BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 1

EMOTIONS

Definitions

The term emotion derives from the Latin verb movere, which means to move or to stir up.
Some definitions are:
1. Woodworth (1938) defines emotions as “a stirred up state of an individual. It is a
disturbed muscular and glandular activity”. This definition is little more than a literal
translation of the Latin word. The advantages of its simplicity are offset by the fact that it
tells us nothing about the specific nature of emotions.

2. Fernald and Fernald (1999) define emotions as, “a complex feeling state accompanied
by physiological arousal and overt behaviors”. This implies that emotions have many aspects,
out of which two are very important – internal physiological states and overt actions.

3. Baron and Misra (2015) emotions are “reactions consisting of subjective cognitive
states, physiological reactions, and expressive behaviors”. This implies:
 Unlike motives, emotions originate due to other stimuli. They are reactions.
 The reactions are external as well as internal.
 We are aware of these reactions, we are conscious of them, though this
consciousness varies in different individuals.

4. Ciccarelli and White (2019) defines emotion as “the “feeling” aspect of consciousness,
characteriszed by a certain physical arousal, a certain behaviour that reveals the emotion
to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings.”

Characteristics of emotions

1. Emotions range from positive to negative: Emotions imply a stirred up, activated state
of the organism that ranges from positive to negative. They may lead to approach or
avoidance of environmental stimulation.

2. Emotions are closely linked to motivation: Both terms come from the same Latin
roots e (out) and movere (to
move).
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Dissatisfaction of motives accompanies negative emotions whereas satisfaction of motives

accompanies positive emotions. In terms of the organism’s reactions, internal as well as
external, no distinction can be made in emotions and motivation. Nevertheless, psychologists
do make the following conceptual distinctions:
 Motives are relatively enduring, whereas emotions are transitory.
 Motives act together as a single entity, emotions is many and is often in
conflict with each other.
 Motives generally lead to organized behavior, emotions lead to
disorganization of behavior.

3. Emotions are subjective: Emotions are the most personal experience. Each individual
experiences them in a different way and he himself is the best judge of their nature and
intensity. This is why the method of introspection is useful for studying emotions.

4. Emotions are affective, cognitive, and conative: Emotions are related to pleasant and
unpleasant feelings or affective states. They are cognitive because we are conscious of an
emotional experience. Moreover, the intensity and kind of emotion we experience depends
on the cognitive label attached to it (Schacter and Singer, 1971). If arousal is experienced in
a sexual situation, it is labeled as love; if it is experienced in a quarrel, it is labeled as anger.
Emotions are always accompanied by overt expression. They impel an individual to act in a
certain way. Consequently, they are also conative in nature.

5. Emotions are sudden: An individual is seldom prepared for an emotion. Neither can
an emotion be practiced or rehearsed. Emotions are sudden reactions to provoking internal or
external stimuli.

6. Emotions persist as a mood: once an emotion is aroused, it does not remain the same.
There are changes in the quality of the emotional experience.

7. Emotions vary in intensity: A mother’s love for her child is tender and smooth,
whereas a lover’s love for the beloved is intense and passionate. The intensity of emotions
changes even as they are being experienced. The initial high excitation gives way to a lower-
level emotional experience.

8. Emotions dominate conscious experience and behavior: A terrified person can think
of nothing but his fear. He has difficulty in sleeping, eating, and can’t carry out his normal
activities. Thus, emotions dominate his existence. A lover thinks of nothing but his beloved,
often neglecting his job, duties, family etc.
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9. Emotions can be evoked by a variety of stimuli: Emotions are reactions to internal as

well as external stimuli. They occur when motives and instincts are thwarted or satisfied.
They are evoked by environmental stimuli. They can occur due to memories or they can be
shown in anticipation of future events.

10. Reason provides a check on emotions: The emotional response is weakened by the
application of intellect e.g. reasoning can change the extreme emotions of range into mere
irritability.

11. Emotions are aids in emergency: Strong emotions are associated with arousal of the
sympathetic nervous system and inhibition of the parasympathetic nervous system. The
energy released in this manner helps the individual to combat a stressful situation.
Nevertheless extremely high emotions are often detrimental to performance.

12. Emotions are expressed in overt behavior: Emotions cannot be hidden. Even if they
are not expressed directly they are expressed indirectly in the form of subtle body language.
E.g. even if anger is not expressed in words or actions, it is expressed in a stiff body posture
and clenched hands.

13. There are individual variations in emotional expression: The expression of emotions
varies from one person to another depending on the reinforcement the individual has received
for emotional expression, particularly from the parents or other close relatives.

14. There are cultural variations in emotional expression: Exactly how an emotion is
expressed depends on the society and culture e.g. the expression of grief varies from one
culture to another. In the western world grief is expressed through mourning crying; In
Samoa, expression of grief is considered abnormal; In Tahiti, women break off their little
fingers to express their grief.

15. There are cross-cultural similarities in emotional expression: People from a wide
variety of cultures accurately identify facial expressions of a range of emotions. (Ekman,
1973). People from different cultures also agree on the emotional significance of nonverbal
features of speech such as pitch, loudness etc. (Frick, 1985).

16. Emotional expression is innate: This idea came originally from Charles Darwin who
felt that many human emotional expressions are remnants of animal expressions of emotions
e.g.: the sarcastic smile is a remnant of the baring of teeth by cats and dogs. Current
researchers support Darwin by emphasizing that, infants and blind and deaf children show
emotional expressions similar to adults.

17. Neural processing of emotions: The right hemisphere is especially important for
processing emotional information, particularly negative emotions, such as depression and
sadness. Moreover, strong positive emotions preclude the processing or experiencing of
strong negative emotions. We simply cannot feel very happy and very sad at the same time.
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18. Emotions appear at all ages: A child is perhaps nothing but a bundle of emotions. As
he grows, he experiences a differentiation of basic emotions into a variety of emotions. One
can observe emotions in a person till death. A young baby can be made angry by checking
his movements and an old man by hurting his sentiments.

19. Emotions are affected by maturation and learning: An adult is capable of controlling
his emotions more effectively than a child. He can also display a wider variety of emotional
expressions. Cultural differences in emotional expression also support the idea that emotions
are affected by maturation and learning.

20. Emotions form the raw material of sentiments: When a number of emotions gather
themselves around an object and persist for a relatively long period; the system of emotions is
called a sentiment. So, sentiments are based on emotions.

Measurement of Emotions

Physiological correlates of emotions: Emotions affect the whole organism. The individual is
disturbed and stirred up mentally as well as physically. The activation theory of emotions
(Lindsley, 1951) integrates the many observed physiological changes in emotions. The term
activate means to make active or to render capable of reacting. There is always some degree
of activation (emotion) in all organisms. Activation is reflected in the physiological correlates
of emotions, which can be measured to assess the intensity of emotions. Some of these
changes are:

1. Blood pressure: Blood pressure or pressure in the arteries depends on complex

physiological factors, such as the output of blood from the heart and the resistance
offered by the arteries to the passage of blood. Blood pressure rises in excitement. The
instrument to measure it is called the BP apparatus or sphygmomanometer.

2. Heartbeat: is the result of the heart’s action, the contraction, known as the systole, and
the relaxation known as the diastole. One can listen to the heart’s sound with an ear
against the organism’s chest or with a stethoscope. A cardiotachometer can count
heartbeats on the basis of sound, whereas an electro-cardiogram can record electrical
changes in the contracting heart muscle.

3. Volumetric changes: Volumetric changes are the third possible circulatory index of level
of activation. In an inactive state, the large abdominal vessels dilate and hold a large
volume of blood, but under stress they constrict and inject blood rapidly to the heart,
which in turn circulates it to the active muscles and brain. The volume recorder or
plethysmograph can detect the resultant changes in the organs due to vasoconstriction
and vasodilation. Such measurement is however not very reliable.

4. Respiration: The rate and depth of breathing changes with emotions though not in any
predictable manner. Sometimes breathing speeds up and sometimes it slows down.
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There is one constant pattern that can be found in disturbed breathing-this is the ratio of
time taken to inhale (I) to the time taken to exhale (E). The I/E ratio increases in
emotional states. The rate of respiration can be measured by the pneumograph, which
measures chest movements.

5. Muscular tension: Muscles are generally arranged in pairs of antagonists, as flexor and
extensor. There is an interaction between the two members of the pair so that one relaxes
as the other contracts, thus keeping the limb under control, without any waste of energy.
The level of tension of various skeletal muscles furnishes an excellent index of the level
of activation, particularly the neck muscles. Muscular tension may be measured through
direct measures, such as force of grip exerted on a pencil, tremors, or recording electrical
potentials from muscles; or indirect measures such as measuring reaction time, testing
reflexes, or measuring the metabolic rate through oxygen consumption.

6. Electrical skin conductance: The most widely used index of level of activation is the
electrical conductance of the skin, usually of the palms of the hand. Skin conductance
ranges from a low level in sleep to a high level in strongly activated states like rage, and
it is sensitive enough to detect the mild interest aroused by a new sound in a quiet room.
The measure of electrical skin conductance is known by various names such as the
psychogalvanic reflex (PGR) or galvanic skin response (GSR) or the electrodermal
response (EDR). The basal level of skin conductance is established and then fluctuations
from it are recorded to measure momentary, brief activation.

7. Skin/oral temperature: This can be measured with a thermometer applied to the skin or
placed in the mouth. The traditional value of 98.6 F is only a rough mean of oral
temperature, which ranges over a degree or so. Activation is related to higher
temperatures, though we have built in mechanisms to control body temperature.

8. Pupillary response: Pain and strong motion cause dilation of the pupil. It is difficult to
record and changes are obscured by constant small fluctuations.

9. Salivary secretion: It decreases during activation with the discharge being thicker
producing the “dry mouth” effect.

10. Eye Blink: The frequency of spontaneous blinking seems to increase with emotional and
other tension. Continuous photographic recording is required to measure eye blinks.

11. Brain waves: If electrodes are attached to the scalp and led off to electronic amplifiers, it
is possible to record “brain waves”, the electrical changes associated with brain
processes. The electroencephalograph measures brain waves. When the individual is
relaxed the alpha rhythm predominates which is a regular series of fairly strong waves
with a frequency of about 10 per second. Sudden stimulation, fear, or anxiety blocks the
alpha rhythm.

12. Brain activity scanning: The activity level of the brain can be measured by monitoring
the blood supply to cortical areas, injecting a radioactive substance into the blood and
BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 6

detecting its flow, or detecting the use of positrons in various areas of the cortex through
Positron Emission Tomography (PET scans).

Though these various physiological indices of activation can be measured separately, often
they are combined in various ways to be measured by a polygraph. A polygraph is simply a
portable ink-writing instrument that records breathing, fluctuations in blood pressure, and
associative reaction time. Some polygraphs include the GSR. Its most frequent use is as a lie
detector in police-work. Its accuracy depends on the expertise and experience of the
interpreter. It should be used to screen out innocent suspects rather than to pinpoint the guilty
man. It is usually not admissible as court evidence.

External signs of emotions: The physiological correlates of activation are reflected in

external signs of emotions such as:

1. Facial expressions: In order to judge emotions, the easiest thing to do is to observe the
facial expressions of the individual. It is easiest to study the emotions of joy, anger, and
sorrow from the face.

2. Vocal expressions: The voice is often more expressive that the face, the speaking voice
being more expressive than the singing voice because it is free to slide up and down the
pitch scale. The connection of excitement with loud, high-pitched voice is natural and
unlearnt. When words with meanings are added to vocal tones, emotional expressions
become clear.

3. Postural expressions: Larger patterns of movement involving the whole body can also be
informative. Such phrases such as “She adopted a threatening posture” and “he greeted
her with open arms” suggest that different body orientations or postures can be suggestive
or contrasting emotional reactions. Higher levels of activation lead to increased muscular
tensions of straight, strict posture. Generally, however, body posture changes with
different kind of emotions. A relaxed posture may be observed in love but a tense stance
is seen in anger.

4. Role of hands/gestures in emotional expression: Emotional attitudes can be well

expressed by hands. Everyone knows how to express an inclination to fight, to accept, to
reject, or to plead for mercy. An actor can portray a large number of emotions by his
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hands alone. Observers are quite accurate in their judgment of emotions from hands.
They generally imitate the pose to see how it feels or imagine a situation in which a given
hand expression would be appropriate.

A fairly accurate picture of activation/ emotionality of the subject can thus be gathered from
these covert and overt indices.

Other measures of emotions: Emotions dominate the conscious experience of the subject.
The subjective experience of emotions can be studied by the use of introspection, which
implies studying one’s own experience and analyzing it. The personal experience of the
organism can thus be gathered from the subject and analyzed by the psychologist. Various
questionnaires have also been devised to study emotions such as anxiety. E.g., Spielberger’s
State–Trait Anxiety Inventory, PANAS, Emotional Reactivity Scale etc. Psychosomatic
disorders like ulcers, hypertension etc. also indicate excessive emotionality and stress in the
subject. They occur due to continuous high level of activation as if the person is in a constant
state of emergency.

Theories of emotions

Indian view of emotions: The indigenous view of emotions explained by Uday Jain (2002) is
based on Natyasastra by Sage Bharata, written around 200BC. The Natyashastra is an ancient
Indian document on the performing arts including theatre, dance and music. Bharat refers to
“bhavas” – the imitations of emotions that actors perform, and the “rasas” i.e. emotional
responses that they inspire in the audience. He identifies 8 principle rasas” love, pity, anger,
disgust, heroism, awe, terror and comedy. He said that they plays should mix different rasas
but be dominated by one. Each “ras” experienced by the audience is associated with a
specific “bhav” portrayed on the stage.

Structural view of emotions: Wundt developed a tridimensional theory of feelings. He held

that feelings (or emotions) varied along three dimensions: pleasantness – unpleasantness,
strain – relaxation, and excitement – calm. These three dimensions are independent of each
other. There is a zone of indifference in the middle indicating neutrality of emotions.
Titchener used the term affection for emotions and held that only one dimension --
pleasantness/unpleasantness -- was necessary to describe emotions. The other two can be
subsumed in this dimension.

Psychoanalytic view of emotions: Psychoanalysts conceptualize emotion as anxiety. Freud

(1926) defines anxiety as “a uniquely unpleasant feeling state accompanied by certain
specific efferent or discharge phenomena, and the perception thereof”. For man the first
experience of anxiety is at birth. The child leaves the secure environment of the mother’s
womb and enters the harsh outside world, which has sudden and intense stimulation. The
infant’s reaction to this birth trauma is anxiety. At that time the automatic physiological
reactions, which accompany anxiety help the individual to breathe and allow his heart to
BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 8

function normally. Thus anxiety is essentially an adaptive response, which helps the neonate
to survive in the world. The ego faces three harsh masters – reality, id and superego and
consequently three kinds of anxiety may be distinguished – real, neurotic and normal anxiety.
The perception of impending danger from any of these sources gives rise to anxiety, which
serves as a signal of impending catastrophe and permits the ego to engage in anticipatory
defensive actions. Though it is an adaptive response, anxiety itself is an unpleasant state.
Thus it also motivates individual to minimize or avoid the source of anxiety. In its search to
reduce anxiety, the ego uses defense mechanisms. An exaggerated use of defense
mechanisms implies abnormality and if the ego is overwhelmed by anxiety, the individual
may show a complete disintegration of personality. Yet a certain amount of anxiety is also
necessary for healthy personality development. In each stage of psychosexual development
the individual faces a conflict and thus experiences anxiety. The resolution of these conflicts
is essential for the development of personality. E.g.: castration anxiety in the phallic stage
helps the individual to resolve the Oedipus complex.

James – Lange theory: William James (an American psychologist) and Carl Lange (a Danish
physiologist) advanced this theory of emotions, also known as the peripheral theory of
emotions, at approximately the same time in 1880. It is indeed remarkable that these two
men separated by thousands of miles and working independently of each other, should have
come to the same general conclusions at approximately the same time. Their conclusions
were so different from the common point of view concerning emotions that they caused a
worldwide controversy, that has not settled to this day.

The common view is that emotions arise from perception, memory, or imagination of a
situation and is experienced in the form of an organic reaction. E.g.: one perceives a tiger at a
distance, it excites fear in one’s mind, which gives rise to trembling and running away.
Contrarily, James held that “our bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting
fact and our feeling of the same changes as they occur in emotions”. In other words, the
feeling of fear is the result rather than the cause of the stirred up state of the body. They hold
perception of an object directly produces many organic changes in the internal organs, which
are reported to the brain. These organic sensations together with the perception of the object
are called emotions. According to them, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we
strike, afraid because we tremble; and not that we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry,
angry, or fearful. Bodily states initiate or determine a person’s emotion.
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Opponent Process theory: Action and Reaction to Emotion

Have you ever noticed that when you experience a strong emotional reaction, it is soon
followed by the opposite reaction? Elation is followed by a letdown, and anger is
BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 11

Solomon (1977) in his Opponent Process Theory has labeled the initial response to emotional
events as a - processes. The opponent processes are called the b - processes. The differences
between the two are:

a – processes b - processes
1 Produce initial emotional 1 Produce secondary responses or
reactions to emotionally after reactions to emotionally
significant stimuli. significant stimuli.
2 Size and duration determined by 2 Size and duration determined by the
the intensity of the instigating size of the a-processes.
stimulus.
3 Maintain size and duration across 3 Increase in size and duration each
various elicitations. time they are elicited.
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Types of Emotions
There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and
interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices
we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions
we are experiencing at any given moment. Psychologists have also tried to identify the
different types of emotions that people experience. A few different theories have emerged to
categorize and explain the emotions that people feel.

During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that he
suggested were universally experienced in all human cultures. The emotions he identified
were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and anger. He later expanded his list of
basic emotions to include such things as pride, shame, embarrassment, and excitement.
Let's take a closer look at some of the basic types of emotions and explore the impact they
have on human behavior.

1. Happiness: Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that
people strive for the most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is
characterized by feelings of contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being.
Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a number of
disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive psychology. This type
of emotion is sometimes expressed through:
 Facial expressions: such as smiling
 Body language: such as a relaxed stance
 Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

2. Sadness: This emotion is often defined as a transient emotional state characterized by

feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood. Like
other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In
some cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn
into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of ways including:
 Crying
 Dampened mood
 Lethargy
 Quietness
 Withdrawal from others
The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people
cope with such feelings can also differ. Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping
mechanisms such as avoiding other people, self-medicating, and ruminating on negative
thoughts. Such behaviours can actually exacerbate feelings of sadness and prolong the
duration of the emotion.
3. Fear: Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When
you face some sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as
the fight or flight response. Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration
increase, and your mind becomes more alert, priming your body to either run from the
danger or stand and fight. This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively
deal with threats in your environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:
 Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 13

 Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat

 Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more
sensitive to fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.
Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction
to anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we
generally think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of
social situations. Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations.
Extreme sports and other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and
even enjoy such feelings. Repeated exposure to a fear object or situation can lead to
familiarity and acclimation, which can reduce feelings of fear and anxiety.

4. Disgust: Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman.
Disgust can be displayed in a number of ways including:
 Body language: turning away from the object of disgust
 Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip
This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste,
sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that
might be harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example,
disgust is a typical reaction. People can also experience moral disgust when they observe
others engaging in behaviours that they find distasteful, immoral, or evil.
5. Anger: Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of
hostility, agitation, frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a
part in your body's fight or flight response. When a threat generates feelings of anger, you
may be inclined to fend off the danger and protect yourself. Anger is often displayed
through:
 Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring
 Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away
 Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red
 Aggressive behaviours: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects
While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It
can be constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate
you to take action and find solutions to things that are bothering you. Anger can become a
problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are unhealthy, dangerous,
or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn to aggression, abuse, or violence.
This type of emotion can have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can
make it difficult to make rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical
health. Anger has been linked to coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked
to behaviours that pose health risks such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and
smoking.

6. Surprise: Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally
described by Eckman. Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a
physiological startle response following something unexpected. This type of emotion can
be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant surprise, for example, might involve
BA 1 SEM 1 Psychology / Unit: Emotions 14

someone jumping out from behind a tree and scaring you as you walk to your car at night.
An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find that your closest
friends have gathered to celebrate your birthday. Surprise is often characterized by:
 Facial expressions: such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and opening
the mouth
 Physical responses: such as jumping back
 Verbal reactions: such as yelling, screaming, or gasping

Other Types of Emotions : The six basic emotions described by Eckman are just a portion of
the many different types of emotions that people are capable of experiencing. Eckman's
theory suggests that these core emotions are universal throughout cultures all over the world.
However, other theories and new research continue to explore the many different types of
emotions and how they are classified. Eckman later added a number of other emotions to his
list but suggested that unlike his original six emotions, not all of these could necessarily be
encoded through facial expressions. Some of the emotions he later identified included:
 Amusement

 Contempt

 Contentment

 Embarrassment

 Excitement

 Guilt

 Pride in achievement

 Relief

 Satisfaction

 Shame
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Primary emotions

Primary emotions are those that we feel first, as a first response to a situation. Thus, if we are
threatened, we may feel fear. When we hear of a death, we may feel sadness. They are
unthinking, instinctive responses that we have. We will typically see these in animals also,
which confirms our suspicion that they have an evolutionary basis.

Typical primary emotions include fear, anger, sadness and happiness

Primary emotions are often transient. They disappear as fast as they appear. Their
replacement by secondary emotions complicates the situation, making it difficult to
understand what is really going on.

Secondary emotions

Secondary emotions appear after primary emotions. Secondary emotion is felt when ne feels
something about the feeling itself – e.g. feel sad about being hurt, feel shame about anxiety.
They may be caused directly by primary emotions, for example where the fear of a threat
turns to anger that fuels the body for a fight reaction. They may also come from more
complex chains of thinking.

Secondary emotions may be simple feelings or may be a mix as more emotions join the fray.
These emotions are less primal and often employs intellect and reasoning. Thus news of a
wartime victory may start with feelings of joy, but then get tinged with sadness for the loss of
life.

Different psychologists have attempted to develop lists of basic emotions.

William McDougall [1921] proposed that there were seven basic instincts with
corresponding emotions. All organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help
them survive. All behaviors are driven by instincts. Instincts are goal directed and innate
patterns of behavior that are not the results of learning or experience. McDougall (1921)
suggested that instinctive behavior has 3 key elements: 1. Perception, 2. Behavior and 3.
Emotion. Some examples of instincts and corresponding emotions as given by William
McDougall include: flight-fear, Repulsion- disgust, Curiosity-wonder, Pugnacity- anger, Self-
assertion- elation.

Sylvan Tomkins [1964] proposed that there were eight basic emotions: Interest, surprise,
enjoyment, distress, fear, shame, contempt, and anger. He proposed that these were innate
and expressed through physical reactions such as facial expressions.

Carroll Izard [1979,1994] proposed that there was ten basic emotions: interest, joy, surprise,
distress, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame , and guilt. Each emotion has in own neural
network in the brain, and corresponding behavioral response.
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Psychologist Robert Plutchik created the Plutchik Model shown below. It shows there are
8 basic emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger, and disgust. The
model is actually the little “ice cream cone” which unfolds to the emotions wheel. During the
1980s, Robert Plutchik introduced an emotion classification system known as the "wheel of
emotions." This model demonstrated how different emotions can be combined or mixed
together, much the way an artist mixes primary colors to create other colors.

Interpreting Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

Primary: The eight sectors are designed to indicate that there are eight primary emotions:
anger, anticipation, joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust.

Opposites: Each primary emotion has a polar opposite.

 Joy is the opposite of sadness.
 Fear is the opposite of anger.
 Anticipation is the opposite of surprise.
 Disgust is the opposite of trust.

Combinations: The emotions with no colour represent an emotion that is a mix of the 2
primary emotions. For example, anticipation and joy combine to be optimism. Joy and trust
combine to be love. Emotions are often complex, and being able to recognize when a feeling
is actually a combination of two or more distinct feelings is a helpful skill.

Intensity: The cone’s vertical dimension represents intensity – emotions intensify as they
move from the outside to the center of the wheel, which is also indicated by the color: The
darker the shade, the more intense the emotion. For example, anger at its least level of
intensity is annoyance. At its highest level of intensity, anger becomes rage. Or, a feeling of
boredom can intensify to loathing if left unchecked, which is dark purple.
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According to Mark Devon in his book “The origin of Emotions (2006), identified 5
types of Emotion

There are five types of emotion: conceptions, sensations, reflexes, involuntary

expressions and voluntary expressions.

 Conceptions, sensations, reflexes and involuntary expressions are biological

adaptations. They are transmitted to the next generation through
reproduction. They are universal to the species.

 Voluntary expressions are cultural adaptations. They are transmitted to the

next generation through interaction. They vary by culture.