedini et al., 2023)
Figure 4 Images and parameters related to shockwave and microjetting
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

Ultrasonic cavitation, a complex series of physicochemi‐ 800

0.5
cal phenomena, is currently widely accepted for cleaning
in the following ways (Feng and Huang, 1994) (Figure 5).
600

u (mm/s)
y (μm)
400 0

200

−0.5

0 200 400 600 800

x (μm)
Figure 5 Mechanism of ultrasonic cavitation (Mat-Shayuti et al., 2019) (a) The case with surface oscillations resulting in chaotic low
800
0.5
1) The cavitation bubbles in the liquid will oscillate under
the action of ultrasonic waves. When the ultrasonic pressure
reaches a certain level, the bubbles will rapidly collapse, and 600
the shock wave generated at the moment of bubble collapse

u (mm/s)
can form a surrounding pressure of thousands of atmo‐

y (μm)
400 0
spheres (Figure 4(b)). This pressure can destroy the polym‐
erized contaminants and disperse them in the liquid.
2) The collapse of transient cavitation bubbles near the 200
surfaces of structures can produce thousands of megapas‐
cals of microjet impact load (Figure 4(c)), destroying dirt −0.5
adsorption and causing dirt to fall off. 0 200 400 600 800
3) Stable cavitation bubbles oscillate close to the solid x (μm)
surface in a continuous cycle of expansion and contrac‐ (b) The case without surface oscillations and ordered flow
tion, generating shear force at a flow rate of approximately
Figure 6 PIV velocity vector fields for ultrasonic cavitation. The
100 μm/s (Figure 6) (Leong et al., 2011) to promote fluid
left vertical and horizontal coordinates indicate the image acquisition
flow, increase mass transfer, and also enter cracks in the range (μm), and the right vertical coordinate indicates the particle
soil during oscillation. velocity (mm/s) (Leong et al., 2011)
4) When the bubbles coalesce and oscillate, they can
drive the liquid to produce micro-acoustic flow, thereby ac‐
celerating the agitation and scrubbing effects and promot‐ and application of ultrasonic cavitation in the cleaning of
ships and marine pipelines.
ing dirt detachment (Ma et al., 2018).
The application of ultrasonic cavitation to ship cleaning
5) The acoustic flow can separate the oil from the struc‐
and antifouling dates back to 1974, when approximately
ture during ultrasonic treatment of oil-containing structures
20 Soviet ships were equipped with ultrasonic antifouling
by removing the oil boundary layer on the surface (Mason,
systems. The antifouling effect was observed when an inner
2016) (Figure 4(d)).
hull-mounted transducer emitting ultrasonic waves between
6) Propagation of the ultrasonic wave through the liquid
17 and 30 kHz was used. However, this transducer was un‐
can induce vibration of mass, causing the dirt to be slammed
suitable for the bulkhead and frame joints because of the
by the cleaning liquid and separated from the structure.
fast sound intensity and frequency decay at these joints.
The discovery of the potential of ultrasonic cavitation
for antifouling prompted extensive research into determin‐
3 Ultrasonic cleaning application ing the optimal frequency for ultrasonic cleaning. Re‐
searchers from various disciplines devoted their efforts to
3.1 Application of ultrasonic cavitation in ship and uncovering the ideal frequency range through meticulous
marine pipeline cleaning experimentation. They aimed to maximize the effective‐
ness of ultrasonic cleaning by finetuning the frequency,
Ultrasonic cavitation, as an early proven cleaning tech‐ leading to improved decontamination and enhanced fouling
nology, is widely used in the field of decontamination and prevention capabilities. Kitamura et al. (1995) investigated
antifouling. This section will mainly focus on the research the effect of ultrasound on barnacles at three different fre‐
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

quencies (19.5, 28, and 50 kHz), and the experimental re‐

sults revealed that the most significant removal of barnacles
occurred at a frequency of 19.5 kHz.
Seth et al. (2010) utilized ultrasonic cavitation to clean
and crush barnacle microalgae and calculated the energy
of ultrasonic waves produced during the crushing process
using the heat absorption method. Guo et al. (2011) inves‐
tigated the effect of ultrasonic frequencies of 23, 63, and
102 kHz at 20 kPa on the inhibition of barnacle sedimenta‐
tion. Similar to Kitamura et al. (1995), Guo et al. (2011)
found that 23 kHz was the most effective frequency
through experimentation. The optimal cleaning frequen‐ Figure 7 Microscopy images of surfaces after removal of different
cies determined by these studies can only be considered age barnacles (Guo et al., 2014)
relative due to the random nature of the frequency selec‐
tions in these studies. the pipe’s geometry was disregarded as a study parameter.
Guo et al. (2014) demonstrated that the ultrasonic cavi‐ Traditional cleaning methods must be conducted when
tation phenomenon inhibits the settling of barnacles by ships, offshore platforms, and marine pipelines are not in
modifying the cavitation threshold while maintaining the operation. Lais et al. (2018) performed local ultrasonic
same acoustic pressure. They also found that intermittent cleaning of the inner walls of calcite-contaminated pipe‐
ultrasonic treatment of barnacles with low-frequency and lines using a three-dimensional laser Doppler vibrometer
low-intensity ultrasound produced the same effect as con‐ (3D-LDV) for acoustic pressure and displacement acquisi‐
tinuous ultrasound treatment. In terms of equipment clean‐ tion to solve this issue (Figure 8). The validity of external
ing efficacy and serviceability, an on-and-off cycle of 5 min ultrasonic removal for pipeline fouling is demonstrated, con‐
on and 20 min off is the most appropriate treatment mode. firming its consistency with the COMSOL model (Figure 9).
Furthermore, the ultrasonic effect on the adhesion strength Zhang et al. (2017) installed ultrasonic cleaning equip‐
of barnacles of different ages was studied using a micro‐ ment on the ACLW-CAR buoy to prevent fouling and bio‐
scope (Figure 7), and the entire process of barnacle removal fouling from causing the failure of the offshore buoy moni‐
by ultrasonic cavitation was filmed using a high-speed toring system. The effect of ultrasonic cleaning on the
camera, visually demonstrating the mechanism and the ef‐ ACLW-CAR buoy after one year of operation demon‐
fect of ultrasonic barnacle removal. However, finding this strates that the ultrasonic cleaner can effectively prevent
effect in the acoustic performance parameters, such as fre‐ biofouling (Figure 10).
quency, sound intensity, and amplitude, in these experi‐ The practicality of utilizing ultrasonic cavitation for de‐
ments, which are highly arbitrary and likely to be dis‐ contamination and antifouling in localized or small struc‐
placed from the optimum, is easy. tures has been successfully demonstrated. Furthermore, this
Simultaneously, scholars are also exploring the applica‐ technology is steadily advancing from laboratory-scale exper‐
tion of ultrasonic cleaning in marine pipelines and buoys iments to real-world implementation on large ships, mark‐
to decontaminate and prevent fouling. Bott (2000) con‐ ing a significant step toward its widespread adoption in the
ducted a cleaning experiment using ultrasound on biofilms marine industry. Mazue et al. (2011) attempted to design an
comprising bacteria and algae deposits in the pipeline. The ultrasonic cleaning device comprising three low-frequency
experimental results revealed that the biofilm thickness was ultrasonic transducers operating automatically to reduce
reduced by 92.6% when the bioadhesion in the pipeline was ship maintenance docking time (Figure 11). Mazue et al.
treated with 240 W and 24 kHz ultrasonics. However, the (2011) conducted feasibility tests on small samples and
pipe contained only pure water at a constant flow rate, and real ship hulls to obtain design laws and determine the effect

Figure 8 Schematic of fouling removal experimental setup and photograph of the experimental setup (Lais et al., 2018)
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

(a) Localized ultrasonic cleaning (b) 3D displacement measured (c) Numerical simulation results (d) Zoomed version of (c)
by 3D-LDV during cleaning
Figure 9 Comparison of numerical and experimental results (Lais et al., 2018)

type for offshore structural cleaning under sea standard

noise levels (Salimi et al., 2023). They examined the effect
of 28 kHz ultrasound vibration of HPUT on removing bio‐
fouling after immersion by conducting an experiment of
up to three months on a rectangular plate immersed in sea
water (Figure 12). This experiment was performed using a
single HPUT to prevent biological contamination from at‐
taching to a plate locally in the exchanger’s position.

Figure 10 Effect of ultrasonic cleaning equipment (Zhang et al., 2017)

Figure 11 Ultrasonic cleaning device physical picture and cleaning

before and after comparison (Mazue et al., 2011)

of parameters, such as transducer-surface distance, dis‐ Figure 12 Biofouling removal using an HPUT. The green arrow
shows the location of the HPUT at the back of the plate (Salimi et al.,
placement speed, and emission power, on hull cleaning.
2023)
The distance between the transducer rod and the hull
should always be as small as possible due to ultrasonic de‐ Park and Lee (2018) installed six ultrasonic projectors
cay in water, and the cleaning device should operate at a on the starboard side of a 96 000 m3 large drillship, while
speed of less than 5 cm/s. However, this condition depends the port side was left untreated (Figure 13). Ultrasonics at
on the degree of hull soiling, the transducer arrangement, 23 kHz frequency induced cavitation in the surrounding
and the number of transducers. A large-diameter transducer water to prevent the fouling organism settlement. After
was also found to be highly conducive to rapid cleaning and four months, the starboard hull plate was relatively clean,
decontamination. Figure 8 shows a comparison between a while the port side was heavily fouled (Figure 14). The ex‐
dirty hull before and after ultrasonic cleaning. perimental results not only demonstrated that ultrasonic
Considering the impact of transducer arrays and synthet‐ cavitation effectively inhibits the formation of fouling on
ic signals on offshore structural antifouling, Salimi et al. the hull but also confirmed the efficacy of ultrasonic cavi‐
produced a novel ultrasonic system using high-power ultra‐ tation applied to large ships. However, the sea trials did
sound transducers (HPUTs) and the best synthesis signal not fully investigate fouling deposition by ultrasonic equip‐
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

ment, the effect of ultrasonic on the ship structure, or coat‐ the use of cavitation jet. Both cleaning methods can be em‐
ing disbondment. Therefore, conducting long-term trials ployed to clean the ship’s hull and improve cleaning quality.
may be necessary to investigate the unresolved issues. The absence of a universally accepted standard for as‐
Yan et al. (2018) designed a multifunctional tug to moni‐ sessing the effectiveness of ultrasonic cleaning poses a sig‐
tor and clean ship bottom fouling (Figure 15). In addition nificant obstacle. Therefore, most studies rely on subjec‐
to the multicolor-assisted light source fouling monitoring tive comparisons of dirt levels before and after experi‐
system, the tug also integrated a fouling removal robot ments or approximate quantifications of dirt removal. This
(ROV) utilizing cavitation jet and ultrasonic cavitation lack of standardized evaluation methods hampers the com‐
technologies. The ROV was equipped with a cavitation jet mercial viability of ultrasonic cleaning devices. In addi‐
cleaning disc and an ultrasonic cavitation cleaning device to tion, none of the aforementioned studies considered the po‐
remove rigid attachments, such as shells and corals, through tential impact of corrosion on the surface of the ship’s hull.

Figure 13 Arrangement of the six projectors and the locations for acoustic measurements (Park and Lee, 2018)

1m 8.9 m 15 m
(Sorce lenel) (Guo’s criteria postion) (Halfway, Far ends)
(About 1.5 m)

Port side (control group) Stbd side (treatment group)

Figure 14 Underwater inspection of the hull plate after the sea trial (Park and Lee, 2018)
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

ROV ontology

Underwater
camera

Underwater
Auxiliary light camera
source

Cavitating jet Electromagnetic Uitrasound cavitation

cleaning disk sucker cleaning equipment

Figure 15 Side view of ROV (Yan et al., 2018)

Fatyukhin et al. (2022) later used 21.5 kHz ultrasonics to Such erosion research currently remains at the laboratory
treat the surfaces of 45 and 40 Kh steels in liquid (Figure 16). stage and has not been conducted on actual ships, possibly
They found that the erosion process comprises at least due to the lack of large-scale equipment and the influence
three stages. In the first stage, the geometric properties of of various factors on experimental results. Further advance‐
the surface change slightly with the accumulation of internal ments are necessary to bridge this gap and facilitate real-
stress and the increase of micro-hardness. In the second world experimentation aboard ships.
stage, which involves structural finetuning, roughness and
sub-microscopical rudeness increase, and surface erosion 3.2 Application of ultrasonic cavitation in ballast
develops. In the third stage, the surface properties do not water treatment
noticeably change when a certain limit state is reached.
These results can be used to improve the cleaning process Several researchers used ultrasonic cavitation to treat ship
for ship hulls. ballast water after establishing its capability to inactivate
Ultrasonic bacteria. This section mainly introduces the research and
Magnitostrictive generator application of ultrasonic cavitation in ballast water treatment.
trancducer 30 mm
Numerous microorganisms, pathogens, and sediments
ξm=15 μm are living in ballast water tanks. These organisms can be
4 mm

Ultrasonic emitter
Water dispersed globally by the improper discharge of ballast wa‐
cooling Cavitation
Specimen bubbles ter from ships, resulting in biological invasions or wide‐
Waveguide spread diseases that threaten the natural environment and
concentrator 10 mm Stand base
Thermometer human health (Marbuah et al., 2014). In recent years, ultra‐
sonic waves have been shown to deactivate bacteria and al‐
Water gae (Lee et al., 2001; Gavand et al., 2007; Ma et al., 2005).
T=20−25℃ Plastic tank
Scherba et al. (1991) treated ballast water with 26 kHz
Rubber base for 30 min and discovered the elimination of up to 80% of
P. aeruginosa and 75% of Bacillus subtilis and the mortality
Figure 16 Ultrasonic treatment scheme (Fatyukhin et al., 2022) of Staphylococcus aureus as high as 45%.
Zhong et al. (2022) combined ultrasonic and submerged Holm et al. (2008) investigated the power levels and
cavitation jet cleaning. They evaluated the effect of cavita‐ number of applications necessary for 19 – 20 kHz ultra‐
tion erosion on the hull at pump pressures of 10 and 20 MPa sound to eliminate bacteria, phytoplankton, and zooplank‐
(Figure 17). Experimental results indicated that the mass ton in ballast water treatment applications. They discov‐
loss of 1 060 aluminum plates resulted from the combined ered that ultrasonic inactivation rates differed depending
action of a submerged cavitation jet and ultrasound at on the size of the organisms examined. Deactivation of
pump pressures of 10 and 20 MPa. The cavitation pit area 90% of zooplankton took only 39 s. Comparatively, small‐
and depth are the largest at target distances of 40 and 55 mm, er bacteria and phytoplankton required between 1 and 22 min
respectively. When the pump pressures are 10 and 20 MPa, to achieve comparable results. The authors hypothesize
the maximum increase reached 12.9% and 9.5%, respec‐ that this phenomenon may occur because particles smaller
tively, which initially verified that the combination tech‐ than the size of the collapsed cavitation bubble are incapa‐
nology can improve the cleaning effect. However, addi‐ ble of generating microjets and, therefore, require additional
tional consideration of the impact of working conditions deactivation time. They concluded that ballast water-indepen‐
and operational modes is required. dent ultrasonic treatment systems operating at 19 – 20 kHz
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

Figure 17 Surface morphologies of the 1 060 aluminum sheets before and after erosion by the combined work of the submerged cavitation jet
under the pump pressure of 10 MPa and the ultrasonic with 40 kHz/50 W (Zhong et al., 2022)

may be effective for plankton larger than 100 μm. However, 25 25

Algae cell reduction (%)

Intensity (W/cm3×10−3)
the inactivation characteristics of small plankton and bacte‐ 20 20
ria require further investigation. 15 15
Joyce et al. (2010) treated microalgae liquids with ultra‐ 10 10
sonic at 20, 40, 580, 864, and 1 146 kHz and discovered
5 5
that the algal cell concentration decreased for a time and
0 0
then increased during 20 and 40 kHz ultrasonic treatments
(Figure 18). They concluded that ultrasound treatment has −5 20 40 580 864 1 146 −5
two effects: inactivation, which reduces cell concentration; Frequency (kHz)
and fragmentation, which breaks the algal mass into indi‐ Figure 19 Ultrasonic treatment of 200 mL microcystis aeruginosa
vidual cells, increasing the concentration. The experimen‐ at different frequencies (Joyce et al., 2010)
tal results showed that the fragmentation effect was preva‐
lent at low frequencies (Figure 19).
ous avenues, such as advanced ultrasonic technologies, op‐
15 timized system designs, and multitechnological integration
methods. These efforts aim to deliver highly effective and
Algae cell reduction (%)

10 environmentally friendly solutions for the treatment of bal‐

20 kHz
last water, ultimately protecting marine ecosystems and hu‐
5 man health. Osman et al. (2017, 2016) designed a MOR ul‐
40 kHz trasonic resonator for ballast water disinfection (Table 1).
0
10 20 30 With the same vibration amplitude, the MOR provides
higher sound pressure and a one-order-of-magnitude larger
−5 Time (min) radiating surface area than a probe-type ultrasonic device
Figure 18 Inactivation of 200 mL Microcystis aeruginosa using (Figure 20). Acoustically, the MOR resonator is highly ef‐
the 20 kHz probe and 40 kHz bath (Joyce et al., 2010) fective and efficient, but the specific effects of plankton
and bacterial inactivation require further investigation.
Continuous research is being conducted to enhance the In addition to improving the disinfection efficiency of
effectiveness and efficiency of ultrasonic treatments for the ultrasonic element, Laksono et al. (2022) also pro‐
ballast water. Scientists and engineers are exploring vari‐ posed the design of combining slow-release pertechnetate
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

Table 1 Comparison of MOR resonator design outcomes (Osman et al., 2016)

Designs
Parameters
LP1 LPS1 LPS2 LPS3

Mode shape

Res. freq. (Hz) 20 070 20 091 20 112 20 097

ΔRes. freq. (Hz) +70 +73 +113 +92
Norm. mass 1.000 0.971 0.997 0.992
Norm. radiating area 1.000 1.959 1.745 1.841
Norm. area/mass 1.000 2.018 1.750 1.856

Figure 21 Microscopic photos of cysts of Scrippsiella trochoidea by

freshwater treatment showing corrosion/dissolution of the calcareous
cyst wall (Wang et al., 2018b)
(a) Fabricated devices for acoustic pressure measurement
100 0 min
14
LPS1 40 min
12
77% LP1 80 60 min
Gemination rate (%)

10
Pressure (kPa)

306−02 28%
8 60
6
4 40
2
0 20
19 600 19 800 20 000 20 200 20 400 20 600
Frequency (Hz)
(b) Measured acoustic pressure spectrum at the same position 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Figure 20 Fabricated devices for acoustic pressure measurement Incubation time (d)
and measured acoustic pressure spectrum at the same position (Osman (a) Treatment on pure cysts
et al., 2016) 100

with ultrasonic treatment equipment for the disinfection of 80

Gemination rate (%)

ballast water and calculated the amount of compound used

in the treatment process as well as the operation mode of 60
the ultrasonic equipment.
In a study comparing the treatment of microalgal spores 40
0 min
using ultrasound alone and combined UV/ultrasound/heat‐ 40 min
20
ing (Figure 21), Wang et al. (2018b) discovered that the 60 min
spore extinguishing efficiency was higher with the combi‐
nation of ultrasonic and other means. Moreover, the fouling 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
deposition exhibited a protective effect on the microalgal Incubation time (d)
spores (Figures 22–24). This result indicates that future re‐ (b) Treatment on cysts in sediment
search should combine ultrasonic and multiple treatment Figure 22 Accumulative gemination rate of cysts of Scrippsiella
methods to improve the efficacy of ballast water treatment. trochoidea after treatment by ultrasound (US, 40 kHz) (Wang et al.,
The aforementioned experiments have demonstrated that 2018b)
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

100 100

80 80

Gemination rate (%)

Gemination rate (%)
60 C 60
US60/38 ℃ 1 h C
40 US60/38 ℃ 3 h 40 UV60/US60/38 ℃ 1 h
US60/38 ℃ 5 h UV60/US60/38 ℃ 3 h
20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Incubation time (d) Incubation time (d)
(a) Treatment on pure cysts (a) Treatment on pure cysts
100 100

80 80

Gemination rate (%)

Gemination rate (%)

C
60 US60/38 ℃ 1 h 60 C
US60/38 ℃ 3 h
US60/38 ℃ 5 h UV60/US60/38 ℃ 1 h
40 40
UV60/US60/38 ℃ 3 h

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Incubation time (d) Incubation time (d)
(b) Treatment on cysts in sediment (b) Treatment on cysts in sediment

Figure 23 Accumulative gemination rate of cysts of Scrippsiella Figure 24 Accumulative gemination rate of cysts of Scrippsiella
trochoidea after the combined treatments by ultrasound (US) and trochoidea after the combined treatments by ultraviolet (UV), ultrasound
heating (38°C) (Wang et al., 2018b) (US), and heating (Wang et al., 2018b)

the integration of ultrasonic technology with other decon‐ cleaning using smaller quantities of less corrosive solvents
tamination methods leads to enhanced cleaning effective‐ is superior to traditional cleaning methods. Nguyen et al.
ness and efficiency. Examining the combined cleaning ef‐ compared the cleaning effect of two solvents under ultra‐
fect of ultrasound with various treatment techniques is cru‐ sonic treatment using the pressure drop method (Nguyen
cial in future research, paving the way for further advance‐ et al., 2016). They discovered that the ultrasonic cleaning
ments in the field. effect was superior when the filter oil was industrial kero‐
sene KO as opposed to diesel DO. In addition, they found
3.3 Application of ultrasonic cavitation in oil a significant relationship between solvent temperature, filter
cleaning and separation pressure loss, and ultrasonic treatment time (Figure 25).
Moreover, the pressure drop decreased significantly (by
One of the most effective methods for cleaning oil-con‐ more than 300 Pa) when the filter was cleaned manually
taminated sand is considered to be ultrasonic energy. Ultra‐ and then ultrasonically, and the optimal ultrasonic cleaning
sonic cleaners typically use acoustic waves to generate time for the filter was approximately 60 min. Thus, this re‐
cavitation and shockwaves, which can break the bond be‐ search demonstrates the commercial viability of ultrasonic
tween oil contaminants and sand. In addition, ultrasonic filter cleaning.
technology is safer and cleaner than other methods, such as Waste mineral oil and oil sludge produced by shipyards
heat, microwaves, and chemicals. This section will focus on during ship disassembly and maintenance, oil pipeline fail‐
the research and applications of ultrasonic cavitation in oil- ure or oil spill caused by tanker dumping at will, and crude
contaminated sand cleaning and separation. oil-contaminated sand produced during offshore oil and
Ship operations frequently require the regular replace‐ gas production are all highly susceptible to oil spill acci‐
ment or cleaning of oil filters to prevent engine break‐ dents due to their high mobility, causing severe damage to
downs and guarantee efficient operation. Traditional manu‐ the environment, nature, and all forms of life, including
al cleaning processes often use strong polar solvents such humans. Numerous methods of oil sand cleaning are avail‐
as methyl halides, which are not only corrosive to the fil‐ able, but most of these methods are limited by costly
ters but also harmful to the surrounding environment and chemical solvents, high energy consumption, and harmful
machinery. Therefore, from this viewpoint, ultrasonic effects on animals and plants. Ultrasonic energy is an estab‐
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

65 2 950 Multi-vari chart for cleaning efficiency (%) by

60 2 900 Load (g)-Frequency (kHz)

Pressure drop (Pa)

Temperature (℃) 55 (1) (2) 30 60 120
50 2 850
28 40 60 Load (g)

Cleaning efficiency (%)

45 KO(℃) 2 800
DO(℃) 65 10
40 (3) KO(Pa) 2 750 50
35 DO(Pa)
100
2 700 60
30 (4)

25 2 650
55
20 2 600
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Ultrasound irradiation time (min) 50
(1): y=75.76−50.75×exp (−x/64.72) 45
Adj. R2=0.999; (r =0.981, p 0.001) 30 60 120 30 60 120
(2): y=69.25−43.90×exp (−x/75.72) Power (W)
Adj. R2=0.999; (r =0.981, p 0.001) Panel variable: Frequency (kHz)
(3): y=2556.2+390.55×exp( x/55.49) Figure 26 Multi-vari chart of cleaning efficiency for the reference
Adj. R2=0.997; (r =0.97, p 0.001)
sand (Mat-Shayuti et al., 2021)
(4): y=2593.08+358.76×exp (x/28.16)
Adj. R2=0.984; (r =0.902, p 0.001)
near a rigid wall was investigated at varying acoustic pres‐
Figure 25 Variation of temperature and pressure drop over ultrasound sure amplitudes. The results demonstrated that the acoustic
irradiation time (Nguyen et al., 2016)
pressure had a large effect on the microjet velocity, and the
lished method for cleaning oil sand. Mud and sand are initial diameter of the cavitation bubble had a significant
cleansed of oil using ultrasonic cavitation. No chemical effect on the microjet cross-sectional area. Moreover, the
agents are added throughout the entire treatment process. microjet was the most influential factor in the removal of
In a time of increasing environmental degradation and strin‐ desorbed stripped oil droplets. Thus, the microjet produced
gent regulations, ultrasonic cleaning is becoming popular by cavitation bubbles with a small initial diameter (0.1 mm)
as a treatment option. is better suited for stripping oil droplets from narrow or
Kim and Wang (2003) and Manson et al. (2004) pub‐ acute angle gaps.
lished the earliest studies on oil separation from soil or Ultrasonic cavitation has promising application poten‐
sand using ultrasonic energy. Abramov et al. (2009a, tial in the treatment of oily sludge, but not all treatments
2009b) studied the impact of temperature and ultrasonic can achieve the desired effect. For treatment standards requir‐
power on the degree of oil–sand separation and discovered ing less than or equal to 3% oily sludge, ultrasonic cavita‐
tion must be further investigated in conjunction with other
that the separation rate of oil from sand was low for less
processes to improve crude oil extraction.
viscous oil, and the rate of oil removal was slow for small
Jin et al. (2012) utilized an ultrasonic cavitation-assisted
sand particles.
extraction method to treat oil sludge generated by oil tank‐
A study conducted by Hu et al. (2014) revealed that
ers. The oil sludge content was reduced from 51.74% prior
treating sand-containing sludge at room temperature with
to treatment to 1.25% at a constant temperature of 55°C, a
75 W of ultrasonic energy recovered 60% of the oil within
power of 150 W, and a frequency of 28 kHz. The 15 min
6 min and reduced the salt content. Zhang et al. (2019)
use of ultrasonic equipment on oil sludge resulted in a
used ultrasonic equipment with a power of 45 W and a fre‐ crude oil recovery rate of 97.58%, achieving the optimal
quency of 40 kHz at a temperature of 55°C to treat sludge pretreatment. The oil content of the sludge was reduced
at the bottom of an oil tank for 15 min. Their results dem‐ from 51.74% prior to treatment to 1.25% after treatment,
onstrated that the ultrasonic method could successfully ex‐ and the crude oil recovery rate was 97.5%, achieving the
tract oil and grease components from the oil-bearing sludge. optimal pretreatment effect.
Mat-Shayuti et al. (2021) treated samples of crude oil- Using samples from an Austrian oil field, Xu et al. (2017)
contaminated beach sand and offshore well output sand for discovered that ultrasonic treatment alone could separate
10 min at a power of 30–120 W, a frequency of 25–60 kHz, 88% of the oil from the contaminated sand. Their results
and a sand loading of 10 – 100 g to improve process effi‐ agree with Son et al. (2012) revealing that cleaning efficiency
ciency. The effect of ultrasonic power, frequency, and load increased to 99.5% when ultrasonic energy was combined
on the cleaning effect of crude oil-contaminated sand was with mechanical agitation.
investigated by ANOVA (Figure 26). Mullakaev et al. (2018) developed a sonochemical tech‐
However, the effects and interactions of ultrasonic pa‐ nology using ultrasonic equipment for separating oil sludge
rameters and oil-contaminated sand are not well under‐ or oil-contaminated soil and performed at an industrial fa‐
stood. Zhao et al. (2021) studied the effect of cavitation cility (Figure 27). The experiments indicated that the sepa‐
microjets on oil droplet desorption. The adsorption state of ration efficiency is increased by adding several alkaline
oil droplets in oil stains was investigated using microscopy. reagents into a working solution. For example, when
The generation of microjets during the collapse of bubbles Na2SO3 is used, achieving an almost complete recovery of
X. Huang et al.: Application of Ultrasonic Cavitation in Ship and Marine Engineering

Figure 27 Flow diagram for processing oil-containing soil using ultrasonic equipment: 1–conveyor for oil-bearing rock, 2–mixer, 3–pumping
unit, 4–ultrasonic reactor, 5–hydrocyclone, 6–centrifuge, 7–conveyor for washed rock, 8–tank for a chemical agent, 9–collector for washing
centrifuge concentrate, 10–separator, 11–collector for treated water, and 12–collector for petroleum products (Mullakaev et al., 2018)

bitumen (up to 95%) from oil sand after 20–40 min at 70– covery intensity of petroleum products compared to an ul‐
75°C is possible. They also found that introducing an ultra‐ trasonic bath.
sonic probe into the reactor significantly improved the re‐

4 Summary 3) Minimal research has been conducted on the effect of

ultrasonic transducer placement. The studies discussed above
Ultrasonic cleaning is an advanced and effective clean‐ did not mention the multifrequency or multi-array trans‐
ing method that uses ultrasonic cavitation to remove dirt. ducer cleaning effect. Therefore, the arrangement of trans‐
This method has promising application prospects in ship ducer placement or the development of multifrequency ul‐
and marine engineering. In comparison to traditional chem‐ trasonic instruments to improve cleaning efficiency is also
ical, physical, and electrochemical cleaning methods, ultra‐ one of the urgent issues to be resolved.
sonic cleaning has a superior cleaning effect and does not 4) Research on the influence of specific working condi‐
cause secondary pollution. Ultrasonic cleaning can clean tions and other factors on the ultrasonic cleaning effect is
and decontaminate all aspects of a structure, regardless of also limited. Take the ultrasonic cleaning pipeline as an ex‐
surface size, shape, or complexity. Thus, decontamination ample. Some scholars found (Liu et al., 2021) that the in‐
via ultrasonic cleaning includes everything from small pre‐ fluential factors of the cleaning effect mainly include fluid
cision components to large ships and submarines. However, properties, pipe shape and size, and ultrasonic parameters.
ultrasonic cleaning in ship and marine engineering is still Therefore, the influence of external factors on the cleaning
in its infancy. The following limitations are encountered in effect must be further studied.
the research of the aforementioned academics: 5) Avoidance of surface erosion of structures due to ul‐
1) Experimentation on acoustic parameters is conducted trasonic cavitation is less explored. Additional research in‐
arbitrarily. Finding the acoustic performance parameters, to the erosion effect of ultrasonic cavitation on structural
such as frequency, sound intensity, and amplitude, in these surfaces is required to commercialize ultrasonic cleaning.
experiments is easy, which are highly arbitrary and likely The current research focused on cleaning, while the im‐
to be displaced from the optimum. pact of erosion on the cleaning surface has not been ade‐
2) No unified standard for measuring the efficacy of ul‐ quately explored.
trasonic cleaning is available. Some scholars believe that 6) The above experiments demonstrated that the clean‐
the acoustic cavitation signal can be used to evaluate ultra‐ ing effect and efficiency are improved when ultrasonic treat‐
sonic cleaning efficiency (Uchida, 2021). The ultrasonic ment is combined with other decontamination and antifoul‐
cleaning effect is affected by a variety of factors, and no ing methods. Future research should investigate the clean‐
clear relationship with the washing effect of a unified stan‐ ing effect of ultrasound in conjunction with a variety of
dard evaluation method exists. Thus, assessing the efficiency treatment techniques.
of various ultrasonic cleaning experiments is difficult. Con‐ 7) The lack of selectivity of ultrasonic cleaning agents,
sequently, the majority of studies are determined by com‐ the corrosiveness of the cleaning fluid to the structure, and
paring the level of dirt before and after an experiment or the quality monitoring of the cleaning fluid during the clean‐
by converting the amount of dirt stripped into quantitative ing process deserve further investigation. However, most
estimates. This strategy is detrimental to the commercial‐ of the current ultrasonic cleaning research using water as a
ization of ultrasonic cleaning devices. cleaning agent lacks selectivity. Thus, researchers should
 Journal of Marine Science and Application

attempt to develop multi-enzyme cleaning agents from an Abramov OV, Abramov VO, Myasnikov SK, Mullakaev MS
environmental protection perspective to achieve an enhanced (2009b) Ultrasonic technologies for extracting oil products
from oil-bearing sands and contaminated soils. Theoretical
cleaning effect.
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marine mammals show behavioral disorders when exposed study of continuous and intermittent ultrasonic ultrafiltration
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China (No. 52101373), Shenzhen Science and Technology Program Feng R, Huang JL (1994) Ultrasonic cleaning and its physical
(No. CYJ20230807145621043), Postdoctoral Science Foundation of mechanism. Application Acoustics 13(1): 42-47. (in Chinese)
China (No. 2021M692629), Young Talent Fund of the University Flynn H, Church CC (1984) A mechanism for the generation of
Association for Science and Technology in Shaanxi, China (No. cavitation maxima by pulsed ultrasound. The Journal of the
20210417), and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Acoustical Society of America 76(2): 505-512. DOI: 10.1121/
Universities (No. 3102021HHZY030009). 1.391592
Gavand MR, McClintock JB, Amsler CD, Peters RW, Angus, RA
Competing interest The authors have no competing interests to de‐ (2007) Effects of sonication and advanced chemical oxidants on
clare that are relevant to the content of this article. the unicellular green alga Dunaliella tertiolecta and cysts, larvae
and adults of the brine shrimp Artemia salina: A prospective
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons treatment to eradicate invasive organisms from ballast water.
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, Marine Pollution Bulletin 54(11): 1777-1788. DOI: 10.1016/j.
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, marpolbul.2007.07.012
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and Gogate PR, Pandit AB (2001) Hydrodynamic cavitation reactors: a
thesource, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and state of the art review. Reviews in Chemical Engineering 17(1):
indicateif changes were made. The images or other third party 1-85
material in thisarticle are included in the article’s Creative Commons Goldsmit J, Archambault P, Chust G, Villarino E, Liu G, Lukovich
licence, unlessindicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If JV, Barber DG, Howland KL (2018) Projecting present and
material is notincluded in the article’s Creative Commons licence future habitat suitability of ship-mediated aquatic invasive
and your intendeduse is not permitted by statutory regulation or species in the Canadian Arctic. Biological Invasions 20(2): 501-
exceeds the permitteduse, you will need to obtain permission directly 517. DOI: 10.1007/s10530-017-1553-7
from the copyrightholder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// Guo S, Khoo BC, Teo SLM, Zhong S, Lim CT, Lee HP (2014) Effect
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. of ultrasound on cyprid footprint and juvenile barnacle adhesion
on a fouling release material. Colloids and Surfaces B-Biointerfaces
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