Basic Medical Endocrinology - 4th Edition
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Basic Medical
Endocrinology
Fourth Edition
H. Maurice Goodman
Department of Physiology
University of Massachusetts Medical School
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Cover Credits:
Background: FIGURE 3-2 Histology of the human thyroid. Simple cuboidal cells
(arrows) make up the follicles. C _ thyroid colloid (thyroglobulin), which fills the follicles.
(From Borysenko, M. and Beringer, T. (1979) Functional Histology, 312. Little, Brown,
Boston by permission of Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia.)
Black/green: FIGURE 7-11 Confocal fluorescent microscope images of cultured mouse
adipocytes that were transfected with a GLUT4-enhanced green fluorescent protein fusion
construct and then incubated in the absence (A) or presence (B) of insulin for 30 min.
Insulin stimulation results in the translocation of GLUT4 from intracellular storage sites to
the plasma membrane. (From Watson, R.T., Kanzaki, M., and Pessin, J. (2004) Regulated
membrane trafficking of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter 4 in adipocytes. Endocr. Revs.
25: 177–204, by permission of The Endocrine Society.)
Blue figure: FIGURE 10-14 Low-power photomicrograph of a portion of the thyroid gland
of a normal dog. Parafollicular (C) cells are indicated in the walls of the follicles. (From Ham,
A.W. and Cormack, D. H. (1979) Histology, 8th Edition, 802, by permission of Lippincott,
Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia.)
Red, white and blue: FIGURE 11-3 Schematic representation of the tibial epiphyseal growth
plate. (Modified from Nilsson, O., Marino, R., De Luca, F., Phillip, M., and Baron, J. (2005)
Endocrine regulation of the growth plate. Hormone Research 64: 157–165 by permission of
S. Karger AG, Basel.)
Pink, yellow, white: FIGURE 12-1 Histological section of human testis. The transected
tubules show various stages of spermatogenesis. (From di Fiore, M.S.H. (1981) Atlas of Human
Histology, 5th Edition, 209. Lea & Febiger, by permission of Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins,
Philadelphia.)
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This volume is dedicated to my children’s children:
Dylan, Adam, Rebecca, and Joshua
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Contents
List of Figures xiii CHAPTER 2 PITUITARY GLAND 29
Preface to the Fourth Edition xxvii
Preface to the First Edition xxix Morphology 29
Preface to the Second Edition xxxi Physiology of the Anterior
Preface to the Third Edition xxxiii Pituitary Gland 31
GLYCOPROTEIN HORMONES 31
GROWTH HORMONE AND
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 PROLACTIN 33
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN FAMILY 33
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANTERIOR
Biosynthesis of Hormones 4
PITUITARY GLAND 34
Storage and Secretion 8 REGULATION OF ANTERIOR
Hormones in Blood 8 PITUITARY FUNCTION 35
Hormone Degradation 10 HYPOPHYSIOTROPIC HORMONES 35
Mechanisms of Hormone Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) 36
Action 10 Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone 37
SPECIFICITY 10 Control of GH Secretion 37
CHARACTERISTICS OF RECEPTORS 11 Corticotropin Releasing Hormone 37
HORMONAL ACTIONS MEDIATED Dopamine and control of Prolactin
BY INTRACELLULAR Secretion 38
RECEPTORS 12 Secretion and Actions of
HORMONAL ACTIONS MEDIATED BY Hypophysiotropic Hormones 38
SURFACE RECEPTORS 14 FEEDBACK CONTROL OF ANTERIOR
The G-protein Coupled Receptors 14 PITUITARY FUNCTION 38
Receptors that Signal through Physiology of the Posterior
Tyrosine Kinase 19 Pituitary 39
REGULATION OF HORMONE REGULATION OF POSTERIOR
SECRETION 21 PITUITARY FUNCTION 40
Negative Feedback 21 Suggested Reading 41
Positive Feedback 23
Feed Forward 23
MEASUREMENT OF HORMONES 23
Immunoassays 23
CHAPTER 3 THYROID GLAND 43
Hormone Levels in Blood 26
Suggested Reading 26 Morphology 43
vii
Contents
Thyroid Hormones 44 Glucocorticoids and Responses to Injury 77
BIOSYNTHESIS 45 Adrenocortical Function During Stress 81
Iodine Trapping 45 Mechanism of Action of Glucocorticoids 82
Thyroglobulin Synthesis 45 Regulation of Glucocorticoid Secretion 82
Incorporation of Iodine 46 Adrenal Medulla 86
HORMONE STORAGE 46 BIOSYNTHESIS OF THE MEDULLARY
SECRETION 46 CATECHOLAMINES 86
Control of Thyroid Function 48 STORAGE, RELEASE, AND METABOLISM
EFFECTS OF THYROID-STIMULATING OF MEDULLARY HORMONES 87
HORMONE 48 PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF MEDULLARY
EFFECTS OF THE THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONES 88
IMMUNOGLOBULINS 49 REGULATION OF ADRENAL MEDULLARY
AUTOREGULATION OF THYROID HORMONE FUNCTION 89
SYNTHESIS 49 Suggested Reading 89
Thyroid Hormones in Blood 49
Metabolism of Thyroid Hormones 50
Physiological Effects of Thyroid CHAPTER 5 PRINCIPLES OF HORMONAL
Hormones 52
GROWTH AND MATURATION 52 INTEGRATION 91
Skeletal System 52
Central Nervous System 52 Integration of Hormonal Signals at the
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 52 Cellular and Molecular Level 91
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 53 AUGMENTATION, ANTAGONISM,
METABOLISM 53 AND SYNERGY 91
Oxidative Metabolism and Thermogenesis 53 PERMISSIVENESS 93
Carbohydrate Metaboliism 55 MAINTAINING SIGNAL FIDELITY 93
Lipid Metabolism 55 Modulation of Responding Systems 93
Nitrogen Metabolism 56 SENSITIVITY AND CAPACITY 94
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone SPARE RECEPTORS 96
Secretion 56 Hormonal Integration at the
Mechanism of Thyroid Hormone Whole Animal Level 97
Action 57 REDUNDANCY 97
REINFORCEMENT 98
Suggested Reading 59
PUSH–PULL MECHANISMS 99
CHAPTER 4 ADRENAL GLANDS 61
CHAPTER 6 HORMONES OF THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT 101
Morphology 61
Adrenal Cortex 62
ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES 62 Functional Anatomy of the GI Tract 101
Control of Adrenocortical Hormone Synthesis 66 Overview of Digestion and Absorption 104
Adrenal Steroid Hormones in Blood 69 Hormones of the Gastrointestinal Tract 104
Postsecretory Metabolism of Adrenal Cortical THE GASTRIN/CHOLECYSTOKININ FAMILY 105
Hormones 69 Physiological Actions of Gastrin 106
Physiology of the Mineralocorticoids 71 Regulation of Gastrin Secretion 108
Effects of Aldosterone on the Kidney 71 Cholecystokinin (CCK) 109
Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion 74 THE SECRETIN/GLUCAGON SUPERFAMILY 112
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GLUCOCORTICOIDS 75 Secretin 114
Effects on Energy Metabolism 75 GIP (Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide/
Effects on Water Balance 76 Gastric Inhibitory Peptide) 116
Effects on Lung Development 76 Glucagon-like Peptides 1 and 2 (GLP-1 and GLP-2) 118
viii
Contents
The Pancreatic Polypeptide Family 121 FUEL CONSUMPTION 153
Neurotensin 122 The Glucose Fatty Acid Cycle 153
The Motilin/Ghrelin Family 122 AMP Activated Kinase (AMPK) 154
Concluding Comments 124 Overall Regulation of Blood Glucose
Suggested Reading 127 Concentration 155
Short-term Regulation 156
Long-term Regulation 156
Integrated Actions of Metabolic
CHAPTER 7 THE PANCREATIC ISLETS 129
Hormones 157
ADIPOSE ISSUE 157
Morphology of the Endocrine Pancreas 129 MUSCLE 159
Glucagon 130 LIVER 159
BIOSYNTHESIS, SECRETION, AND PANCREATIC ISLETS 159
METABOLISM 130 Regulation of Metabolism During
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF GLUCAGON 130 Feeding and Fasting 160
Glucose Production 131 POSTPRANDIAL PERIOD 160
Glycogenolysis 131 POSTABSORPTIVE PERIOD 162
Gluconeogenesis 132 FASTING 162
Lipogenesis and Ketogenesis 133 Hormonal Interactions During Exercise 163
Ureogenesis 133 SHORT-TERM MAXIMAL EFFORT 163
REGULATION OF GLUCAGON SECRETION 134 SUSTAINED AEROBIC EXERCISE 163
Insulin 134 Long-term Regulation of Fuel Storage 164
BIOSYNTHESIS, SECRETION, ADIPOGENESIS 165
AND METABOLISM 134 HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF APPETITE AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF INSULIN 135 FOOD INTAKE 166
Effects of Insulin Deficiency 135 Peripheral Input to Hypothalamic
Effects on Adipose Tissue 137 Feeding and Satiety Neurons 168
Effects on Muscle 138 ADIPOSITY SIGNALS 168
Effects on Liver 140 Leptin 168
MECHANISM OF INSULIN ACTION 143 Insulin as an Adiposity Signal 170
REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION 144 Adipokines 171
Glucose 144 Satiety Signals 172
Other Circulating Metabolites 145 PERSPECTIVE 173
Hormonal and Neural Control 146 Suggested Reading 174
Cellular Events 146
Somatostatin 149
Suggested Reading 149
CHAPTER 9 REGULATION OF SALT
AND WATER BALANCE 175
CHAPTER 8 HORMONAL REGULATION
General Considerations 175
OF FUEL METABOLISM 151 Salt and Water Balance 176
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 178
General Features of Energy ANTIDIURETIC EFFECT 179
Metabolism 151 EFFECTS ON BLOOD PRESSURE 180
BODY FUELS 151` REGULATION OF ADH SECRETION 181
Glucose 151 Plasma Osmolality 181
Glycogen 152 Blood Volume 181
Protein 152 Dysfunctional States 182
Fat 152 The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Problems Inherent in the Use of Glucose and System 183
Fat as Metabolic Fuels 152 ACTIONS OF ANGIOTENSIN II 184
ix
Contents
Actions on the Adrenal Cortex 184 CELLS OF ORIGIN 209
Actions on the Kidney 185 BIOSYNTHESIS, SECRETION, AND
Cardiovascular Effects 185 METABOLISM 209
Central Nervous System Effects 185 PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF CALCITONIN 210
Regulation of the Renin-Angiotensin- Actions on Bone 210
Actions on Kidney 210
Aldosterone System 186
REGULATION OF SECRETION 210
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) 186
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS 188
The Vitamin D-Endocrine System 211
SYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM 211
Cardiovascular Actions 188
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF 1,25(OH)2D3 211
Renal Actions 189
Actions on Intestine 212
Effects on Aldosterone Secretion 189
Actions on Bone 213
Other Effects 190
Actions on Kidney 213
REGULATION OF ANF SECRETION 190
Actions on Parathyroid Glands 213
Integrated Compensatory Responses to REGULATION OF 1,25(OH)2D3 PRODUCTION 214
Changes in Salt and Water Balance 190 Calcium Regulation of Plasma Calcium
HEMORRHAGE 192
Concentrations 214
Response of the Renin Angiotensin System 192
Response of the ADH System 193
Integrated Actions of Calcitropic
Response of Aldosterone 193 Hormones 215
RESPONSE TO A HYPOCALCEMIC
Response of ANF 193
CHALLENGE 215
DEHYDRATION 193
RESPONSE TO A HYPERCALCEMIC
SALT LOADING AND DEPLETION 194
CHALLENGE 216
Suggested Reading 195
Other Hormones That Influence Calcium
Balance 216
Suggested Reading 217
CHAPTER 10 HORMONAL REGULATION
OF CALCIUM BALANCE 197
CHAPTER 11 HORMONAL CONTROL
General Features of Calcium OF GROWTH 219
Balance 197
DISTRIBUTION OF CALCIUM IN THE BODY 198 Growth Hormone 219
CALCIUM BALANCE 198 SYNTHESIS, SECRETION, AND METABOLISM 219
Intestinal Absorption 199 MODE OF ACTION 221
Bone 199 PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF GROWTH
Kidney 201 HORMONE 221
Phosphorus Balance 202 Effects on Skeletal Growth 222
Parathyroid Glands and Parathyroid Effects of GH/IGF-I on Body Composition 226
Hormone (PTH) 202 Regulation of GH Secretion 227
BIOSYNTHESIS, STORAGE, AND SECRETION Effects of Age 228
OF PTH 203 Regulators of GH Secretion 229
MECHANISMS OF PARATHYROID HORMONE ACTIONS OF GHRH, SOMATOSTATIN, IGF-I,
ACTION 204 AND GHRELIN ON THE SOMATOTROPE 231
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF PTH 204 Thyroid Hormones 231
Actions on Bone 204 DEPENDENCE OF GH SYNTHESIS AND
Actions on Kidney 205 SECRETION ON T3 233
Effects on Intestinal Absorption 207 IMPORTANCE OF T3 FOR EXPRESSION OF
PTH FRAGMENTS 207 GH ACTIONS 233
PARATHYROID HORMONE-RELATED Insulin 233
PEPTIDE (PTHRP) 207 Gonadal Hormones 234
REGULATION OF PTH SECRETION 208 EFFECTS OF ESTROGENS ON EPIPHYSEAL
Calcitonin 209 GROWTH PLATES 235
x
Contents
EFFECTS ON GROWTH HORMONE SECRETION INHIBIN 263
AND ACTION 235 RELAXIN 263
EFFECTS OF ANDROGENS 236 Control of Ovarian Function 263
Glucocorticoids 237 EFFECTS OF FSH AND LH ON THE
Suggested Reading 238 DEVELOPING FOLLICLE 264
Estradiol Production 264
Follicular Development 265
Cellular Actions of FSH and LH 265
CHAPTER 12 HORMONAL CONTROL OF EFFECTS ON OVULATION 266
REPRODUCTION IN THE MALE 239 EFFECTS ON CORPUS LUTEUM FORMATION 266
EFFECTS ON OOCYTE MATURATION 267
EFFECTS ON CORPUS LUTEAL FUNCTION 267
Morphology of the Testes 239 EFFECTS ON OVARIAN BLOOD FLOW 267
LEYDIG CELLS AND SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES 239
MALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT 241 Physiological Actions of Ovarian
Control of Testicular Function 242 Steroid Hormones 267
LEYDIG CELLS 242 EFFECTS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT 267
GERMINAL EPITHELIUM 244 MENSTRUATION 267
EFFECTS ON THE MAMMARY GLANDS 269
Testosterone 245 OTHER EFFECTS OF OVARIAN HORMONES 269
SECRETION AND METABOLISM 245
MECHANISM OF ACTION 269
MECHANISM OF ACTION 246
EFFECTS ON THE MALE GENITAL TRACT 246 Regulation of the Reproductive Cycle 270
EFFECTS ON SECONDARY SEXUAL PATTERN OF HORMONES IN BLOOD DURING
CHARACTERISTICS 247 THE OVARIAN CYCLE 270
REGULATION OF FSH AND LH SECRETION 271
Sexual Differentiation 247
Negative Feedback Aspects 271
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE
DUCTS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES 248 Selection of the Dominant Follicle 272
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXTERNAL GENITALIA 250 Positive Feedback Aspects 273
TESTICULAR DESCENT INTO THE SCROTUM 250 Neural Control of Gonadotropin Secretion 273
POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT 251 Sites of Feedback Control 273
ANOMALIES OF SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION 251 Timing of Reproductive Cycles 275
Regulation of Testicular Function 251 Suggested Reading 275
GONADOTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE
AND THE HYPOTHALAMIC PULSE
GENERATOR 252
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK REGULATORS 254 CHAPTER 14 HORMONAL CONTROL
Inhibin and Testosterone 254 OF PREGNANCY AND LACTATION 277
PREPUBERTY 255
PUBERTY 255
Fertilization and Implantation 277
Suggested Reading 256 GAMETE TRANSPORT 277
ROLE OF THE OVIDUCTS 278
IMPLANTATION AND THE FORMATION OF
CHAPTER 13 HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE PLACENTA 279
REPRODUCTION IN THE FEMALE: THE The Placenta 280
MENSTRUAL CYCLE 257 Placental Hormones 281
HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN
(HCG) 282
Female Reproductive Tract 257 HUMAN CHORIONIC SOMATOMAMMOTROPIN
OVARIES 257 (HCS) 283
Folliculogenesis 258 PROGESTERONE 284
OVIDUCTS AND UTERUS 260 ESTROGENS 284
Ovarian Hormones 261 The Role of the Fetal Adrenal Cortex 285
ESTROGENS 261 The Role of Progesterone and Estrogens
PROGESTERONE 263 in Sustaining Pregnancy 286
xi
Contents
Maternal Adaptations to Pregnancy 287 LACTATION AND MATERNAL CALCIUM
CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS 287 BALANCE 296
RENAL ADAPTATIONS 288 MECHANISM OF PROLACTIN ACTION 298
Osmoregulation and Thirst 289 NEUROENDOCRINE MECHANISMS 298
RESPIRATORY ADJUSTMENTS 290 Milk Let-Down Reflex 298
Gas Exchange 290 Cellular Actions of Oxytocin 298
METABOLIC ADJUSTMENTS 291 Control of Prolactin Secretion 298
CALCIUM BALANCE 291 CELLULAR REGULATION OF PROLACTIN
Parturition 292 SECRETION 300
THE ROLE OF CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING PROLACTIN IN BLOOD 300
HORMONE (CRH) 293 LACTATION AND RESUMPTION OF OVARIAN
THE ROLE OF OXYTOCIN 295 CYCLES 301
Lactation 295 Suggested Reading 301
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MAMMARY GLANDS 296 Index 303
MILK PRODUCTION 296
xii
List of Figures
CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1. Chemical communication between cells.
Fig. 2. Levels at which hormone actions are considered.
Fig. 3. Composition of DNA.
Fig. 4. Complementary base pairing.
Fig. 5. Transcription and RNA processing.
Fig. 6. Alternative splicing.
Fig. 7. Translation: Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, New York: Garland
Publishing, 1994; reprinted by permission of Garland Publishing, Inc.
Fig. 8. Post-translational processing.
Fig. 9. Exocytosis.
Fig. 10. Hormone binding to plasma proteins.
Fig. 11. Specificity of hormone signaling.
Fig. 12. Receptor components.
Fig. 13. General scheme of steroid hormone action.
Fig. 14. Schematic view of a nuclear receptor.
Fig. 15. Activation of steroid hormone receptors.
Fig. 16. An unactivated G-Protein coupled receptor.
Fig. 17. Activation of G-protein coupled receptor.
Fig. 18. Formation and degradation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cyclic AMP).
Fig. 19. Formation of inositol 1,4,5 triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).
Fig. 20. Effects of cyclic AMP.
Fig. 21. (IP3) diacylglycerol/(DAG) second messenger system.
Fig. 22. DAG lipase to releases precursors of the prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Fig. 23. Signaling through tyrosine kinase.
Fig. 24. Signaling through JAK/Stat.
Fig. 25. Components of a hormone response system.
Fig. 26. Negative feedback of hepatic glucose production by glucagon.
Fig. 27. Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose concentration by insulin and
glucagon.
Fig. 28. Positive feedback regulation of oxytocin secretion.
Fig. 29. Competing reactions that form the basis of the radioimmunoassay.
xiii
List of Figures
Fig. 30. Sandwich type assay.
Fig. 31. Patterns of hormone concentrations in blood: A. Bremer et al., J. Clin Endocrinol. Metab., 56: 1278,
1983; reprinted by permission of the Endocrine Society; B. Yamaji et al., Endocrinology, 90: 771,
1972; reprinted by permission of the Endocrine Society; C. Hwang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,
68: 1902–1971, reprinted with permission.
CHAPTER 2
Fig. 1. Human pituitary gland and adjacent hypothalamic structures: Netter, F.H., Atlas of Human
Anatomy, 2nd ed. Novartis Summit New Jersey; reprinted by permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 2. Vascular supply of the human pituitary gland: Netter, F.H., Atlas of Human Anatomy, 2nd ed.
Novartis Summit New Jersey; reprinted by permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 3. The glycoproteins.
Fig. 4. The growth hormone/prolactin family.
Fig. 5. Proteolytic processing of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC).
Fig. 6. Development of the principal cell types of the anterior pituitary gland.
Fig. 7. Midsagittal section of the human hypothalamus and pituitary: Netter, F.H., Atlas of Human
Anatomy, 2nd ed. Novartis Summit New Jersey; reprinted by permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 8. Regulation of anterior pituitary hormone secretion.
Fig. 9. Structures of the neurohypophysial hormones.
Fig. 10. Regulation of oxytocin secretion.
Fig. 11. Regulation of vasopressin secretion.
CHAPTER 3
Fig. 1. Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland: Netter, F.H., Atlas of Human Anatomy, 2nd ed. Novartis Summit
New Jersey; reprinted by permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 2. Histology of the human thyroid.
Fig. 3. Thyroid hormones: Braverman, L.E., and Utiger, R.D., eds. Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid, 8th ed.,
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia; reprinted by permission of Lippincott, Williams and
Wilkins, Philadelphia.
Fig. 4. Thyroid hormone biosynthesis and secretion: Balasse, P.D., Rodesch, F.R., Neve, P.E. et al. (1972)
C. R. Acad .Sci. [D] (Paris), 274: 2332; reprinted by permission of Publies Avec Le Concours Du
Centre National.
Fig. 5. Hypothetical coupling scheme for intramolecular formation of T4.
Fig. 6. Scanning electron micrographs of the luminal microvilli of dog thyroid.
Fig. 7. Rate of loss of serum radioactivity after injection of labeled T4 or T3.
Fig. 8. Metabolism of thyroxine.
Fig. 9. Effects of thyroid therapy on growth and development of a child: Wilkins, L. (1965) The Diagnosis
and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield,
Illinois; reprinted by permission of Charles C. Thomas Publishing.
Fig. 10. Effects of thyroxine on oxygen consumption by various tissues: Barker, S.B. and Klitgaard, H.M.
(1952) Metabolism of tissues excised from thyroxine-injected rats. Am. J. Physiol. 170: 81; reprinted
by permission of the American Physiological Society.
Fig. 11. Effects of glucose and T3 on the induction of malic enzyme (ME): Mariash, G.N. and
Oppenheimer, J.H. (1982) Thyroid hormone-carbohydrate interaction at the hepatic nuclear
level Fed. Proc., 41: 2674; reprinted by permission of the Federation of American Societies for
Experimental Bio (FASEB).
xiv
List of Figures
Fig. 12. Feedback regulation of thyroid hormone secretion.
Fig. 13. Effects of TRH, T3, and T4 on the thyrotrope.
Fig. 14. Effects of on the response to thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): Snyder, P.J., and Utiger, R.D.
(1972) Inhibition of thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone by small quantities
of thyroid hormones. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 2077; reprinted by permission of the American Society of
Clinical Investigation.
Fig. 15. Models of the Effects of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) on gene transcription.
CHAPTER 4
Fig. 1. Anatomy and histology of the adrenal glands.
Fig. 2. The principal adrenal steroid hormones.
Fig. 3. Conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone.
Fig. 4. Biosynthesis of adrenal cortical hormones: Rainey, W.E., Carr, B.R., Sasano, H., Suzuki, T., and
Mason, J.I. (2002) Dissecting human adrenal androgen production. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/journal/10432760. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 13: 234–239; reprinted by
permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 5. The principal estrogens.
Fig. 6. Stimulation of steroidogenesis by ACTH in zona fasciculata cells.
Fig. 7. Plasma concentrations of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate.
Fig. 8. Stimulation of aldosterone synthesis by angiotensin II (AII).
Fig. 9. The cortisol-cortisone shuttle.
Fig. 10. Oxidation of cortisol to cortisone prevents binding to mineralocorticoid receptor.
Fig. 11. Hemiacetal protects aldosterone from oxidation by HSD.
Fig. 12. Extra-adrenal synthesis of testosterone and estrogens from DHEAS.
Fig. 13. Effects of continuous administration of aldosterone to a normal man: August, J.T., Nelson, D.H.,
Thorn, G.W. (1958) Response of normal subjects to large amounts of aldosterone. J. Clin. Invest. 37:
1549−1559; reprinted by permission of the American Society of Clinical Investigation.
Fig. 14. Proposed mechanisms of action of aldosterone in the kidney.
Fig. 15. Dual negative feedback control of aldosterone secretion.
Fig. 16. Effects of glucocorticoids on metabolism of body fuels.
Fig. 17. Synthesis and structures of some arachidonic acid metabolites.
Fig. 18. Effects of interleukin -1(IL-1).
Fig. 19. Anti-inflammatory actions of cortisol.
Fig. 20. Cortisol inhibits proliferation of T cells.
Fig. 21. Negative feedback control of glucocorticoid secretion.
Fig. 22. Hormonal interactions that regulate ACTH secretion by pituitary corticotrope.
Fig. 23. Plasma concentrations of ACTH and cortisol at different times of day: Matsukura, S., West, C.D.,
Ichikawa, Y., Jubiz, W., Harada, G., Tyler, F.H. (1971). A new phenomenon of usefulness in the
radioimmunoassay of plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone. J. Lab. Clin. Med., 77: 490–500;
reprinted by permission of Elsevier.
Fig. 24. Feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by cytokines.
Fig. 25. Consequences of a partial block of cortisol production.
Fig. 26. Biosynthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine in adrenal medullary cells.
Fig. 27. Catecholamine degradation: Cryer. In: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2nd ed., edited by
Felig et al. McGraw Hill, New York, 1987; with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.
Fig. 28. Secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to hypoglycemia: Garber, A.J.,
Bier, D.M., Cryer, P.E., Pagliara, A.S. (1976) Hypoglycemia in compensated chronic renal
insufficiency. Substrate limitation of gluconeogenesis. J. Clin. Invest. 58: 7–15; reprinted by
permission of the American Society of Clinical Investigation.
xv
List of Figures
CHAPTER 5
Fig. 1. Integration at the cellular level.
Fig. 2. Synergistic effects of growth hormone and glucocorticoid: Gorin, E., Tai, L.R., Honeyman, T.W.,
and Goodman, H.M. (1990) Evidence for a role of protein kinase C in the stimulation of lipolysis by
growth hormone and isoproterenol. Endocrinology 126: 2973, 1990; reprinted by permission of the
Endocrine Society.
Fig. 3. Determinants of the magnitude of a hormonal response.
Fig. 4. Determinants of the duration of a hormonal response.
Fig. 5. Relationship between concentration and response at different sensitivities.
Fig. 6. Concentration response relationships showing different capacities to respond.
Fig. 7. Effects of receptor number on sensitivity to hormonal stimulation.
Fig. 8. Spare receptors.
Fig. 9. Redundant mechanisms to stimulate hepatic glucose production.
Fig. 10. Redundant mechanisms to activate glycogen phosphorylase.
Fig. 11. Effects of epinephrine and growth hormone on plasma free fatty acids.
Fig. 12. Push:pull mechanism.
Fig. 13. Push:pull mechanism on glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase.
CHAPTER 6
Fig. 1. The gastrointestinal tract.
Fig. 2. Gastric glands.
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the enteric nervous system: Johnson, L.R., Essential Medical
Physiology, 3rd ed., Elsevier, Academic Press, San Diego, 2003, p. 469; reprinted by permission of
Elsevier.
Fig. 4. Vago-vagal reflexes.
Fig. 5. Progastrin, procholecystokinin(CCK), and their posttranslational processing.
Fig. 6. Stimulation of gastric acid secretion.
Fig. 7. Cellular actions of gastrin, acetylcholine and histamine on the parietal cell.
Fig. 8. Actions of gastrin and PACAP in ECL cells.
Fig. 9. Direct and indirect feedback regulation of gastrin secretion.
Fig. 10. Somatostatin (SST) secretion in the gastric mucosa.
Fig. 11. Effects of a meal on secretion of cholecystokinin, gall bladder contraction, and pancreatic
chymotrypsin: Liddle, R.A., Goldfine, I.D., Rosen, M.S., Taplitz, R.A., and Williams, J.A.,
Cholecystokinin activity in human plasma. molecular forms, responses to feeding. And relaionship
to gall bladder contraction, J. Clin. Invest. 75: 1144–1152, 1985; reprinted by permission of the
American Society of Clinical Investigation and Owyang, C., Louie, D.S., and Tatum, D. Feedback
regulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion. Suppression of cholecyctokinin release by trypsin.
J. Clin. Invest. 77: 2042–2047, 1986; reprinted by permission of the American Society of Clinical
Investigation.
Fig. 12. Actions of CCK on pancreatic secretion and bile flow.
Fig. 13. Regulation of CCK secretion.
Fig. 14. The secretin/glucagon family of peptides.
Fig. 15. Effects of secretin on bicarbonate secretion by pancreatic and bile ducts.
Fig. 16. Synergistic effects of secretin and CCK on bicarbonate secretion: Refeld, J.F., Best Practice and
Research in Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 18: 569–586, 2004; reprinted by permission of
Elsevier.
Fig. 17. Actions of secretin and feedback regulation of its secretion.
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