UNIT 1
Cast-in-Place and Pre-Cast
A CONCRETE SLAB IS A LEVEL, FLAT SURFACE MADE FROM POURED CONCRETE, COMMONLY USED AS A BASE
OR FLOOR IN CONSTRUCTIONS LIKE BUILDINGS, PATIOS, AND DRIVEWAYS IT'S OFTEN REINFORCED WITH
STEEL BARS OR MESH TO BOOST ITS STRENGTH AND LONGEVITY CONCRETE SLABS CAN BE PLACED DIRECTLY
ON THE GROUND (ON-GRADE) OR RAISED ABOVE THE GROUND (SUSPENDED) THEY PROVIDE A SCLD, EVEN
SUPPORT FOR ANY STRUCTURE BULT ON TOP
FLOOR SYSTEM AND ROOF SLAB SYSTEM
FLAT SLAB
FLAT PLATE
LIFT SLAB
SPAN STRESS FLOOR SYSTEM
RIBBED FLOOR
SUP FORM METHOD
WAFFLE SLAB
FLAT SLAB
A FLAT SLAB IS A FLAT PLATE THAT IS THICKENED AT ITS COLUMN SUPPORTS TO INCREASE ITS
SHEAR STRENGTH AND MOMENT-RESISTING CAPACITY, UNIFORM THICKNESS THROUGHOUT,
WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS SUPPORTING IT
TWO WAY FLAT SLAB
FLAT PLATE
TWO WAY FLAT PLATE
A FLAT FLATE SLAB IS A REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB WIDELY USED IN STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING IT FEATURES A CONSISTENT THIOKINESS AND & SUPPORTED DIRECTLY BY COLUMNS
WITHOUT THE USE OF BEAMS THIS DESIGN CREATES A SMOOTH CEILING, WHICH ENHANCES
ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS, REDUCES THE HEIGHT BETWEEN FLOORS, CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
AND
RIBBED FLOOR
RIBBED SLABS CONSIST OF PARALLEL RENFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS FRAMING INTO GRDERS, WITH
THE SLAB ACTING AS THE BEAM FLANGE AND RIBS AS THE WEB
ONE-WAY JOIST SLAB
WAFFLE SLAB
WAFFLE SLAB IS A TWO-WAY RIBBED SLAB, MEANING IT HAS RIES RUNNING IN TWO PERPENDICULAR
DIRECTIONS (BOTH LENGTHWISE AND WIDTHWISE)T-ESE RIBS FORM A GRID PATTERN THAT RESEMBLES
A WAFFLE, WHICH QVES IT ITS NAME THE TERMS "WAFFLE SLAB AND RIBBED SLAB ARE OFTEN USED
INTERCHANGEABLY, ALTHOUGH WAFFLE SLABS REFER SPECIFICALLY TO RIBBED SLABS WITH A TWO-
WAY SYSTEM
LIFT SLAB
IS A METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE BUILDINGS BY CASTING THE FLOOR OR ROOF SLAB ON
TOP OF THE PREVIOUS SLAB AND THEN RAISING (JACKING) THE SLAB UP WITH HYDRAULIC JACKS
LIFT SLAB
SPAN STRESS FLOOR SYSTEM
STEEL FLOOR SYSTEMS ALSO MEANS LESS LABOR AND COST FOR EXAMPLE, THE SIMPLEST SOLUTION
OF A DOWN STAND SOLD WEB I-SECTION BEAM AS OPPOSED TO A TRUSS MEANS, FEWER STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS, LESS FABRICATION, FEWER SURFACES TO BE FIRE PROTECTED AND LESS TIME TO DESION
FLOOR STIFF
ENSURING FLOOR STIFFNESS S CRUCIAL FOR PROPER DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE AND USER
COMFORT, AS T AFFECTS HOW THE FLOOR RESPONDS TO MOVEMENT, PRIMARLY IN TERMS OF
ACCELERATION THIS RESPONSE IS INFLUENCED BY VARIOUS FACTORS, INCLUDING STFFNESS AND
THE MOBILIZED MASS
THE TRADITIONAL, THOUGH SIMPLISTIC, METHOD FOR DESIGNING FLOORS INVOLVES CHECKING
THE NATURAL FREQUENCY AND COMPARING IT TO A THRESHOLD, WHICH VARIES WITH THE
FLOORS MASS THE DESIRED BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON THE ROOMS FUNCTION WITH SPACES LIKE
OPERATING THEATERS REQURING MINIMAL FLOOR MOVEMENT, WHILE SPACES LIKE GYMNASIUMS
IN OFFICES MAY POSE GREATER CHALLENGES AND NEED SPECIAL CONSIDERATION
SUP FORM METHOD
THE SUP FORM METHOD IS A CONTINUOUS CONCRETE POURING TECHNIQUE USED TO CONSTRUCT
VERTICAL STRUCTURES LIKE TOWERS, CHIMNEYS, AND BRIDGES IT INVOLVES SLOWLY RAISING THE
FORMWORK AS THE CONCRETE IS POURED, ALLOWING THE STRUCTURE TO BE BULT IN A
SEAMLESS, UNINTERRUPTED PROCESS
FLOOR STIFF
ENSURING FLOOR STIFFNESS S CRUCIAL FOR PROPER
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE AND USER COMFORT, AS T
AFFECTS HOW THE FLOOR RESPONDS TO
MOVEMENT, PRIMARLY IN TERMS OF ACCELERATION
THIS RESPONSE IS INFLUENCED BY VARIOUS
FACTORS, INCLUDING STFFNESS AND THE MOBILIZED
MASS
THE TRADITIONAL, THOUGH SIMPLISTIC, METHOD
FOR DESIGNING FLOORS INVOLVES CHECKING THE
NATURAL FREQUENCY AND COMPARING IT TO A
THRESHOLD, WHICH VARIES WITH THE FLOORS MASS
THE DESIRED BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON THE ROOMS
FUNCTION WITH SPACES LIKE OPERATING THEATERS
REQURING MINIMAL FLOOR MOVEMENT, WHILE
SPACES LIKE GYMNASIUMS IN OFFICES MAY POSE
GREATER CHALLENGES AND NEED SPECIAL
CONSIDERATION
SUP FORM METHOD
THE SUP FORM METHOD IS A CONTINUOUS
CONCRETE POURING TECHNIQUE USED TO
CONSTRUCT VERTICAL STRUCTURES LIKE TOWERS,
CHIMNEYS, AND BRIDGES IT INVOLVES SLOWLY
RAISING THE FORMWORK AS THE CONCRETE IS
POURED, ALLOWING THE STRUCTURE TO BE BULT IN
A SEAMLESS, UNINTERRUPTED PROCESS
FEATURES OF SLIP FORM CONSTRUCTION
THE SLIPFORM CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE IS
FASTER AND MORE ECONOMICAL METHOD THAN
CONVENTIONAL FORMWORK, OFFERING
SIGNIFICANT COST SAVINGS ITS DEAL FOR LARGE
STRUCTURES LIKE BULDINGS AND BRIDGES, AND
ALSO EFFECTIVE FOR SMALLER PROJECTS WITH
IDENTICAL GEOMETRY
THE TECHNIQUE INVOLVES CONTINUOUS UPWARD MOVEMENT OF THE FORMWORK,
FACLITATED BY HYDRAULIC JACKS AND RODS, WITH A TYPICAL FRISE OF ABCUT 300MM PER
HOUR THE PROCESS IS SUPPORTED BY PERMANENT PARTS OF THE STRUCTURE AS THE
FORMWORK ASCENDS
A WALL PANEL SYSTEM SA MODULAR CONSTRUCTION METHOD THAT USES PRE-FABRICATED PANELS
TO ACCELERATE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND IMPROVE EFFICIENCY. THESE PANELS OFTEN INCLUDE
INTEGRATED INSULATION FOR BETTER THERMAL PERFORMANCE AND ENERGY COMPLIANCE WITH
DESIGN FLEXBLITY IN TEXTURE, AND COLOR, THEY ALLOW FOR ARCHITECTURAL CUSTOMIZATION WHILE
REDUDING AND PROMOTING SUSTAINABLITY
FOUR TYPES OF WALL PANEL
SYSTEM
FLAT TYPE RIBBED TYPE
WINDOW AND WALL
TYPE
TILT UP WALL SYTEM
WINDOW TYPE AND WALL TYPE
WINDOW TYPE
IT IS ACHIEVED BY PLACING GLAZING
BETWEEN A BUILDINGS CONCRETE
SLABS, USING THE SLABS AS
STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
TILT UP WALL SYSTEM
IT IS A TECHNIQUE OF SITE CASTING CONCRETE WALLS OR
ELEMENTS, TYPICALLY DONE ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE AND
ONCE CURED, ITS TLTED VERTICALLY INTO USING A MOBILE
CRANE
UNIT II
Pre Stressed Concrete
CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCING STEEL BARS ARE STRETCHED AND ANCHORED TO
COMPRESS IT AND THUS INCREASE ITS RESISTANCE TO STRESS IT INVOLVES THE APPLICATION
OF FORCES TENDING TO BEND AND COMPRESS A CONCRETE ELEMENT IN ORDER TO
COUNTERACT BENDING WHICH RESULTS FROM LOADING THE FORCED APPLIED IS THE
TENSIONING OR STRETCHING OF THE STEEL COMPONENT WHICH USUALLY IN THE FORM OF
HIGH TENSILE STRANDS, WIRES OR BARS.
REINFORCED CONCRETE VS PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REINFORCED CONCRETE AND PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE ARE
SIGNIFICANT PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE S SPECFICALLY DESIGNED TO HANDLE TENSILE
FORCES MORE EFFECTIVELY THAN TRADITIONAL REINFORCED
CONCRETE ADDITIONALLY, THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS FOR PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE S
MORE COMPLEX, REQUIRING THE TENSIONING OF STEEL TENDONS, WHEREAS REINFORCED
CONCRETE PRIMARILY INVOLVES THE PLACEMENT OF REBAR AND POURING OF CONCRETE
THIS COMPLEXITY OFTEN ALLOWS PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE TO BE MORE MATERIAL-
EFFICIENT, ENABLING THE CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTER STRUCTURES WITH LONGER SPANS
PRE-TENSION-PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
THE BEAMS OR ELEMENTS ARE CONSTRUCTED ON A STRESSING BED AND STRANDED CABLE IS PLACED
BETWEEN TWO BUTTRESSES ANCHORED TO A STRESSING BED WHICH HOLDS THE FORCE IN THE
STRETCHED CABLES
AFTER STRETCHING THE STEEL WITH HYDALLIC JACKS CONCRETE IS PLACED IN FORMS ARCOUND THE
CABLES AND ALLOWED TO HARDEN WHEN THE CONCRETE REACHES SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE PRE-
STRESS FORCED IS TRANSFERRED TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND WHEN THE STEEL STRAND AT THE ENDS
OF THE BEAM IS CUT LOOSE FROM BUTTRESSES
POST-TENSIONED-PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
POST TENSIONING IS A TECHNIQUE FOR REINFORCING CONCRETE
STEEL CABLES INSIDE PLASTIC DUCTS OR SLEEVES, ARE POSITIONED IN THE FORMS BEFORE THE
CONCRETE IS PLACED AFTERWARDS, ONCE THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED STRENGTH, THE CABLES ARE
PULLED TIGHT AND ANCHORED AGAINST THE CUTER EDGES OF THE CONCRETE
PRE-TENSIONED PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE IS USUALLY FABRICATED AWAY FROM THE JOB SITE IN A PRE-
STRESSING PLANT, WHEREAS IN POST-TENSIONED PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE THE APPLICATION OF
STRESSING FORCES TO THE STRUCTURE IS DONE AT THE JOB-S/TE
PROCESS POST-TENSIONING
IROLLS OF POST-TENSIONING CABLES 2PULLING ANCHORS FOR POST-TENSIONING CABLES
3 POSITIONED POST-TENSIONING CABLES
4.POST-TENSIONING CABLES ENDS EXTENDING FROM FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE
SHYDRAULIC JACK ARE USED TO PULL THE CABLES
CELINA MARRA
ARKI 4E
UNIT III
Cable Tensile Structure
CABLES GOOD RESISTANCE IN TENSION, BUT NO STRENGTH IN COMPRESSION A CABLE STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF A WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE SUPPORTED BY ROPES OR CABLES AND POSTS CABLES MUST BE MAINTAINED IN TENSION BY PRESTRESSING IN ORDER TO
AVOID LARGE VIBRATIONS UNDER WIND FORCES AND AVOID COLLAPSE
CABLES ROOF STRUCTURES
CABLES IN A CABLE-SUPPORTED ROOF MUST BE MAINTAINED IN TENSION-EASILY ACHEVED IF THE ROOF IS SADDLE SHAPED
EXAMPLE HYPERBOLIC PARABOLCD, WITH CURVATURES IN OPPOSITE SENSES IN DIRECTIONS AT RIGHT ANGLES
-CABLES HUNG IN DIRECTION BD -A SECOND SET OF CABLES PLACED OVER THEM, PARALLEL TO DIRECTION AC AND PUT INTO TENSION
-CABLES FROM THE SECOND SET PRESS DOWN ON THOSE FROM THE FIRST ONE, PUTTING THEM INTO TENSION AS WELL FULLY-
TENSIONED NETWORK
ONE OF THE FAST DOUBLY CURVED SADDLE-SHAPED CABLE SUPPORTED ROOF WAS THE DORTON ARENA IN RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA,
BULT IN 1952
THE ROOF IS SUSPENDED BETWEEN TWO PARABOLIC ARCHES IN RENFORCED CONCRETE INTERCROSSING EACH OTHER, AND SUPPORTED
BY COLUMNS THE CABLE NETWORK CONSISTS OF DIAMETER VARYING FROM 19 MM TO 33 MM
CABLE- STAYED BRIDGES
A CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE CONSISTS OF ONE MORE PIERS,
RO-ANTRIO BROGE GREECE LONGEST
WITHCABLES SUPPORTING THE BRIDGE DECK BASIC DEA SPANSCOM TOTAL LENGTH2,880M
REDUCE THE SPAN OF THE BEAM (DECK) SEVERAL TIMES
COMPARED TO THE CLEAR SPAN BETWEEN THE PIERS
STEEL CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES ARE REGARDED AS THE
MOST ECONOMICAL BADGE DESION FOR SPANS RANONG
BETWEEN 200 AND 400 M SHORTER SPANS TRUSS OR THE MILLAU VIADUCT IN FRANCE
BOX ORDER BROGES LARGER SPANS SUSPENSION LONGEST SPAN342 M TOTAL LENGTH
BRIDGES 2,460 M
SUSPENSION BRIDGES
SUSPENSION BROGES THE EARLEST METH GAPS EARLY BROCES
REALSED FROM FROM HANGING ROPES OF VINES TO WALL
THIS TYPE AT A REASONABLE PACE REQUIRES STEP, AS THE THE
MORE NORMAL ALKING STEP GLO INDUCE WEL TRAVELLING WAVES
Capilano Suspension Bridge Park
THAT CAN CAUSE THE TRAVELLER TO PITCH (UNCOMFORTABLY) UP Bridge in Canada ‧
AND DOWN OR SIDE-TO-SDE
SUSPENSION BRIDGE REALISED FOLLOWING THE SIMPLE DESIGN
OFEARLY BRIDGES Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge Of Japan
-CABLES (CATENARIES -LIGHT DECK
- HANGERS SUSPENDING THE DECK ON CATENARES LACK OF
STABLITY IN HIGH WINDS VERY FLEXELE UNDER CONCENTRATED Golden Gate Bridge
LOADS, AS THE FORM OF THE CABLE WEL ADAPT TO LOADING FORM California
UNIT III
MEMBRANES OF STRUCTURES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURES ARE THOSE STRUCTURES WHICH EMPLOY A THIN, FLEXIBLE SURFACE MATERIAL,
SUCH AS COATED FABRICS, AS THEIR MAIN STRUCTURIAL AND CLADDING ELEMENT THE MEMBRANE IS USUALLY
STRESSED BETWEEN ITS SUPPORT SYSTEM AND ITS ANCHORAGES
TYPICAL MEMBRANE STRUCTURES ARE TENSION STRUCTURES SUPPORTED BY FRAMES, CABLES OR MASTS AND
THOSE WHICH ARE SUPPORTED BY (INTERNAL) AIR PRESSURE AR SUPPORTED STRUCTURES THEY ALSO HAVE
VERY PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES THEY PROVIDE WIDE CLEAR SPAN AREAS WITHOUT LARGE SUPPORTING
MEMBERS
TENSIONED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
IT MAY SEEM TO BE MERELY TENT OR DOME, BUT IN REALITY A TENSIONED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE IS SOMETHING
FAR MORE SOPHISTICATED ITS A VERY SPECIAL STRUCTURE WHICH OBTAINS ITS STRENGTH FROM A COMBINATION OF
ITSGEOMETRIC SHAPE ITS STRUCTURAL FORM AND THE PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL FROM WHICH IT
ISMANUFACTURED WITH A TENT THE FABRIC IS SIMPLY A COVERING FOR A STRUCTURAL FRAME, ONLY INCIDENTALLY
CONTRIBUTING TO THE TENT'S STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY IN A TENSIONED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE, THE FABRIC
PROVIDES A STRUCTURAL MEMBRANE THE COMBINATION OF THE MEMBRANE AND STEEL CABLE OR ARCH ELEMENTS
ACHIEVES STABILITY SO THAT THE SMOOTH CURVILINEAR FORMS REMAN STABLE EVEN UNDER HIGH WIND LOAD
MATERIALS,
SEVERAL MEMBRANE MATERIALS ARE AVALABLE FOR PERMANENT STRUCTURES, COATED, WOVEN SYNTHETIC
FABRICS ARE BY FAR THE MOST WIDELY USED DUE TO THER LOW DURABILITY (2-3 YEARS). FABRICS FROM NATURAL FI
BRES HAVE BEEN ALMOST COMPLETELY REPLACED BY THE MORE DURABLE AND DIMENSIONALLY STABLE SYNTHETIC
OR MINERAL FIBRES PREFERRED FI BRES FOR WOVEN FABRICS ARE POLYESTER OR GLASS FI BRE COATINGS APPLIED
TO FABRIC ARE PVC, TEFL ON OR SILICON IS APPLIED TO GLASS FI BRE FABRIC EACH CLASS OF MATERIAL HAS ITS
PARTICULAR ATTRIBUTES IN TERMS OF DURABILITY, THERMAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE AND COST
MATERIALS
SEVERAL MEMBRANE MATERIALS ARE AVALABLE FOR PERMANENT STRUCTURES, COATED, WOVEN SYNTHETIC FABRICS ARE BY FAR THE
MOST WIDELY USED DUE TO THER LOW DURABILITY (2-3 YEARS). FABRICS FROM NATURAL FI BRES HAVE BEEN ALMOST
COMPLETELY REPLACED BY THE MORE DURABLE AND DIMENSIONALLY STABLE SYNTHETIC OR MINERAL FIBRES PREFERRED FI BRES FOR
WOVEN FABRICS ARE POLYESTER OR GLASS FI BRE COATINGS APPLIED TO FABRIC ARE PVC, TEFL ON OR SILICON IS APPLIED TO GLASS FI
BRE FABRIC EACH CLASS OF MATERIAL HAS ITS PARTICULAR ATTRIBUTES IN TERMS OF DURABILITY, THERMAL AND OPTICAL
PERFORMANCE AN
D COST
HIGH INHERENT STRENGTH
MEMBRANE TENSILE STRENGTH VALUES ARE AS HIGH AS THE STRENGTH OF HIGH
TENSLE STEEL, YET THE MEMBRANE MATERIAL IS 5-6 TIMES LIGHTER THE MATERIALS
ARE THEREFORE WELL SUITED FOR LARGE CLEAR SPANS RESISTANCE TO
ENVIONMENTAL POLLUTION
MOST MODERN FABRICS HAVE NATURAL DAIT SHEDDING CAPABILITIES OR ARE
SPECIALLY TREATED TO ACHIEVE A HIGH LEVEL OF CLEANABLITY SELF OLEANING
PROPERTIES OF PVC COATED FABRICS ARE ENHANCED BY THE ADDITION OF AN
EXTERNAL FILM OF TEDLAR (PVF)
SERVICE LIFE
A MINIMUM SERVICE LIFE OF 10-IS YEARS CAN BE EXPECTED FROM GOOD QUALITY PVC
COATED FABRIC WITH APPROPRIATE SURFACE PROTECTION TEFL ON COATED FI
BREGLASS HAS AN ANTICIPATED MINIMUM LIFE OF 25 YEARS
FIRE SAFETY
PVD COATED POLYESTER AND TEFL ON COATED FI
BREGLASS ARE FI RE SAFE AND MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN
MOST APPLICATIONS
LIGHTING
IN DAYTIME THE LIGHT PENETRATING THE MEMBRANE PROVIDES UNIQUE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT THE LIGHT QUALITY WHICH WILL BE INFLUENCED BY THE FABRIC
SELECTION IS COLOUR THE LIGHT WEL BE BALANCED, SHADOWLESS AND DIFFUSE AT
NIGHT THE FABRIC SURFACE PROVIDES THE OPPORTUNITY TO OBTAIN DIFFUSE
RADIANT LIGHTING EFFECTS INTERNALLY, WHILE AT THE SAME TIME A GENTLE GLOW
PENETRATES THE MEMBRANE CREATING LANDMARK
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MEMBRANES
IN GENERAL TERMS UNINSULATED MEMBRANE STRUCTURES ARE ENERGY EFFICIENT IN WARMER CUMATES TYPICAL OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND BUT DUE
TO THEIR LOW THERMAL MASS ARE RELATIVELY INEFFECTIVE IN VERY COLD CLIMATES
ACCOUSTICS
THE ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF A MEMBRANE STRUCTURE CAN BE REGARDED AS A FUNCTION OF THE SHAPE OF THE MEMBRANE AND OF THE FINISHES
BENEATH THE MEMBRANE
COLOUR FASTNESS
MATERIALS ARE AVALABLE IN RANGE OF COLOUR FAST PIGMENTATIONS HOWEVER CONSIDERATION SHOULD BE GIVEN TO THE EFFECT ON TRANSMITTED LIGHT
AND ADDITIONAL HEAT LOAD INTO THE SPACE BELOW WHEN DARKER COLOURED FABRICS ARE USED
SHELL STRUCTURE
THE TERM 'SHELL IS USED TO DESCRIBE STRUCTURES WHICH POSSESS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY DUE TO THE CURVED
MANNER OF ITS SHAPE WHICH MAY BE THIN IN NATURE, SHELLS MANIFEST IN THE FORM OF EGG SHELL, SKULLS AND
TORTOISE SHELLS
IN ARCHITECTURE, SHELL STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED AS A THIN CURVED MEMBRANE OR SLAB USUALLY OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE THAT FUNCTIONS BOTH AS STRUCTURE AND COVERING
IN CONSTRUCTION, THE CONCEPT OF SHELL
STRUCTURES HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN MANY WAYS
FORMS OF CURVATURE SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
SURFACES OF REVOLUTION ARE GENERATED BY THE
REVOLUTION OF A PLANE CURVE ABOUT AN AXIS
THIS IS CALLED THE MERIDONAL CURVE IN THE
SPECIAL CASE OF CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL
SURFACES, THE MERIDONAL CURVE CONSISTS OF A
LINE SEGMENT
SURFACES OF TRANSLATION
SURFACES OF TRANSLATION ARE GENERATED BY SLIDING A PLANE CURVE ALONG ANOTHER PLANE CURVE, WHILE KEEPING THE
ORIENTATION CONSTANT THE CURVE IS CALLED THE GENERATOR OF THE SURFACE2 CURVES MAY BE MERGED TO ACHIEVE A
DOUBLY CURVED SHELL PIGMENTATIONS HOWEVER CONSIDERATION SHOULD B
GIVEN TO THE EFFECT ON TRANSMITTED LIGHT AN ADDITIONAL HEAT LOAD INTO THE SPACE BELOW WHE
DARKER COLOURED FABRICS ARE USED RULED SURFACES
RULED SURFACES ARE GENERATED BY SLIDING EACH END OF A STRAIGHT LINE ON THEIR OWN GENERATING CURVE THESE LINES
ARE NOT NECESSARILY AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE PLANES CONTAINING THE END CURVES
COOLING TOWER GENERATED BY STRAIGHT LINES CONOID GENERATED BY STRAIGHT LINE TRAVELLING ALONG ANOTHER STRAIGHT
LINE AT END AND CURVED LINE AT THE OTHER END
CLASSIFICATION BY SHAPE
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR FORM, SHELL STRUCTURES ARE BROADLY CLASSIFIED AS ROOF LIGHTS
SINGLE CURVATURE SHELL ARE CURVED ON ONE LINEAR AXIS AND ARE PART OF A
CYLINDER OR CONE IN THE FORM OF BARREL VAULTS AND CONOID SHELLS TOP LIGHTS CAN BE PROVIDED BY DECK LIGHT FORMED IN THE CROWN
OF VAULT OR BY DOME UGHT THE DECK LIGHT CAN BE CONTINUOUS OR
DOUBLE CURVATURE SHELL ARE EITHER PART OF A SPHERE, OR A HYPERBOLCID OF FORMED AS INDIVIDUAL LIGHTS ROOF LIGHTS ARE FIXED TO AN
REVOLUTION UFSTAND OR CURB CAST INTEGRALLY WITH THE SHELL ADVANTAGE OF
THE SHELL IS THAT ITS CONCAVE SOFFIT REFLECTS AND HELPS TO
THE TERMS SINGLE CURVATURE AND DOUBLE CURVATURE DO NOT PROVIDE A PRECISE DISPERSE LIGHT OVER AREA BELOW
GEOMETRIC DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE FORM OF SHELL BECAUSE A BARREL VAULT IS
SINGLE CURVATURE BUT SO IS A DOME THE TERMS SINGLE AND DOUBLE CURVATURE ARE ROOF COVERING
USED TO DISTINGUISH THE COMPARATIVE RIGDITY OF THE TWO FORMS AND COMPLEXITY
OF CENTRING NECESSARY TO CONSTRUCT THE SHELL FORM SHELLS MAY BE COVERED WITH NON-FERROUS SHEET METAL, ASPHALT,
BITUMENT FELT, A PLASTIC MEMRAINE OR A LIQUID RUBBER BASE
COATING
ROOF INSULATION
THE TIN SHELL OFFERS POOR RESISTANCE TO TRANSFER OF HEAT, THE
NEED TO ADO SOME FORM OF INSULATING LINING ADDS CONSIDERABLY
TO COST OF SHELL THE MOST SATISFACTORY METHOD OF INSULATION
STO S SPREAD A LIGHT WEIGHT SCREED OVER THE SHELL
OFFIOULTES OF PROVIDING INSULATION AND MAINTAINING THE
ELEGANCE OF CURVED SHAPE MAKES THESE STRUCTURES LARGELY
UNSUITED TO HEATED BULDINGS IN TEMPERATE CLIMATE
DOME STRUCTURE
A DOME IS A THIN CURVED SURFACE OBTAINED BY REVOLUTION OF CURVED SURFACE ABOUT A
VERTICAL AXIS IT IS AN ELEMENT OF ARCHITECTURE THAT RESEMBLES THE HOLLOW UPPER HALF OF
A SPHERE
THE THICKNESS OF DOME IS VERY SMALL AS COMPARED TO ITS OTHER DIMENSIONS IT VARIES FROM
75MM TO ISOMM IT IS VERY ECONOMICAL IF THE COST OF SHUTTERING IS REPETITIVE
TYPES OF DOME
CORBEL DOME
EARLIEST DOME FORMS IT IS FORMED BY TYPES OF DOMES BASED ON MATERIALS I REINFORCED CONCRETE
HORIZONTAL MASONRY CONSTRUCTIONS THAT
GRADUALLY DECREASE IN SIZE TO CREATE A SEMI- RENFORCED CONCRETE COMBINES PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND CONCRETE TO
SPHERICAL SHAPE RESIST BOTH TENSION AND COMPRESSION
ONION DOME ONE OF THE LARGEST RENFORCED CONCRETE DOMES MEASURES 663
THE ONION DOME IS A BULBOUS DOME THAT WIDENS FEET(202 METERS)
FROM A SMALL BASE AND THEN TAPERS TOWARD
THE TOP, SIMILAR TO THE DOME OF THE TAJ MAHAL
SOME EXAMPLES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DOMES ARE THE KING DOME IN
SEATTLEIDSMANTLED IN 20001 AND THE ALOECIRAS MARKET IN SPAIN
DRUM DOME
COMMON DOME SHAPE SIMPLE SEMI-SPHERICAL
SHAPE EXTENDS UP FROM A CIRCULAR BASE THAT
WOOD
EXAMPLE DRUM DOME-PANTHEON
WOODEN DOMES ARE MAKE OF WOOD COMPOSITES COMBINED WITH JOINTS
OVAL DOME
AND STEEL FRAMES
THE OVAL DOME HAS AN OVAL OR EGG SHAPED BASE
AND EXTENDS UPWARD MUCH LIKE A SPHERICAL
WOODEN DOMES ARE FAVORED FOR THE WARMTH OF THE WOOD ITSELF, BUT
DOMEEXAMPLE BAROQUE OR LATE RENAISSANCE THEY CANNOT SPAN DISTANCES LIKE CONCRETE OF STEEL
BUILDINGS ONE OF THE LARGEST WOODEN DOMES MEASURES 584
FEET(178 METERS) SOME EXAMPLES OF WOODEN DOMES ARE THE TACOMA
SUACER DOME OCME IN WASHINGTON AND THE COATE JUKA DOME IN JAPAN
CREATE A LOW-PITCHED SHAPE THAT LOOKS MORE MASONRY
LIKE AN INVERTED SAUCER THAN A HALF SPHERE
MASONRY WAS USED IN EARLY DOME CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE IT WAS WIDELY
UMBRELLA DOME AVALABLE
ALSO CALLED AS SCALLOPED DOME MASONRY DOMES HAVE THE SMALLEST SPAN OF ALL THE MATERIALS
THE WEIGHT OF THE DOME IS SUPPORTED BY MEASURING AT LARGEST FEET (43 METERS)
VERTICAL STRUCTURES THAT GO FROM
THE BASE TO THE CENTER, DIVIDING THE DOME INTO SOME EXAMPLES OF MASONRY DOMES ARE THE PANTHEON IN ROME AND
SEGMENTS STPAUL'S CATHEDRAL IN LONDO
GEODEDSIC DOME
GEODESIO DOME IS A SPHERICAL OR PARTIAL
SPHERICAL SHELL STRUCTURE OR LATTICE SHELL
BASED ON A NETWORK OF GREAT CIRCLES
(GEODESICS) ON THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE
THE GEODESICS INTERSECT TO FORM TRIANGULAR
ELEMENTS THAT HAVE LOCAL TRIANGULAR RIGIDITY
AND ALSO DISTRIBUTE THE STRESS ACROSS THE
CELINA MARRA
STRUCTURES ARKI 4E
