Cognitive Skills

UNIT 1 COGNITIVE SKILLS

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 What are Cognitive Skills?
1.3 Components of Cognitive Skills
1.3.1 Perception
1.3.2 Memory
1.3.3 Logical Thinking
1.3.4 Concentration
1.3.5 Rational Attitude

1.4 Cognitive Skills and Distance Learning

1.4.1 Technologies as Cognitive Tools
1.4.2 Reading and Writing Techniques
1.4.3 Developing Communication Skills

1.5 Bloom’s Taxonomy

1.6 Mind Mapping and Concept Mapping
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 References and Further Readings
1.9 Feedback to Check Your Progress Questions

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In distance education (DE), learners are expected to acquire knowledge
through creative methods by working on the activities or exercises
given in the self-learning materials. In addition to these they also need
to remember some important dates, for example, teleconferencing
schedule, virtual class timings, last dates for submitting assignment
responses, filling up term end examination forms, etc. The learners
require cognitive skills to carry out these responsibilities in accordance
with their abilities.
Cognitive skills are those skills which help learners to read effectively,
write passages, essays, reports, make numerical calculations, and
expedite Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills.
Neisser (1967) said that cognitive skills are the processes by which
sensory input is transformed, reduced, encoded, stored, recovered, and
used.
The major concern for a distance learner is: In what ways s/he can
learn better and effectively? In other words, they desire to know how
learners use the learning tools in their learning activities. If we say they
need to learn some procedures to do so then that leads to another
question: What skills they need to adopt or develop so that they can
have command and control on these procedures? Cognitive skills,
which comprise of knowledge, skills and actions help learners to
accelerate their learning activities in more effective and efficient ways.
Thus, it is a prerequisite for knowledge acquisition.
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Learner Support: The specific subject matter that is operational for investigative purposes
Development of Skills encompasses mental states and processes (Butterfield and Dickerson,
1976). Several processes associated with cognitive behaviour are
perception, information, representation in memory, use of knowledge
(Norman and Rumehlart, 1975), sensation, imagery retention, recall,
problem solving, and thinking (Neisser, 1967). The manner in which a
learner employs these various processes in relation to his/her personal
cognitive capabilities for the efficient use of information, in activities
such as comprehension, listening, and reading, is the major
determinant of individual differences in the acquisition of skills
(Simon, 1975).

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

This unit will explain the significance and need of cognitive skills in
teaching learning domain in global and distance education in
particular. It further analyzes and examines how cognitive skills help
learners in their learning activities.
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
 Discuss the components of cognitive skills;
 Explain ‘cognition’ in teaching learning contexts;
 Illustrate types of memory;
 Elucidate the significance of cognitive skills in the open and distance
learning;
 Analyze the revised Bloom’s taxonomy on cognitive learning; and
 Differentiate Mind Mapping from Concept Mapping.

1.2 WHAT ARE COGNITIVE SKILLS?

Cognitive skills are the basic mental abilities that we use to think,
study, and learn. In the context of distance education, they are
regarded as any mental skills that are used in the process of acquiring
knowledge, covering a wide variety of mental processes such as; ability
to identify images, analyze sounds, recapitulate information, search
facts in memory, associate and dissociate different pieces of information
and use them in appropriate contexts. Cognitive skills accelerate
learners’ efficiency, strengthen their ability, and capability in learning
activities. In a sense, they make learners’ learning easy and
comfortable. It is stated that cognitive skills are the skills that help
learners in the transfer of their skills to the requisite skills to facilitate
their study and establish learning as an easy processes. With the help
of cognitive skills we can cognize objects, events, concepts, in the
appropriate contexts. Thus, the basic question needs to address here is
that “What is cognition?”. Cognition in teaching learning domain is
interchangeably used as ‘knowledge’. It is an ‘apprehension’, or
‘consciousness’, or ‘awareness’ of an object. It reveals or manifests all
objects just as the light of a lamp reveals all physical objects. The
object of apprehension may be a substance, quality, an act, an
emotion, the existent and non-existent things of the world. But in all
these cases, cognition means there must be something that stands out
as the object of knowledge.

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Cognition is of two types. These are: Cognitive Skills

i) Presentative cognition
ii) Representative cognition (memory)
In presentative cognition, the objects are directly presented whereas in
case of representative cognition (memory) the objects are indirectly
recalled. All sorts of cognition may not be valid because to have a valid
cognition, there should be the right apprehension of an object. In
other words, cognition is valid when knowledge of an object must
correspond to the reality. Thus, it states that a valid cognition is the
manifestation of an object as it is.
There are some situations where knowledge of an object is presentative
in character but not valid, such as; ‘doubt’, and ‘error’. Doubt arises
due to the isolation of mind between certain positions. In ‘doubt’, the
cogniser is unable to decide the content of cognition. For example; the
snake and a rope are alike. As a result, we are in a position to doubt a
rope as a snake. This happens because of the following reasons:
i) Something is presented before the cogniser
ii) Cogniser is unable to decide the cognition
iii) Certain alternatives are equally forcing to recognize the object
iv) It results in the form of interrogation.
Consider the issue ‘error’. It is also representative in nature but not a
valid cognition. In ‘error’, an object is cognized as having certain
characteristics and these fall outside of its being. Thus, it is a wrong
apprehension in which the object is taken for what it is not. For
example, cognizing shell as silver.
Now, what we mean by the terms ‘cognition’ and cognitive skills
should be clear to you.

1.3 COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE SKILLS

Cognitive skills have some essential components. These are:
 Perception
 Memory
 Logical thinking
 Concentration
 Rational attitude.
Let us discuss these components in the context of distance learning
and acknowledge their role in teaching learning activities.

1.3.1 Perception
The term “perception” is understood here as looking things in right
perspectives. But it is noticed that different people perceive an issue
differently because of various reasons which we are not elucidating
here because it is not our present concern. Since they perceive
differently they have different opinions, and therefore they treat an
issue differently. For example, “She is sharp”. This sentence is 9
Learner Support: understood differently by her teachers, parents, colleagues, and
Development of Skills intimate friends though it conveys one and only one meaning, i.e.
about her talent. Thus, perception is contextualized, subjective, and
depends on many other extraneous surrounding factors. To support
this argument Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) says that we see things not
as they are but as we are. In the context of DE, It is suggested that
learners should perceive things or facts correctly and by doing so they
can adapt right perception and hence, it should guide them to achieve
their goals. For example; Susama and Mamata have received their
assignment responses back with tutor comments and grades. Susama
got ‘A’ whereas Mamata got ‘B’ grade. In this situation, Mamata claims
that Susama wrote assignment responses by getting help from me and
scored higher than me. Thus, there may not be proper evaluation
happening in the DE setup. Again, the evaluation procedures may not
have been followed strictly by the evaluators. Hence, she got
demotivated towards her studies. In this case, it is advised that
Mamata should perceive the fact correctly why she did not receive ‘A’
Grade instead of comparing Susama’s grade with hers and getting
disoriented in her studies.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
List the components of Cognitive Skills.
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1.3.2 Memory
Memory as one of the main components of cognitive skills helps
learners in remembering, and recapitulating events, or concepts, or
particular objects in their actual forms. It is of five kinds. These are:
i) Short term memory: It lasts from a few seconds to a minute.
ii) Long term memory: An ability to recapitulate the long past events.
iii) Receptive memory: Remembering the physical postures of an
object of recent past.
iv) Sequential memory: Remembering things in an order.
v) Rote memory: It is a habit to learn and remember certain
information.
These memories are not only assisting learners to recast their study
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content on time but also relate this information to their experiences for Cognitive Skills
better understanding. Long term memories become the library of facts
upon which learners build their concepts and accumulate knowledge.
Short term memory helps to capture the dynamic data during the
learning experience.
Apart from these memories, there are two other important memories
also found in teaching-learning activities.
a) Episodic Memory
b) Semantic Memory
Episodic and Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory is memory for personal experience; Semantic
Memory is for acquiring the knowledge about the world. Knowledge
available for an attempted understanding of learning strategies comes
mainly from studies of Episodic Memory. But probably most of what
goes in a practical learning situation is recognition of Semantic
Memory (O’Neil, H.F. Jr and Spielberger, C.D., 1979, P.102).
According to Tulving (1972), “Episodic Memory receives and stores
information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-
spatial relaters among those events. Semantic Memory is the memory
necessary for the use of language. It is a mental thesaurus, organized
knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols,
their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about
rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols,
concepts, and relations” pp. 385-386.
A diagram of the memories is placed below for your understanding
and reference.
Memory

Episodic Memory Semantic Memory

Long term memory Short term memory

Visual Auditory

Articulatory Acoustic

The function of memory is irreplaceable in learning activities. This is so

because learning is to understand, conceptualize, analyze, interpret,
remember, and recapitulate the issues or events. Hence, memory
becomes a vital component of learning. Learning through any means
requires memory functions because it is the memory that decides the
correct and relevant information to receive and process, from the
irrelevant and unnecessary information among other varieties of
information. Memory helps us to recall where the particular
information is located and how it can be traced out. 11
Learner Support: 1.3.3 Logical Thinking
Development of Skills
Thinking logically means thinking step by step or in a chronological
order. And to do so learners need the support of mental processes.
And these can’t be inherited from our ancestors nor would it be
considered as a matter of genetic endowment. To think logically on an
issue is to acquire a systematic study and understanding. It guides us
to apply our reasons constantly and consistently to achieve a particular
pre-determined goal and even assists us to get multiple solutions of a
problem. It improvises our performance in reading, writing, searching/
browsing, and organizing study materials.
1.3.4 Concentration
Concentration is one of the chief mental functions of human beings. It
is an ability that assists learners to remain mentally alert on a
particular object, issue, subject content, etc. and observe the same
carefully. Without concentration there may be no activity, be it
academic or non-academic.
You might have experienced that at times plenty of things stimulate
your sensory receptors. But all are not transformed into mental
representations. You select one or two objects depending on the
priority of your work and time limit, and you ignore the rest. If you
can not select and concentrate on a particular object, then your mind
may be distracted by a number of uninvited stimuli around you, such
as; smell, taste, noise, etc.
To improve your concentration, you should adhere to these guidelines:
a) Ensure understanding of the subject contents
b) Retain and maintain interest in the subject matter
c) Have a purpose while doing any activity
d) Make sure your attention is focused
e) Transform good procedures into habits
f) Reward yourselves once you achieve the pre-set goals
Concentration is of three types; (i) an ability to concentrate on a
particular task (ii) an ability to focus on several important tasks at once
(iii) an ability to filter irrelevant information and remain focused on a
particular task. Concentration is an act of will and doesn’t happen
automatically. Thus, concentrating on a particular task guides learners
to fix their priority and set their attainable goals which help them in
achieving success. This practice even assists them in grasping the study
contents systematically.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Write the types of concentration.
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1.3.5 Rational Attitude Cognitive Skills

Rational attitude is interpreted here as positive behaviour towards an

issue or an object, or subject of a study. It says not to give up your
hope on any issue. If you are determined and committed to do a
task, and wish to work on your shortcomings to overcome the
avoidable barriers, you can reach your target. This enables them to fix
achievable goals on a par with one’s abilities and capabilities. It guides
learners to move in the right path. It helps them to take correct
decisions on an issue. To develop this attitude one needs to be
focused on a particular attainable goal. For example; all distance
learners want to successfully complete their courses within the
stipulated time and achieve success in their studies. To do so one
should develop the rational attitude within himself/herself and try to
do the regular academic activities on time. Even by doing self
assessment questions and exercises they can enhance their learning
experiences. Further, rational attitude assists learners to search and
process the information by overpowering their laziness. It develops
the critical thinking and creative approaches in their studies. Thus, it
empowers learners to consider the learning activities as a routine
work and easy task.
In these ways, components of cognitive skills immensely assist learners
to do their routine activities religiously, regularly, and enable them to
comply and complete their study tasks in time.

1.4 COGNITIVE SKILLS AND DISTANCE

LEARNING
Cognitive skills are intended to promote inquiry learning which is a
part of educational methods. To define inquiry learning, it is
interpreted as an educational activity in which learners either
individually or collectively investigate a set of phenomenavirtual or
real, and draw conclusions on it. According to Dejong and Van
Joolingen (1998), learners direct their own investigatory activity but
they may be prompted to formulate questions, plan their activities,
draw and justify conclusions about what they have learnt. They come
to understand that they are able to acquire knowledge that they
desire, virtually in any content domains, in a way that they can
initiate, manage, and execute on their own, and that such knowledge
is empowering (p.496). Since DE inherently accommodates different
learning styles, learners prefer to adopt technological instructions in
their learning. This is so because the technological environments are
multimodal and are supported by audio, video, texts, and provide
facilities to individual as well as groups to interact in synchronous
and asynchronous formats. Technological platforms support learners to
represent linear and nonlinear content, and hence providing a variety
of learning tools to cater different learning styles adopted by learners.
In this context, Bruner (1961) says that a strategy developed by a
learner in accordance with cognitive abilities and situational demands
would be most effective in relating new information to previously
obtained experiences.
Learning and cognition are highly interdependent with each other
because both need a platform called ‘understanding’. According to
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Learner Support: Novak, meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts
Development of Skills and propositions into existing hierarchies (Lanzing, T., 2004). Salomon,
Perkins and Globersen (1991) suggest that cognitive tools or mind
tools refer to technologies, tangible or intangible, that enhance the
cognitive powers of learners during thinking, problem solving, and
learning. In Jonassen’s (1970) view learners are active constructors of
knowledge. He expresses that cognitive tools are developed to function
as intellectual patterns to enable and facilitate critical thinking and
higher order learning. Cognitive skills empower learners to design
their own representation of knowledge and use those to support deep
reflective thinking. Thus, cognitive tools enable learners in mindful
challenging learning. Dansereau (1978) says that cognitive skills help
learners to identify the relevant and pertinent materials for their
courses. It also helps them to retrieve information under appropriate
situations or contexts.
1.4.1 Technologies as Cognitive Tools
In distance education (DE) settings as such the technological
intervention is quite a common phenomenon. Here, technology
doesn’t stand alone as media, rather it is observed as integrated
phenomena. Learners learn in technological environment through
multiple media. The use of web-based learning or online learning falls
within this category. Learning through technology requires learners’
self regulation, motivation, and time management approaches. It helps
learners to learn successfully in DE settings. Participation in
technological environment becomes crucial for learning to happen and
this can facilitate, collaborate, and cooperate lifelong learning. Thus,
learning through technology is an inquisitive approach to effective
learning.
In the technological platform, nothing stimulates DE except web based
learning. The web is now causing educators, instructors, and even
learners ranging from pre-school to higher education to identify the
very nature of teaching and learning differently. Researches have
found that web can facilitate free teaching which may liberate learners
from the physical boundaries of classrooms and the time constraint of
class schedule. The earlier practice of classroom lectures becomes
webcasted through multimedia which inspires learners in their
learning experience. Learning through multimedia helps learners to
reorganize and reinvent. Thus, it supports learner-centric education
rather than teacher centric instructional curriculum.

Learning through technology certainly has potential benefits provided

learners show their inclination on technological use and are acquainted
with its multiple applications. In this regard, Cuban (1993) pointed
out that the following advantages can be derived by using computer
in teaching learning domain:
i) to keep the education system at the forefront of technological
development and learners’ skills up-to-date with those expected in
the workforce;
ii) to increase efficiency and productivity in teaching and learning;
and
iii) to enable more self-directed learning
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Cognitive skills help in improving learners’ reading and writing Cognitive Skills
techniques, considered to be essential tools for all learners. Further,
communication skills are also guided by the cognitive skills. Here we
will discuss how reading and writing techniques and communication
skills help distance learners in accomplishing their study tasks.
1.4.2 Reading and Writing Techniques
In the context of DE, reading and writing techniques are the key
issues for the learners. It is so because they need to deal with these
two activities in a rigorous manner. To enhance reading and writing
techniques they require cognitive skills, such as concentration,
memory, logical thinking, and communication skills which have been
discussed earlier in this unit. These features help a distance learner to
carry forward his/her learning tasks in a successful manner.

There are five stages to acquire the reading competency which is

supported by cognitive skills, prescribed by Chall (1979). In the first
stage, learners learn the basic decoding skills. It means they learn the
letters of the alphabet: how to represent the letters phonetically, what
the letters are for, and how to distinguish similar looking words (e.g.
book vs. ball). In the second stage, learners involve in consolidating
what was learnt in the first stage. Extensive practice with reading
materials that is already familiar and known permits learners to
concentrate on written words and practice their decoding skills. In the
third stage, instead of concentrating on learning to read learners begin
to use reading to learn, i.e. they use reading to acquire new
knowledge about the world. In this stage they learn new facts,
concepts, and events of the world besides their concentration lie only
to progress in their learning and understanding the issues that they
are reading. In the forth stage, learners read to acquire new points of
view and new multifaceted concepts. At the final stage, they learn to
use written materials to serve their own specific purpose, i.e. they
know which parts of a text to read, which to skim, and which to
avoid (Chall, 1979, p.44).
Whenever we discuss study techniques immediately SQ3R techniques
S: Survey, Q: Questioning, R1: Reading, R2: Reviewing, R3: Recalling/
recapitulating) appear in our mind though these do not constitute all
the activities of study techniques. It suggests some other techniques as
well, such as;
a) Developing time management approach
b) Familiarizing with the course
c) Self-motivation
d) Coping with stress

e) Setting attainable, achievable, and possible goals

f) Peer-group interactions
g) Developing online search skills

h) Evaluating one’s own progress at regular intervals

By practicing these techniques, learners can organize, plan, and
execute their study effectively and purposefully, and hence, learning 15
Learner Support: becomes an easier and lifelong phenomenon for them. Without these
Development of Skills skills learning will be difficult or just impossible for them. The key to
solving a pertinent learning challenge is to strengthen a learner’s basic
processing or cognitive skills.

1.4.3 Developing Communication Skills

Communication skills assist learners to communicate their thoughts
intentionally and purposefully. It suggests that one can share his/her
feelings, emotions and even inner desires to others if he/she uses the
correct vocabulary in the sentences before his/her deliverances (either
written or utterances). Communication skills help us to construct not
only a bond between ‘learners and tutors’, but also among their peer
groups. In addition to these, they assist in accessing subject contents in
an easy, comfortable, and progressive ways.

All these components of cognitive skills together suggest that

learners can enhance their learning experience by adapting and
practicing these skills in their study tasks. Further, these assist
learners not only in identifying images, analyzing sounds,
recapitulating information, searching facts in memory but also in
learning scientifically and arguing logically. By supporting in these
ways cognitive skills encourage and inspire learners to do multiple
activities in various fields and be creative in their approaches and
understanding.
From the above analyses it is asserted that there are two basic
elements required for the development of cognitive skills. These are
‘language’ and ‘logic’. The developments in use of language alongside
the logical organization of thoughts are basic prerequisites for building
cognitive skills and exercising learners’ ability to handle study tasks
and preserve update information for their learning activities. Both are
in a process of continual development and they allow learners to
construct and use certain skills which are vital for the acquisition of
knowledge and for the further development of human activity,
behavior, and movement.
Cognitive skills comprise of information processing tools and all the
data which one possesses throughout one’s life. Without the
development of cognitive skills we will be having great difficulty in
handling information, transferring them into knowledge, and being
able to use them in actual learning contexts.
A basic question arises on ‘learning’, i.e. how does a learner improve
his/her thinking while learning? Bloom’s Taxonomy may help to
answer this question in an appropriate manner.

1.5 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

Bloom attempted to answer this question by developing a method of
classification for thinking behaviours that were believed to be
important in the processes of learning. Eventually this framework
became taxonomy and was found in three domains.
The cognitive – knowledge based domain, consisting of six levels
The affective – attitudinal based domain, consisting of five levels, and

16 The psychomotor – skill based domain, consisting of six levels.

Here, we will discuss only the cognitive domain because of its Cognitive Skills
relevance in this unit. Bloom has depicted the six cognitive levels
of thinking in a stairway. It starts with the lowest level named as
‘knowledge’ and ends with the highest level termed as ‘evaluation’.
The sequences from the lowest to highest level are: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. This
taxonomy is presented in a hierarchical form because if a learner is
functioning at the ‘analysis’ level it is assumed that s/he has
mastery over the study contents or subjects at the ‘comprehension’
and ‘application’ levels.

This hierarchy of ‘thinking’ and ‘learning’ in educational paradigm

is changed in the later period by Bloom’s pupil Lorin Anderson.
The later version is much appropriate because it is framed keeping
in mind the latest curriculum of subject of studies available across
the globe, instructional design of materials, technology integration,
creative and critical thinking of learners, and the assessment and
evaluation patterns used in the academic programmes in the
educational domains scattered in all countries of the world. In
short, it has been revised by considering the present demand of
teaching learning activities. The changes are found in three broad
categories: terminology, structure, and emphasis. The major
category is prominently marked in the changes as verb forms
instead of nouns. These changes are also presented in the hierarchy
forms. In this case, the lowest level is ‘remembering’ whereas the
apex level is ‘creating’. It follows from lowest to highest in this
stairway—remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing,
evaluating, and creating. This structure is known as Bloom’s revised
taxonomy.
The new terms are defined as:
Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant
knowledge from long term memory.
Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and
graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or
implementing.
Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts,
determining how these parts relate to one another and to an
overall structure, or purpose through differentiating,
organizing, and attributing.

Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards

through checking and critiquing.
Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or
functional whole; recognizing elements into a new pattern of
structure through generating, planning, or producing.

(Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, pp.67-68)

Graphical presentations of Bloom’s old and revised taxonomy are
presented below for your understanding and reference.
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Learner Support:
Development of Skills Higher Order Thinking Skills Higher Order Thinking Skills

Evaluation Creating

Synthesis Evaluating

Analysis Analyzing

Application Applying

Comprehension Understanding

Knowledge Remembering

Lower Order Thinking Skills Lower Order Thinking Skills

(Old Version) (Revised Version)

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

Write the differences between Bloom’s old taxonomy and revised

taxonomy?
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Now let us discuss the two important tools ‘mind mapping’ and
‘concept mapping’, and discuss their association with cognitive skills in
relation to learning and understanding events and concepts.

1.6 MIND MAPPING AND CONCEPT MAPPING

Cognitive skills play a major role to construct mind mapping and
concept mapping while studying Self Learning Materials (SLMs).
When learners read the SLMs it is expected that they should
understand, conceptualize and relate the information to their
experiences for better and effective learning. To do so they often
require mind mapping as well as concept mapping tools. Let us
discuss these tools and see how they help distance learners to make
their learning easier and faster.
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Mind Mapping Cognitive Skills

In mind mapping, it is always found to be a core concept that

branches out into some relevant and related sub-concepts. It is
presented in a hierarchical or tree format. Again, the sub-concepts
further branch out into sub-sub-sub concepts. For example; the
concept ‘pen’ branches out into writing, plastics, ink, paper, etc.
Further, the sub-concept ‘ink’ branches out into blue, green, red,
black, etc. Thus, it is stated that mind mapping is a powerful
technique that allows learners to make the best use of their brain
power by harnessing the full range of their cognitive skills. A mind
map can be used either for note taking, or note making. It replaces
the inefficient method of linear note-taking and opens up the creative
processes and provides a diagram of the whole concept which cannot
easily be obtained by any other methods. By using the mind mapping
tool, learners can combine words, pictures, icons or symbols, sounds,
colors and may be other imagery structures those relevant and fit into
organizing their ideas.
Mind maps are also considered as brainstorming diagrams based on a
central idea or image, typically used to aid in organization, problem
solving, and decision making. A mind map is a graphical way to
represent non-linear ideas and concepts. It is a visual thinking tool that
helps structuring information, helping learners to better analyze,
comprehend, synthesize, recall, and generate new ideas. Mind maps
are used to generate, visualize, structure, classify ideas, and as an aid in
study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing.
Mind maps and concept maps are different on the ground that mind
maps focus on only one central word or a principal idea whereas,
concept maps connect multiple words or ideas together. We will
discuss the ‘concept mapping’ in the next passage and analyze how
cognitive skills help to frame the concept map on a particular concept
or word. See the pictorial diagram of mind mapping in Figure 1.1.
Example of Mind Mapping

Figure 1.1
Source: http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/mind-maps-examples.htm
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Learner Support:
Development of Skills Check Your Progress 4
Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

What is mind mapping?

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Concept Mapping
Concept Mapping is a graphical tool for learning, developed by Novak
and Gowin (1984). A concept map is a diagram to show the compact
relationships among concepts. They are graphical images for organizing
and representing knowledge. A concept map represents the relations
between ideas, images, concepts, or words, as a road map represents
the locations of highways and towns. In a concept map, each word or
concept is connected to another and linked back to the original word,
image, or concept. By the help of concept maps learners can develop
logical thinking and study skills which are part of cognitive skills.
Therefore, concept maps ascertain meaningful learning. To adapt and
adhere to the concept mapping tool in learning activities is to learn
meaningfully in any context. Thus, learning becomes a unique and
creative phenomenon.
See the pictorial diagram of concept mapping in Figure 1.2.
Example of Concept Mapping

\
Figure 1.2
Source: http://www.informationtamers.com/Find-best-visual-form-for-information-
management. html
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 Cognitive Skills
1.7 LET US SUM UP
Cognitive skills are understood as the basic mental abilities that we use
to think, study, and learn. To interpret in the context of distance
education, it is regarded as any mental skills that are used in the
process of acquiring knowledge.
Cognition is of two types. These are:
i) Presentative cognition
ii) Representative cognition (memory)
In presentative cognition, the objects are directly presented whereas in
case of representative cognition (memory) the objects are indirectly
recalled. All sorts of cognition may not be valid because to have a valid
cognition, there should be the right apprehension of an object. In
other words, a cognition is valid when knowledge of an object must
correspond to the reality. Thus, it states that a valid cognition is the
manifestation of an object as it is.
Cognitive skills have some essential components. These are:
 Perception
 Memory
 Logical thinking
 Concentration
 Rational attitude
Memory is of five kinds. These are:
a) Short term memory: It lasts from a few seconds to a minute
b) Long term memory: An ability to recapitulate the long past events.
c) Receptive memory: Remembering the physical postures of an
object of recent past.
d) Sequential memory: Remembering things in an order.
e) Rote memory: It is a habit to learn and remember certain
information
Concentration is of three types: (i) an ability to concentrate on a
particular task, (ii) an ability to focus on several important tasks at
once, and (iii) an ability to filter irrelevant information and remain
focused on a particular task.
To improve one’s own concentration, one should adhere to these
guidelines:
a) Ensure understanding of the subject contents
b) Retain and maintain interest in the subject matter
c) Have a purpose while doing any activity
d) Make sure your attention is focused
e) Transform good procedures into habits
f) Reward yourselves once you achieve the pre-set goals 21
Learner Support: Learning through technology certainly has potential benefits provided
Development of Skills learners show their inclination for technological use and are acquaint
with its multiple applications. In this regard, Cuban (1993) pointed out
that the following advantages can be derived by using computer in
teaching learning domain:
 to keep the education system at the forefront of technological
development and learners’ skills up-to-date with those expected in
the workforce;
 to increase efficiency and productivity in teaching and learning;
and
 to enable more self-directed learning
The revised Bloom’s taxonomy is presented in a stairway from lower
order thinking to higher order thinking skills: remembering,
understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.
The terms are defined as:
Remembering: retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge
from long term memory
Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic
messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing,
inferring, comparing, and explaining
Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or
implementing
Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how
these parts relate to one another and to an overall structure, or
purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing
Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through
checking and critiquing
Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
whole; recognizing elements into a new pattern of structure through
generating, planning, or producing
Cognitive skills play a major role to construct mind mapping and
concept mapping while studying self learning materials. When learners
read the self learning materials it is expected that they should
understand, conceptualize and relate the information to their
experiences for the better and effective learning. To do so they often
require mind mapping as well as concept mapping tools.
Mind maps and concept maps are different on the ground that mind
maps focus on only one central word or a principal idea whereas,
concept maps connect multiple words or ideas in together.

1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Anderson, L.W. and Krathwohl, D.R. (Eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for
Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, New York: Longman.
Butterfield. E.C. and Dickerson, D.J. (1976). Cognitive Theory and
Mental Development. International Review of Research in Mental
22 Retardation, 8, 105-137.
Chall, J.S. (1979). Approaching reading through invented spelling. In Cognitive Skills
Resnick, L.B. and Weaver, P.A. (Eds.), Theory and Practice of Early
Reading, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cuban, L. (1993). Computers meet classroom: Classroom wins.

Teachers College Record, 95(2), 185-210.

Dansereau, D. (1978). The development of a learning strategies

curriculum. In O’Neill, H., (Ed.), Learning Strategies, New York:
Academic Press.

Dejong, T. and Van Joolingen, W. (1998). Scientific Discovery Learning

with Computer Simulations of Conceptual Domains. Review of
Educational Research, 68(2), 179-201.

Jonassen, N.F. (1970). The role of chunking and organization in the

process of recall. In Bower, G, H. (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning
and Motivation, 4, 172-274, New York: Academic Press.

Lanzing, T. (2004). Everything you always wanted to know

about…Concept mapping. In Kommers, P.A.M. (Ed.), Cognitive
Support for Learning, Oxford, IOS Press.

Norman, D.A. and Rumehlart, D.E. (Eds.) (1975). Explorations in

Cognition, San Francisco: Freeman Publication.

Novak, J.D. and Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.

O’Neil, H.F. Jr and Spielberger, C.D. (Eds.) (1979). Cognitive and

Affective Learning Strategies, New York: Academic Press.

Salomon, G., Perkins, D., and Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in

cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent
technologies. Educational Researcher, 20(4), 2-9.

Simon, H.A. (1975). The Functional Equivalence of Problem Solving

Skills. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 268-288.

Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and Semantic Memory. In Tulving, E. and

Donaldson W. (Eds), Organisation of Memory, New York: Academic
Press.

1.9 FEEDBACK TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
Check Your Progress 1

The essential components of cognitive skills are:

 Perception

 Memory

 Logical thinking

 Concentration

 Rational attitude. 23
Learner Support: Check Your Progress 2
Development of Skills
There are three types of concentration. These are: (i) an ability to
concentrate on a particular task, (ii) an ability to focus on several
important tasks at one time, and (iii) an ability to filter irrelevant
information and remain focused on a particular task.
Check Your Progress 3
The differences of Bloom’s old and revised taxonomy are found in
three broad categories: terminology, structure, and emphasis. The
major category is prominently marked in the changes as verb forms
instead of nouns. The old taxonomy has presented the six cognitive
levels of thinking in a stairway. These are; knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. But in the revised
taxonomy the cognitive levels of thinking are presented in the
following hierarchical order—remembering, understanding, applying,
analyzing, evaluating, and creating.
Check Your Progress 4
Mind maps are considered also as brainstorming diagrams based on a
central idea or image, typically used to aid in organization, problem
solving, and decision making. A mind map is a graphical way to
represent non-linear ideas and concepts. It is a visual thinking tool that
helps structuring information, helping learners to better analyze,
comprehend, synthesize, recall, and generate new ideas.

24
Cognitive Skills

25
 STRIDE
In 1990, The Commonwealth of Learning (COL), Vancouver, Canada, The Asian Development Bank
(ADB) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India, proposed to
set up a training institute for Distance Education in South Asia region. Accordingly, the erstwhile
Division of Distance Education of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), established
in 1986-87, was upgraded into the Staff Training and Research Institute of Distance Education (STRIDE)
in 1993. Over the years STRIDE has responded to the Distance Education needs of many countries in
Asia, Africa and the Caribbean region.

The objectives of STRIDE are to:

 identify training needs of different target groups already involved and those expected to get involved in open
distance education.
 build up a resource base of up-to-date information, training materials, courses and expertise, and make such
resources available whenever needed.
 develop training strategies and training materials to meet the various needs of different types of individuals and
distance teaching/training institutions.
 organise and conduct training and staff development activities for the identified target groups and institutions
through various strategies leading to completion of certificates, diplomas and degrees.
 promote research in Open and Distance Education at the fundamental, experimental and application levels in
order to constantly enrich the training programmes and management processes and meet the challenges of the
expanding educational environment.
 offer research degree programmes to eligible target group leading to M.Phil and Ph.D degrees.
 respond to the needs of dynamic systems of education and development using information and communication
technologies.

Capacity Building Activities organized by STRIDE for:

 IGNOU Teachers/Academics/Non-teaching Staff
 State Open Universities (SOUs)
 DDEs/DEIs (Distance Education Institutes and Dual-mode Universities)
 Collaborated Institutions and Partners
 Overseas Distance Education Institutions and Other International Agencies

^^f'k{kk ekuo dks cU/kuksa ls eqDr djrh gS vkSj vkt ds ‘‘ Education is a liberating force, and in our
;qx esa rks og yksdra= dh Hkkouk dk vk/kkj Hkh gSA age it is also a demonstrating force, cutting
tUe rFkk dkj.kksa ls mRiUu tkfr ,oa oxZxr fo"kerkvksa across the barriers of caste and class,
dks nwj djrs gq, euq"; dks bu lcls Åij mBkrh smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth
gSA** and other cicumstances.’’
& bfUnjk xka/kh - Indira Gandhi
 STRIDE Activities
Academic Programmes
l M.A. (Distance Education) l Ph.D. in Distance Education
l M.Phil. in Distance Education l Post Graduate Diploma in E-learning (PGDEL)

Training Programmes (IGNOU/SOUs/DEIs/Overseas)

l Induction and orientation programmes l Academic Counsellors Training-Online (ACT-Online)
l Specialized training on specific areas l Training for Developing Research Proposals in ODL
l Self-learning material development (SLMD) workshops l Research in distance and online learning
l Refresher programmes in DE and other disciplines l Development of Multi Media Courseware
l Staff development Programme for Administrative/Non- l Development of Online Courses
teaching Staff
l International Customized Training
l Training of Academic Counsellors (Face-to-Face)

Research and Programme Evaluation (Studies Completed)

l English as Medium of Instruction in Distance Education l Learning Strategies and Academic Performance: A Study
(1992) of the Successful Distance Learners of PGDDE Programme
of IGNOU (2001)
l Need Analysis for the Programme of Training of Trainers
(TOT) in the Developing Self-instructional Material for l The Will to Learn: Counsellors’ Perceptions of Academic
use in Distance Education in Asia, Africa, South Pacific Counselling (2001)
region (1995) l Course Evaluation in Open and Distance Learning: A
l A Study on the Utility of MBA Programme of IGNOU as Case Study of PGDHE (ES-302) Course of IGNOU (2002)
Perceived by Students who successfully completed the l Programme Completion, and Learners Persistence and
Programme (1995) Dropout in Distance Education (2004)
l A Feedback Study on the Utility of BLISc Programme of l Students’ Perception of Workload in Distance Education
IGNOU as Perceived by BLISc Graduates (1995) (2004)
l Programme Evaluation in Open & Distance Learning: A l Impact of Distance Education Programmes of IGNOU in
Case Study of MADE Programme of IGNOU (1997) Personal and Career Development of Distance Learner
(2004)
l Exploration of Strategies to Meet the Needs of the Disabled
in India (1997) l Objectives in SLM: A Critical Analysis of Their Expected
Roles, Learners Perception and Usages (2004)
l Partner Institutions and Students Support Services:
Students’ Feedback (1999) l Benefits Derived from Distance Education: Experiences of
Successful IGNOU Learners (2005)
l Distance Education and Job Market: A Case Study of
l Graduate Perceptions towards Employability: Student
IGNOU Graduates (1999)
Survey (2006)
l Training Need Analysis and Development of a Training l A Study of Student Attrition and Completion of Distance
Design for Using Distance Learning Methodology for Education Programmes of IGNOU (2006)
Training Central and State Government Functionaries
(1999) l Tracer Study in Distance Education: A Case Study of
IGNOU Graduates (DEC and STRIDE Collaborative Study)
l An Exploratory Study into the use of Activities of Self- (2007)
instructional Materials by Distance Learners (1999)
l A Study of Cost Effectiveness and Cost Efficiency of
l STRIDE Training Programmes: Their Impact on the Selected Programmes of IGNOU in Relation to Student
Distance and Open Learning System in South Asia (1999) and Institutional Costs (2007)
l Freshers in IGNOU: A Study of their Awareness, Interest l Web Based Environment for Evaluation of Project Reports
and Motivation (1999) (2007)
l Collaboration and Co-operation among Distance Education l Learner’s Perception of ICT: A Case of IGNOU (2010)
Institutions/Open Universities: A Consortium of SAARC l Student Satisfaction in PGDDE and MADE Programmes
Countries (2000) of IGNOU (2010)
l Study of Models of Materials Development in Distance l Student Satisfaction Survey of IGNOU (2010)
Education & Development of Performance Indicators
l Programme Evaluation in Distance Education: In-depth
(2000)
Study of Selected IGNOU Programmes (2011)
For further information please contact: The Director, STRIDE, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi,
New Delhi-110068, India. Fax: 91-11-29533073, Tel. 91-11-29535399, Email: [email protected].