How do kids develop a sense of right and wrong?

Have you ever wondered why some people stand

up for what's right while others struggle to make good choices? Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
had the same questions, leading him to develop a theory of moral development that focuses on
how children develop morality and ethical reasoning. This theory suggests that moral development
occurs in six stages and that moral logic primarily focuses on seeking and maintaining justice.

The early stages focused on obeying authority, while later stages centered more on relationships
and social order. In the final stages, people base moral decisions on social contracts, individual
rights, and universal principles.

What Is Moral Development, Exactly?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong
(morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and
philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology
and education.1 Do parental or societal influences play a more significant role in moral
development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories exploring
some of these basic questions.2 His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work
but was more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.

Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that
occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral development within
three different levels.

In recent years, Kohlberg's theory has been criticized as being Western-centric with a bias toward
men (he primarily used male research subjects) and for having a narrow worldview based on upper-
middle-class value systems and perspectives.3

What Is Objective Morality?

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments in each
scenario.4

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors
believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he
was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz,
could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over
time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed,
Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should
the husband have done that?"
Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in
the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of
his theory of moral development.5

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development,
there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of
cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral
development.

Levels of Moral Age Stages Included in This Level

Development

Preconventional 0 to 9 Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Stage 2:

Morality Individualism and exchange

Conventional Morality Early adolescence to Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal

adulthood relationships Stage 4: Maintaining social order

Postconventional Some adults; rare Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights stage
Morality 6: Universal principles

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of
9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the
consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

• Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development,

obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see
rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment.6

• Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on
how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course
of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point
in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is
good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have
learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group.
There are two stages at this level of morality:
 • Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good
boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development
is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.6 There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

• Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the
rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of

morality. The two stages at this level are:

• Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and
individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values,
opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society,
but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

• Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on

universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow
these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.7

Does Everyone Reach the Post-Conventional Stage?

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-
conventional stages (around 10 to 15%).8 One older analysis found that while stages one to four
could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were rare
in all populations.9

More recent research found that 53% of people were at the pre-conventional level, 25% were at the
conventional level, and only 21% were at the post-conventional level.10

Real-World Applications for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it can help parents
guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger children might work
on rule obeying, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about social expectations.

Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing
additional moral guidance. For example, a kindergarten teacher could enhance moral development
by setting clear rules for the classroom and the consequences for violating them. This would help
kids at stage one of moral development.

A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage three
(developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social order). This could
be accomplished by having the students take part in setting the rules to be followed in the
classroom, giving them a better idea of the reasoning behind these rules.
Moral education should focus on the developmental level of the child.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology. While the
theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued for a number of
reasons:

• Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is concerned with
moral thinking, but there is a big difference between *knowing* what we ought to do versus
our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.

• Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral
development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors
such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in
moral reasoning.11

• Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist

cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may
have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

• Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no
experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these
children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might
have led to different results.

• Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that Kohlberg's
theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male.12 Kohlberg
believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they
place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

Gilligan instead suggested that Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes concepts such as justice and
does not adequately address moral reasoning founded on the principles and ethics of caring and
concern for others.

Other Theories of Moral Development

Kohlberg isn't the only psychologist to theorize how we develop morally. There are several other
theories of moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is an expansion of Piaget's theory of moral development. Piaget described a

three-stage process of moral development:13

• Stage 1: The child is more concerned with developing and mastering their motor and social
skills, with no general concern about morality.

• Stage 2: The child develops unconditional respect both for authority figures and the rules in
existence.
 • Stage 3: The child starts to see rules as being arbitrary, also considering an actor's
intentions when judging whether an act or behavior is moral or immoral.

Kohlberg expanded on this theory to include more stages in the process. Additionally, Kohlberg
believed that the final stage is rarely achieved by individuals whereas Piaget's stages of moral
development are common to all.

Moral Foundations Theory

Proposed by Jonathan Haidt, Craig Joseph, and Jesse Graham, the moral foundations theory is
based on three morality principles:14

1. Intuition develops before strategic reasoning. Put another way, our reaction comes first,
which is then followed by rationalization.

2. Morality involves more than harm and fairness. Contained within this second principle
are a variety of considerations related to morality. It includes: care vs. harm, liberty vs.
oppression, fairness vs. cheating, loyalty vs. betrayal, authority vs. subversion, and sanctity
vs. degradation.

3. Morality can both bind groups and blind individuals. When people are part of a group,
they will tend to adopt that group's same value systems. They may also sacrifice their own
morals for the group's benefit.

While Kohlberg's theory is primarily focused on help vs. harm, moral foundations theory
encompasses several more dimensions of morality. One shortcoming is that it does not explain the
"rules" people use when determining what is best for society.

Normative Theories of Moral Behavior

Several other theories exist that attempt to explain the development of morality, specifically in
relation to social justice.14 Some fall into the category of transcendental institutionalist, which
involves trying to create "perfect justice." Others are realization-focused, concentrating more on
removing injustices.

One theory falling into the second category is social choice theory. Social choice theory is a
collection of models that seek to explain how individuals can use their input (their preferences) to
impact society as a whole. An example of this is voting, which allows the majority to decide what is
"right" and "wrong."