SS3 DATA PROCESSING NOTE

FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1 DATABASE SECURITY
 Introduction to Database Security
 Access Control
 Roles of Database Administrator in Security
 Data Security
 Encryption
2 CRASH RECOVERY
• ARIES
• Recovery related data structure
• WAL
• Check pointing
• Media recovery
3 INDEXES
 Clustered Vs Uncluttered
 Dense Vs Sparse
 Primary and Secondary Indexes
 Indexes using Composite search key
4 C. A
5 PARALLEL & DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
 Architecture for parallel databases
 Introduction to distributed databases
 Distributed DBMS Architecture
 Storing data in a distributed DBMS

6 NETWORKING
 Meaning of networking (Internet and Intranet)
 Types of Networking
7 GENERAL PRACTICAL SESSIONS
8 Revision
9 Examination

10 Examination

11 Marking and Recording

12 Vetting & Upload of Results

13 Vacation

DATABASE SECURITY
Database security is a serious issue in Database maintenance. Organizations like Banks, WAEC, NECO,
JAMB face task in securing vital and classified/confidential data and information. From authorized
intruders, viral attack, crash and even theft, hence; the importance of data security.
Data security is the process of protecting data and information from threats. In order to protect valuable
data from threats, the following procedures should be adhered to.
1. Enforce restrictions in database access
2. Install anti-malware software and update it regularly
3. Do not alter unauthorized users access to the database or the database or the computer system
4. Carry out regular backup of data on the system
5. Deploy intrusion detection technology to get rid of hackers

Database security on the other hand is the use of different types of information. Security measures to
protect data and information database and its associated hardware and software from threats.
Database security is based or built or designed on the following
1. Integrity
2. Availability
3. Confidentiality [Privacy/Security]

ACCESS CONTROL
Access control can be defined as the process whereby pass codes or permissions are released to users to
access database objects. In order to create a profile (Username and password), a username as a name that
connects users to DBMS and allows access to database objects.
A password or passcode is a security code attached to a particular username for access into a DBMS.
Access control is necessary to protect the secrecy, integrity and availability of database objects. It gives
an organization or a database administrator, the ability to control, restrict, monitor, and protect the
resources availability, confidentiality and integrity.
Access control on a DBMS can be listed as;
1. Role based access control
2. Mandatory
3. Discretionary
4. Administrative
5. Physical
6. Technical/Logical
7. Corrective
8. Preventive
9. Detective

1. Role based Access Control:

Here, the focus is on identifying operations and the objects to which these operations need
access.
2. Mandatory Access Control:
These are system specific rules which cannot be altered by users. Each database objects like
views, tables, indexes, are argued to a security class. Any user would require a clearance to
access some database objects by following the rules attached to these objects. The DBMS
determines whether a particular user can read, write or execute on a particular object
 based on permissions granted the user or the rules governing the object to be accessed. These
rules seek to ensure that sensitive data are not released to users without due clearance.
3. Discretionary Access Control:
This is based on the concept of access of rights, permissions or privileges which are given to
users at the discretion of database users. For instance, on SQL, GRANT command gives
privileges to user while REVOKE command revokes the given privileges.
4. Administrative Access Control:
These are organizations security policies to implement and enforce overall access control.
5. Physical Access Control:
These are barriers put on to prevent access to the device or gadget containing the database.
E.g. swipe cards/ laptop locks, motion detectors.
6. Technical Access Control:
These are the hardware or software used to manage access to database objects and systems.
E.g. Biometrics, Firewall, protocols, smart cards, etc.
7. Corrective Access Control:
This is used to restore the system after unauthorized access to database objects and access e.g.
man traps, alarms and security policies, etc.
8. Preventing Access Control:
This is used to prevent unauthorized activity in database e.g. antivirus, security policies.
9. Detective Access Control:
This is used to uncover unauthorized access or activity in a database. E.g. Intrusion detection
system. User’s supervision.

ENCRYPTION
Encryption is a means of encoding texts/data information preventing unauthorized users from accessing
the texts. The original information gets altered in the process i.e. it is encrypted using encryption
algorithm which turns the information into unreadable format.
Encryption information needs to be encrypted before it is readable i.e. a user requires a decryption key
which uses a decryption algorithm to decode the encrypted text to its former form.
There are two major categories of encryption schemes:
1. Symmetric key encryption
2. Asymmetric key encryption

DATABASE ADMINISTRATION
A database administrator is a computer professional responsible for the managing of an organization’s
DBMS. He/she installs configures, upgrades, design schemes, provide security, restores system failures
etc. A good knowledge of SQL or ORACLE is required to be a good database administrator.

Roles of a DBA in Database security

1. Development and design of database strategies
2. Installing, configuring and monitoring the DBMS
3. Creating accounts for users
4. Controlling and maintaining user access to the database
5. Planning for database information recovery
 6. System monitoring
7. Implementation of security measures
8. Managing, organizing, storing, and retrieving data efficiently
9. Improving database performance
10. Planning for future requirement

Week Three.

CRASH RECOVERY
The process by which a database is restored to the state it was before a crash occurred is referred to as
crash recovery.
A log in computing is a file or folder containing the history of transactions carried out by a DBMS
A log file is usually stored on stable storage medium which are non-volatile medium. In order to recover
crashed data, the acronym is ACID
A -- ATOMICITY
C -- CONSISTENCY
I -- ISOLATION
D -- DURABILITY
TYPES OF FAILURES
1. Transaction failure
2. System failure
3. Media failure
ARIES [Algorithm for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics].
ARIES is a recovery algorithm used in database system. It follows the undo/redo technique. For instance,
when a system crashes, for it to restart, it would require ARIES.
The ARIES recovery procedure after a crash involves three main steps namely
1. Analysis
2. Redo
3. Undo
1. Analysis: Identifies the dirty pages in the memory and active transactions at the crash.
2. Redo: Restore database to what it was before the crash.
3. Undo: It removes the actions of uncompleted transactions not in the database.
WRITE-AHEAD LOG PROTOCOL (WAL)
WAL protocol is a set of rules that ensures the availability of records of all changes while an attempt is
made to recover from a crash.
WAL IS OF TWO TYPES NAMELY:
1. Immediate update
2. Deferred update
 Database check points
Check pointing is done with log-based recovery scheme to reduce the time required for recovery after a
crash.
Checking point has the capacity to check log record from stable storage medium when they are filled up
or used up the space
Crating check point reduces the amount of work neither to be done on restraint
Types of database check point
1. Automatic
2. Indirect
3. Manual

Media recovery
A media failure is the record that occurs when reading or writing a file on disk. For example; a disk crash
Media recovery refers to the recovery of data files initiated by a user. It is used to recover from a lost data
file currently in use.
In general, media recovery refers of data files. Media recovery can divided into:
i. Data file media recovery
ii. Block media recovery

1. Data file media recovery:

This is used to recover from a lost or damaged current data file used when a table space went offline
without the offline normal option.
2. Block media recovery:
This is a technique for restoring and recovering individual data blocks while all database files remain
online and available.
DIGITAL DATA RECOVERY
Digital data recovery module is a powerful data recovery tool that would help to recover lost data from
digital media device. E.g. flash drive, MP3 player, digital camera, memory card, etc.
Check pointing basically consists of saving a snap shot of the applications state so that one can restart
from that point in case of failure.
PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
PARALLEL DATABASE: A parallel database system seeks to improve performance through
parallelization of various operations such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries. A
parallel database system aims to improve performance through implementation of operations. It is a
DBMS implemented on a multi-processor computer. Many operations are performed simultaneously, as
against serial processing in which the operation steps are performed sequential.
 DIAGRAM

Parallel databases can be divided into two groups architecture namely:

1. Multiprocessor architecture
2. Hybrid architecture
The alternative for multiprocessor are the following:
 Shared memory architecture:
Where multiple processors share the main memory (RAM) space but each processor has its own
risk (HDD). If many processes run simultaneously, the speed is reduced, the same as a computer
when many parallel tasks run and the computer slows down.
Shared disk architecture
When each node has its own mass storage as well as main memory, but all nodes shares mass
storage usually a storage area network. In practice, each node usually also has multiple
processors.
Shared nothing architecture
When each node has its own mass storage as well as main memory. The other architecture group
is called hybrid architecture, which includes;
Non-uniform memory architecture[NUMA]: this involves the non-uniform memory access.
Cluster [Shared nothing + shared disk]: SAN/NAS: this is formed by a group of connected
computers.
DIAGRAM

Benefits of parallel database

1. Speed: Parallel database improves processing and input/output speed by using multiple
processing and disk in parallel.
2. Reliability: Parallel database properly configured can continue to work despite the failure of any
computer which is not responding and re-routes its work to the remaining computers.
3. Availability: Failure is one node does not affect other nodes in the system. The remaining nodes
can continue to provide data access to users. This provides significantly higher availability of the
database.
4. Performance: multiple processors made available to an application led to higher performance.
5. Flexibility: instances can be allocated or de-allocated as necessary. When there is high demand
for the database, more instances can be temporarily allocated.

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE:
A distributed database (DDB) is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over
a computer network. A distributed database management system (DBMS) is a software that manages the
DDB and provides an access mechanism that makes this distribution transparent to the users. In
distributed database system, users are able to access and update data as many locations and issues queries
in respect to the users’ locations.
A distributed database is a database that consists of two or more files located in different sites either on
the same network or on entirely different networks. Portions of the database are stored in multiple
physical locations and processing is distributed among multiple database nodes.
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE ARCHITECTURE
Distributed databases can be homogenous or heterogeneous.
In homogenous distributed database system, all the physical locations have the same underlying hardware
and run the same operating systems and database applications. Homogeneous distributed database
systems appear to the user as a single system, and they can be much easier to design and manage. For a
distributed database system to be homogeneous, the data structures at each location must be either
identical or compatible. The database application user at each location must also be either identical or
compatible.
In heterogeneous distributed database, the hardware operating system or database applications may be
different at each location. Different sites may use different schemas and software, although a difference in
schema can make query –and transaction processing difficult.
Different nodes may have different hardware, software and data structure, or they may be in locations that
are not compatible. Users at one location may be able to read data at another location but not upload or
alter it. Heterogeneous distributed data bases are often difficult to use, making them economically
infeasible for many businesses.
Admin can achieve lower communication cost for distributed database system if the data is located close
to where it is used the most. This is not possible in centralized systems

Advantages of Distributed Database

The database is easier to expand as it is already spread across multiple systems and it is not too
complicated to add a system. The distributed database can have data arranged according to different level
of transparency i.e. data with different transparency levels can be stored at different locations
Disadvantages of Distributed Database
1. Since the data is accessed from a remote system, performance is reduced#
2. Static SQL cannot be used
3. Network traffic is increased in a distributed database
4. Database optimization is difficult in a distributed database

COMPUTER NETWORK
Computer network is a collection of computer system linked together by means of communication line, in
other to share information and resources. A computer network consists of two or more computers that are
linked in other to share resources (such as printers and CDs,) exchanged files or allowed electronic
communications. The computer on a network maybe linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites or infrared light beams. The communication line can be wired or wireless.
Basic components of a Computer Network
A network consists of the following components:
i. Computer and its peripherals e.g. printer, scanner and plotter
ii. Network devices are the components for connecting computers in order to share resources on
the networking modem, hub and Network Interface Card {NIC}
iii. Communication channels e.g. twisted pair, coaxial and Fiber Optic Cable or Optic Fiber
Cable [FOC/OFC]
iv. Network protocol: Written rules for communication
v. Server: A server stores all the software that controls the network and the software that can be
shared by other computers attached to the network.
vi. Network software e.g. Novel Netware

Benefits of Networking
1. File sharing
2. Security
3. Resource sharing
4. It eases communication
5. Flexible access
 6. Work group computing
7. Error reduction and improve consistency
8. Reduction of cost running hardware and software computer within the same locality
Computer Networking
Networking is an act off linking electronic devices such as computers so that users can exchange
information or share access to a central store of information. The computers on a network may be linked
through cables, telephones lines, radio waves, and satellites or inferred light beams.
Computer networking is the practice of linking computing device together to support digital
communication.
Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Internet Intranet Extranet

It is a global system of inter It is a private network specific to It is a private network that uses
connected computer network an organization public network to share
information with suppliers and
vendors
Not regulated by any authority It is regulated by an It is regulated by multiple
organization organizations
Thus content in the network is Thus content in the network is Thus content in the network is
accessible to everyone accessible only to members of accessible to members of
connected organization organization and external
members with access of network
It is owned by no one It is owned by a single It is a means of sharing
organization information between members
of an organization and external
members
Security is dependent on the Security is enforced via a Security is enforced via a
user’s device connected to firewall firewall that separates internet
network and extranet
Users can access internet Users should have a valid Users should have a valid
anonymously username/password to access username/password to access
intranet extranet
Internet is unregulated and Intranet is regulated by the Extranet is also regulated by
uncensored organization’s policies contractual agreements between
organization

Benefits of the Internet

Internet provides wide variety of benefits which include the following
1. Exchange of information
2. Sending and receiving mails
3. Fast and cheap means of gathering and transmitting information
4. Watch and download movies and music
5. Instant messaging e.g. chatting with friends and relatives
6. Shopping and trading e.g. foreign exchange trading (Forex) trading
7. Advert placement
Intranet:
An intranet is a private computer that uses Internet Protocol to share information within an
organization. However, if an intranet is made accessible to people outside the organization through a
gateway it becomes an extranet.
Difference between Intranet and Extranet
Intranet is generally restricted to staff of the organization while Extranet extends a private
network into the internet with special permission for access
Uses of Intranet
1. Intranet is being used to facilitate working in group and teleconferencing
2. Intranet is being used for discussing key issues in an intranet forum
3. With intranet, organization can make more information available to employees
4. Intranet can serve as a powerful communication tool within an organization
5. Intranet is designed and built to suit the needs of an organization.

Difference between Intranet and Intranet

1. Internet is open to everyone with the internet facility while an intranet is restricted to an
organization
2. Internet is a global network while intranet is a private network

Types of Network
1. Personal Area Network:
A Personal Area Network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person
within a single building. This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you
to;
 Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch with your
laptop
 Upload the photo from your cellphone to your desktop computer
 Watch movies from an online streaming service to your T.V
A Personal Area Network {PAN} is the smallest network which is very personal to a
user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10
meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enable
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.
For example, Piconet is Bluetooth enable Personal Area Network which may contain up
to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

2. Local Area Network:

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system is
generally termed a Personal Area Network. Usually, LAN covers an organization office, schools,
colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from at least two to as
much as 16 million. LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners and internet are easily sharable among
computers.
 LAN uses Ethernet, Token-ring or ARCNet technology. Attached Resource Computer
NETwork (abbreviated ARCNet or ARCnet) is a communication protocols for Local Area
Network. ARCNET was the first widely available networking system for microcomputers.
Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies commonly used in Local Area
Networks (LANs) and Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). It supports higher bit rates and
longer link distances. Token ring Local Area Network (LAN) technology is a
communications protocol for Local Area Networks (LANs). It uses a special three-byte frame
called a ‘token’ that travels around a logical ‘ring’ of work station. Ethernet is most widely
employed LAN technology and uses Star Topology while token-ring is rarely seen. LAN can
be wired, wireless, or in both form at once. If a Local Area Network is entirely wireless, it is
referred to a Wireless Local Area Network(WLAN).

3. Metropolitan Area Network:

A Metropolitan Area Network, MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city
such as cable TV network, college campus or small region. MAN is larger than a LAN.
Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to
ten of miles. MAN is often used to connect several LAN’s together to form a bigger network.
When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes
referred to as Campus Area Network {CAN}, Controlled Area Network {CAN}, Cluster
Area Network {CAN}.

4. Wide Area Network:

A Wide Area Network, WAN, occupies a very large area, such as entire country or the entire
world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. Other networks are System Area
Network (SAN), Server Area Network (SAN) and Disk Area Network (DAN).

Types of Network Topology

A Network Topology is the arrangement of connected computer systems or network
devices either physically or logically.
1. Point-to-point:
Point-to-point network contains exactly two hosts such as computers, switches,
routers, severs connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the
receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, they may have multiple
intermediate devices. But if the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see
each other as if they are connected directly.

2. Bus Topology:
In this topology, all users share single communication line or cable in a linear
shape. Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts are sending data at the
same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses {CSMA/CD}- {Carrier-Sense
Multiple Access with Collusion Detection} technology or recognizes one host as Bus
Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure
of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication
line can make devices stop functioning. Bus topology uses Ethernet or local talk.
 Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent to only one
direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme, the terminator removes the data from the line.
Features of Bus topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction
2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology
3. Used in small networks
4. It is easy to download
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases
3. Cable has a limited length
4. It is slower than the ring topology

3. Star Topology:
All hosts in star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device
can be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in bus topology, hub acts as a single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to
all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star topology
is not expensive as to connect one or more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical fiber or Coaxial Cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic
2. Hub can be upgraded easily
3. Easy to troubleshoot
4. Easy to setup and modify
5. If there is a node failure, other nodes can still work smoothly
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high
2. Expensive to use
3. If the hub fails, then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes belongs to
the hub
4. Performance is based on the hub that is, it depends on its capacity.
4.Ring topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines creating a
circular network structure. When host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing
structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure.
Feature of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence, to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each network node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
 Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network
5.Mesh topology
In ring topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-to-
point connection with every host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few
hosts only.

Hosts in mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts who do not have direct point-to-point
links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
Full mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus,
for every new hostn(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network structure
among all network topologies
Partial mesh: not a hosts have point-to-point c connection to every other host. Hosts connect to
each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some
hosts out of all ……
 Feature of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected
2. Robust
3. Not flexible
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data lad
2. It is robust
3. Fault is diagnosed easily
4. Provides security and privacy

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult
2. Cabling cost is more
3. Bulk wiring is required
6.Tree topology:
Also known as Hierarchical topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use
presently. This topology imitates as extended star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the bus
topology, if the root goes down, the entire network suffers even though it is not the single
point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the
network into unreachable segment.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups
2. Used in Wide Area Network

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies
 2. Extension of nodes is possible and easy
3. Easily managed and maintained
4. Error detection is easily done

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Heavily cabled
2. Costly
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult
4. CENTRAL HUB FAILS, NETWORK FAILS!
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN DATA PROCESSING
Computer Science majors need to be able to think analytically in order to develop systems and programs,
but must also be sufficiently detail-oriented to troubleshoot problems. They must be able to communicate
well with non-technical people to access their needs and convey technical information in plain language.
Creativity is essential for those Computer Science majors who hope to come up with the latest app or
technology gadget. Given the rapid rate of change within technology, Computer Science majors need to
have a thirst for learning to keep up with the latest developments.
Some of the career opportunities in data processing are as follows:
a. Data Scientist
b. Computer Network Architect
c. Web developer
d. Systems Analyst
e. Computer Hardware Engineer
f. Database Administrator
g. Information Security Analyst
h. Software Engineer
i. Information System Manager
j. IT Project Manager
k. Computer Manager
l. Data Entry Operator
1. Data Scientist:
Data Scientists are big data wranglers, gathering and analyzing large sets of structured and
unstructured data. A Data Scientist’s role combines Computer Science, Statistics and
Mathematics. They analyze, process and model data then interpret the results to create actionable
plans for companies and other organizations.
Data Scientist are analytical experts who utilize their skills in both technology and Social Science
to find trends and manage data. They use industry knowledge, contextual understanding and
skepticism of existing assumptions to uncover solutions to business challenges.
A Data Scientist’s work typically involves making sense of messy, unstructured data, from
sources such as smart devices, social media feeds, and emails that don’t neatly fit into a database.
2. Computer Network Architect:
Computer Network Architects design, implement and maintain networking and data
communication systems, including Local Area Networks, Wide Area Networks, Extranets and
Intranets. They access the needs of an organizations for data sharing and communications.
 Computer Network Architects also evaluate the products and services available in the
marketplace. Computer Network Architects test systems before they are implemented and resolve
problems as they occur after the setup is in place. Computer Network Architects need to have the
analytical skills to evaluate Computer Network.

3. Web Developer:
Web Developers assess the needs of users for information based resources. They create the
technical structure for websites and make sure that web pages are accessible and easily
downloadable through a variety of browsers and interfaces.
Web Developers structure sites to maximize the number of page views and visitors through
search engine optimization. They must have the communication skills and creativity needed to
ensure the website meets its users’ needs.

4. Systems Analyst:
Computer Systems Analysts assess an organization’s computer systems and recommend changes
to hardware and software to enhance the company’s efficiency. Because the job requires regular
communication with managers and employees, computer system analysts need to have strong
interpersonal skills. Systems Analysts need to be able to convince staff and management to adopt
technology solutions that meet organizational needs.
Also, Systems Analysts need the curiosity and thirst for continual learning to track trends in
technology and research cutting-edge systems.
Systems Analysts also needs business skills to recognize what’s best for the entire organization.
Similar job titles are Business Analysts or business Systems Analysts.

5. Computer Hardware Engineer:

Computer Hardware Engineers are responsible for designing, developing and testing computer
components, such as circuit boards, routers and memory devices.
Computer Hardware Engineers need a combination of creativity and technical expertise. They
must be avid learners who stay on top of emerging trends in the field to create hardware that can
accommodate the latest programs and applications.
Computer Hardware Engineers must have the perseverance to perform comprehensive tests of
systems, again and again, to ensure the hardware is functioning as it should.

6. Database Administrator:
Database Administrators analyze and evaluate the data needs of users. They develop and improve
the data resources used to store and retrieve critical information. A Database Administrator uses
software to store and organize data, such as financial information and customer shipping records.
They make sure that data is available to users and is secured from unauthorized access.
Database Administrators, often called DBAs, make sure that data analysts can easily use the
database to find the information they need and that the systems perform as it should. DBAs
sometimes work with an organization’s management team to understand the company’s data
needs and to plan the goals of the database.
They need the problem-solving skills of the computer science major to correct any malfunctions
in databases and to modify systems in line with the evolving needs of users.

7. Information Security Analyst:

 Information Security Analysts create systems to protect information network and websites from
cyber-attacks and other security breaches. Their responsibilities also include researching trends in
data security to anticipate problems and install systems to prevent issues before they occur.
Security Analysts also need strong problem solving skills to investigate breaches, determine the
causes, and modify or repair security systems.

8. Software Engineer:
Software Engineers create programs that allow users to perform specific task on various devices,
such as computers or mobile devices. They are responsible for the entire development, testing and
maintenance of software.
Software Engineers must have the technical creativity required to solve problems uniquely. They
need to be fluent in the computer languages that are used to write codes for programs.
Communication skills are vital for securing the necessary information and insight from end users
about how the software is functioning.

9. Information System Manager:

Computer and Information System Managers analyze a company’s technology needs and oversee
the implementation of appropriate data systems. They need to be able to evaluate software,
hardware, networking and other technology resources for purchase or development purposes.
Because Computer and Information System Managers hire, train, and supervise staff,
interpersonal skills are vital in this role. They must be strong leaders who can communicate
effectively with their staff.

10. I.T. Project Manager:

Project Managers in the I.T. sector coordinate the efforts of a team of programmers/developers
and analysts to complete projects. They also analyze technical problems for their company or a
client organization, proposing solutions and tips to enhance productivity.
Problem-solving skills and a broad knowledge of technology and computer systems help
computer science majors excel in this role. Strong communication skills are required to interpret
the needs of users and convey technical specifications to developers.

11. Computer Manager:

The Computer Manager or Data Processing manger is essentially the head of the computer
department or Data Processing department. He manages and oversees the day-to-day activities in
the department and ensures the department serves the best interest of the organization.

COMPUTER VIRUS
Computer virus is a program incorporated into software to cause problems to the host computer.
It has the capacity to replicate itself and can spread from one computer to another.

TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUS

1. Executable file virus
2. Boot sector virus
3. Polymorphic virus
4. Macro virus
 EXAMPLES OF VIRUS
1. Data Lock
2. Logic bomb
3. Friday 13th
4. Joker

1. EXECUTABLE FILE VIRUS: Infects executable and commands files of application programs.
Examples of executable files with extensions; .exe, .com, .bat, .sys, .prg
2. BOOT SECTOR VIRUS: Infects removable storage media and hard drives disrupting the booting
sequence.
3. POLYMORPHIC VIRUS: It behaves like a chameleon. It changes its virus signature every time it
multiplies, making it difficult to be detected by anti-virus program.
4. MACRO VIRUS: Infects documents produced by application software that supports macro languages.
Examples of application software that supports macro languages are; MS-Word and MS-Excel.

SOURCES OF COMPUTER VIRUS

1. Internet
2. Infected programs
3. Infected storage media
4. Infected downloaded document
5. Pirated software
6. E-mail attachment

COMPUTER VIRUS WARNING SIGNS

1. Incomplete saving and opening of files
2. Regular self-reboot
3. Appearance of strange characters in documents files
4. Presence of tiny dots on the screen
5. Unnecessary long time to boot
6. Display of “memory full” or “memory is low” error message at random
7. Slow response rate to command
8. Corruption of system set-up instructions

ANTIVIRUS PROGRAMS
Antivirus programs are programs developed to cleanse up an infected system and also to protect a
computer system from viral infection.
EXAMPLES OF ANTI-VIRUS PROGRAMS
1. Anti-virus
2. Kaspersky
3. E-set
4. McAfee
5. Norton
 6. AVG
7. Avast

COMPUTER MAINTENANCE
Computer maintenance can be categorized into four classes:
1. Preventive maintenance
2. Corrective maintenance
3. Adaptive maintenance
4. Perfective maintenance

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
This involved routine inspection on computer system based on a predetermined schedule to detect and
correct likely faults to prevent problems in future.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
This allows computer system to work until it breaks down before correcting the problems.
ADAPTIVE MAINTENANCE
This refers to changes initiated as a result of moving the software to different hardware or software
environment.
PERFECTIVE MAINTENANCE
This modifies the computer system to improve performance.
Computer Hardware Maintenance
This involves taking care of the physical components of the computer system and its peripherals as well
as trouble shooting and fixing devices in the computer.
The general tips for physical maintenance are:
System case: Keep all cables firmly attached to their connectors on the case. Dust the computer case
carefully; don’t allow dust to gain access through the vents.
Monitor: Clean the monitor screen with recommended liquid using a soft clean cloth. Never use spray
directly on the screen.
Keyboard: Turn the keyboard upside down and shake it to remove dust. You can also use a blower to
blow off dust within the keys
DVD/CD ROM Driver: Cleans drives with only recommended cleaner
Connections: Plug the computer and peripherals in surge protectors that have a warning indicator to
avoid power outages.
System unit: Open the case carefully and gently blow off dust particles-around the CPU and power
supply fans. Replace the CMOS battery on the motherboard when it is weak. Ensure cards on the system
board are firmly seated.

Guidelines for maintaining computer Disks

 Clean disk drive with disk cleaner regularly
 Label disks with soft tipped pen
 Do not spill liquid on disks
 Keep disks away from liquid, sun and heat
 Always keep discs in the jacket provided for them
 Avoid touching the exposed parts of disks. Fingerprints may damage disks
 Do not place disks on T.V and telephones; they have magnetic fields which have magnetic
elements. These elements can cause damage to disks
Computer Software Maintenance
 Back up all files to avoid loss of important documents
 Delete unused programs in the computer. They occupy disk space. This can be done via the
control panel not the delete key
 Schedule regular virus and spyware scans
 Clean and defragment the hard disk
 Update anti-virus and anti-spy ware regularly