SECTION ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem of the Study
The study of Second Language Acquisition (SLA Henceforth) is an
increasingly interdisciplinary field that draws on various branches of
linguistics as well as cognitive psychology, educational research,
sociology, and neurology to describe exactly how second languages are
learned by different individuals in different contexts, and to explain the
biological, cognitive, and social mechanisms underlying these phenomena.
Factors commonly studied include the role of instruction, age, aptitude,
native language, universal grammar, communicative practice, and
sociolinguistic context.

1.2 Aims of the Study

This study aims at:
1. Explaining the basic concepts that are classified under the meaning of
Second language acquisition.
2. Showing the factors that affect second language learning.

1.3 Value of the Study

It is also hoped that this study will be of considerable significance to
those who are concerned with the second language theories since it
demonstrates important ideas related to the factors that have direct
relationship in influencing second language learning.

1.4 Procedures of the Study

The procedures followed in this are as follows:

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 1. Dividing the research into three sections.
2. Presenting theoretical background and an introduction.
3. Closing the paper with some conclusions that have been reached
at throughout the work.

1.5 Definitions of Key Terms

A. Language Acquisition

First language acquisition refers to the way children learn their native
language. Second language acquisition refers to the learning of another
language or languages besides the native language.

B. Language learning

Language Learning is devoted to fundamental theoretical issues in the

learning of language by children and adults, including second, heritage,
Indigenous, and foreign language development, bilingualism, literacy,
language representation in mind and brain, language cognition, co-speech
gestures, and pragmatics.

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 SECTION TWO: THEORITCAL BACKGROUND

Introductory Note 2.0

In early generative linguistics, the term Language Acquisition

Device (LAD) was introduced to refer to a model of language learning in
which the infant is credited with an innate predisposition to acquire
linguistic structure. This view is usually opposed to those where language
acquisition is seen as a process of imitation-learning or as a reflex of
cognitive development. (Crystal,2008: P. 8).

2.1 Theoretical Background

Yule (2008, P. 172) explains that all normal children develop

language at roughly the same time, along much the same schedule. Since
we could say the same thing for sitting up, crawling, standing, walking,
using the hands and many other physical activities, it would seem that the
language acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically
determined development of motor skills. This biological schedule is tied
very much to the maturation of the infant’s brain. We could think of the
child as having the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing certain
aspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of life.
Long before children begin to talk, they have been actively processing what
they hear. We can identify what very young children are paying attention to
by the way they increase or decrease “sucking behavior” in response to
speech sounds or turn their heads in the direction of those sounds. At one
month, for example, an infant is capable of distinguishing between sounds.
During the first three months, the child develops a range of crying styles,
with different patterns for different needs, produces big smiles in response
to a speaking face, and starts to create distinct vocalizations.

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 Krashen (2002: P. 1-2) states that language acquisition is very similar to
the process children use in acquiring first and second languages. It requires
meaningful interaction in the target language- natural communication-in
which speakers is concerned not with the form of their utterances but with
the messages they are conveying and understanding. Error correction and
explicit teaching of rules are not relevant to language acquisition, but
caretakers and native speakers can modify their utterances addressed to
acquirers to help them understand, and these modifications are thought to
help the acquisition process. It has been hypothesized that there is a fairly
stable order of acquisition of structures in language acquisition. one can see
clear 1 similarity across acquirers as to which structures tend to be acquired
early and which tend to be acquired late. Acquirers need not have a
conscious awareness of the "rules" they possess, and may self-correct only
on the basis of a "feel" for grammaticality.

2.2 Second Language Acquisition

A distinction is sometimes made between learning in a “foreign

language” setting (learning a language that is not generally spoken in the
surrounding community) and a “second language” setting (learning a
language that is spoken in the surrounding community). That is, Japanese
students in an English class in Japan are learning English as a foreign
language (English as a foreign Language EFL) and, if those same students
were in an English class in the USA, they would be learning English as a
second language (ESL). In either case, they are simply trying to learn
another language, so the expression second language learning is used more
generally to describe both situations (Hoque, 2017: p.1).

The definition of second language acquisition is learning and

acquiring of a second language once the mother tongue or first language
acquisition is established. It is the systematic study of how people learn a

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language other than their mother tongue. Second language acquisition or
SLA is the process of learning other languages in addition to the native
language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue
starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by
the process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young child can learn
a second language faster than an adult can learn the same language.
Language learning refers to the formal learning of a language in the
classroom. On the other hand, language acquisition means acquiring the
language with little or no formal training or learning. If you go to a foreign
land where people speak a different language from your native language,
you need to acquire that foreign language. It can be done with little formal
learning of the language through your everyday interaction with the native
peoples in the market place, work place, parks or anywhere else. This is
true for learning spoken language. Although many of the speech-related
tasks that babies must initially face are specific to first-language (L1)
learning only, others are clearly (or at least arguably) relevant to second
acquisition (L2) as well. Segmenting the speech stream is certainly a task
that second-language learners must also conquer, but with, perhaps, more
comprehensive baggage: namely, depending on the age of acquisition of
the L2, significant interference from L1 phonology (ibid).

Finally, studies showing that native language effects on a learner’s

perceptual organization of phonetic contrasts can be improved with training
may be of particular relevance to L2 pedagogy. In this line, recent studies
seem to indicate that the way in which distributional information regarding
nonnative phonetic contrasts is presented – and with what additional cues –
strongly affects successful learning of such contrasts. (Edward, J. &
Zampini, M.2008 : P. 27).

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2.3 Acquisition and Learning
A more significant distinction is made between acquisition and
learning. The term acquisition is used to refer to the gradual development
of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations
with others who know the language. The term learning, however, applies to
a more conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the features, such
as vocabulary and grammar, of a language, typically in an institutional
setting. (Mathematics, for example, is learned, not acquired.) (Yule, 2008:
P.189).
Activities associated with learning have traditionally been used in
language teaching in schools and have a tendency, when successful, to
result in more knowledge “about” the language (as demonstrated in tests)
than fluency in actually using the language (as demonstrated in social
interaction). Activities associated with acquisition are those experienced by
the young child and, by analogy, those who “pick up” a second language
from long periods spent in interaction, constantly using the language, with
native speakers of the language. Those individuals whose L2 exposure is
primarily a learning type of experience tend not to develop the same kind
of general proficiency as those who have had more of an acquisition type of
experience (ibid).
2.4 Interlanguage

On close inspection, the language produced by L2 learners contains a

large number of “errors” that seem to have no connection to the forms of
either the L1 or L2. For example, the Spanish L1 speaker who says in
English She name is Maria is producing a form that is not used by adult
speakers of English, does not occur in English L1. acquisition by children,
and is not based on a structure in Spanish. Evidence of this sort suggests
that there is some in-between system used in the L2 acquisition process that
certainly contains aspects of the L1 and L2, but which is an inherently

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variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an
interlanguage and it is now considered to be the basis of all L2 production.
(Yule, 2008:P. 192).

A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage: the idea

that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences
between the languages that they already know and the language that they
are learning, but a complete language system in its own right, with its own
systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are
exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire
features of their new language stays remarkably constant, even for learners
with different native languages and regardless of whether they have had
language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can
have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This
influence is known as language transfer (ibid).

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 Section Three: Factors Affecting Second Language

3.0 Introductory Note

Yet even during this proposed optimum age for L2 learning, there
may exist an acquisition barrier of quite a different kind. Teenagers are
typically much more self-conscious than younger children.

3.1 The Factors

Puteri, (2023: P. 21-24) explains the following factors as in the following

points:

A. Age
Age is one of the factors that influence second language learning. It is
believed in general that children are better at acquiring language than
adults. However, only the evidence in naturalistic learning settings supports
this assumption. According to the critical period hypothesis proposed by
Lenneberg in Siahaan (2022), there is a phase in a child's development
when language acquisition is easier than at any other time. According to
him, the critical period lasts until puberty and is due to biological
development. Richards et al. (1985) add that after puberty, it may be harder
to acquire a new language since the brain no longer has the ability to
change and adapt.

B. Aptitude

Aptitude is a specific ability a learner has for learning a second language

(Long, 1988). Moreover, Richards et al. (1985) mention that language

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aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities, such as the
ability to identify the sound pattern in a new language, the ability to
recognize the difference in grammatical functions of words in sentences,
etc.

C. Personality
Personality is described as a set of features that characterize an
individual. Personality is difficult to define and measure because of its
complicated nature. There are some personalities that affect most SLAs
such as self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, as well as Inhibition and Risk-
Taking. Self-esteem refers to a personal evaluation and judgment of
worthiness that is expressed in the individual’s attitude towards him or
herself or his or her capabilities, while empathy is the willingness and
capacity to identify with others (Firth & Wagner, 1997; Stern, 1983).
Besides, anxiety is described as a state of mind connected with “feelings of
uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and worry” (Brown, 1994). Inhibition
and risk-taking are the willingness of a learner in encouraging their
language production without worrying about making a mistake.

D. Motivation
Motivation is one of the most important factors in second language
acquisition. Richards et al. (1985) describe motivation as a factor that
determines a person’s desire to do something. It is obvious that learners
who have the willingness to learn are going to achieve more. In addition,
Gardner & Lambert (1972) distinguish two types of internal motivation:
a) Integrative motivation

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 This kind of motivation occurs when a learner studies a language because
he is interested in the people and culture of the target language or in order
to communicate with people of another culture who speak it.
b) Instrumental motivation
This motivation is related to the learner’s goals for learning the second
language are functional and useful.

E. Cognitive/Intelligence
Ellis (1985) explains that intelligence is the general ability to master
academic skills. Intelligence is defined and measured in terms of linguistic
and logical-mathematical abilities Learners with high IQ achieve better
results on language tests. Genesee (1976) proved that intelligence can
predict the rate and success of SLA in the formal language classroom.

F. Curriculum
It is important that the totality of their educational experience is
appropriate for their needs. The curriculum must reach a child at their
current level and challenge them with activities just slightly beyond their
current stage. If the material feels out of reach, the student will have trouble
engaging with the lesson. To make sure that students feel motivated to
learn, it is important to ensure that they feel like they have the ability to
progress to the next level of learning. (Macalister & Nation, 2019:58).

G. Instruction
Instruction is a part of the educator’s role in acquiring a new language.
These students will make faster progress if the teacher gives good
instruction. Teacher behavior definitely influences all kinds of learning

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especially learning a foreign language. According to Cheng & Dörnyei
(2007), instructors can serve as models for students, which can in turn
motivate those pupils. Stipek (2002) also points to the importance of the
teachers’ projection of enthusiasm. In addition, we believe that as
technology advances, the internet as a medium for students to acquire new
languages might assume the function of the instructor.
3.2 Krashen’s Stages of SLA

Stephen Krashen divides the process of second-language acquisition

into five stages: preproduction, early production, speech emergence,
intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.

The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the silent period.

Learners at this stage have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but
they do not yet speak their second language. Not all learners go through a
silent period. Some learners start speaking straight away, although their
output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use. Others
may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course. For
learners that do go through a silent period, it may last around three to six
months. (Haynes, 2007: P.107).

The second of Krashen's stages of acquisition is early production,

during which learners can speak in short phrases of one or two words. They
can also memorize chunks of language, although they may make mistakes
when using them. Learners typically have both an active and receptive
vocabulary of around 1000 words. This stage normally lasts for around six
months.

The third stage is speech emergence. Learners' vocabularies increase

to around 3000 words during this stage, and they can communicate using
simple questions and phrases. They may often make grammatical errors.

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 The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have
a vocabulary of around 6000 words and can use more complicated sentence
structures. They are also able to share their thoughts and opinions. Learners
may make frequent errors with more complicated sentence structures.

The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached

somewhere between five and ten years of learning the language. Learners
at this stage can function at a level close to native speakers.

Krashen has also developed several hypotheses discussing the nature

of second language learners' thought processes and the development of
self-awareness during second language acquisition. The most prominent of
these hypotheses are Monitor Theory and the Affective Filter hypothesis
(Ellis, 1997:90).

The most prominent of these hypotheses are Monitor Theory and

the Affective Filter hypothesis. The affective factors are those factors
which affect the second language acquisition including some factors like:

1. Dull textbooks, unpleasant classroom surroundings or an exhausting

schedule of study and/or work
2. Basically, if we are stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious or
unmotivated, we are unlikely to learn very much.
3. Children seem to be less constrained by affective factors.
Descriptions of L2 acquisition in childhood are full of instances
where young children quickly overcome their inhibitions as they try
to use new words and phrases. Adults can sometimes overcome their
inhibitions too.

As long as there are a number of factors that can affect the process of
L2 acquisition, linguists moved to find some solutions to such linguistic
problems in terms of acquisition, education, psychology and other different

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fields in our life. The filed that can deal with such issues is named 'applied
linguistics

3.3 Some difficulties associated with learning the language

Maini (2013:P.168) claimed that the most common cause of the

problems faced by a learner of the English language as a second language
is existence of the inherent structure of their first language or mother
tongue that they are exposed to since the first day. As such the problems
that are faced by the students trying to learn the language are:

1. Understanding the grammar structure of the new language.

2. Pronunciations or the inability to understand or comprehend new words.

3. Most often students use the translation method to understand the second
language, in this case English

3. Again they think of the reply in their mother tongue first and then form a
reply by translating.

4. Vocabulary becomes a huge problem.

The above-mentioned problems are just a few of other problems but in

my opinion, these are the major ones faced by students. the hardest for a
teacher in this case is to actually create a new structure of the English
grammar while trying not to dismantle the existing language structure of
their mother tongue. The student should be able to use both the languages
with ease. Again, it is fairly easier in the case of children.

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3.4 Conclusions
1. Second language acquisition is learning a second language after a
first language which is already established. Many times, this happens
when a child who speaks a language "Arabic" for example but when
he goes to school, he might acquire another language 'English" as an
example. Second language acquisition usually requires a lot of
practice.
2. The term acquisition refers to the gradual development of ability in a
language by using it naturally in communicative situations with
others who know the language.
3. Activities associated with acquisition are those experienced by the
young child and, by analogy, those who “pick up” a second language
from long periods spent in interaction, constantly using the language,
with native speakers of the language.
4. The term learning, however, applies to a more conscious process of
accumulating knowledge of the features, such as vocabulary and
grammar, of a language, typically in an institutional setting.
(Mathematics, for example, is learned, not acquired.
5. Activities associated with learning are the methods of teaching and
tests.
6. Stephen Krashen divides the process of second-language acquisition
into five stages: preproduction, early production, speech emergence,
intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Crystal, D.(2008). A Dictionary of Phonetics and Linguistics.

Blackwell Press.

 Darmawan, G. (2007). Issues in language learning. University of

Adelaide, International Education Journal, 2007 Shannon Research
Press.

 Edward, J. & Zampini, M. (2008). Phonology and Second

Language Acquisition. American National Standard for Information
Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials.

 Hoque, E. (2017). An Introduction to The Second Language

Acquisition. Education and Development Research Council
(EDRC) .

 Krashen, S. (2002). Second Language Acquisition and Second

Language Learning. University of Southern California.

 Maini, A. (2013). What are the Difficulties and problems in

learningEnglish.https://specialties.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/57074/
what-are-the-difficulties-and-problems-in-learning-english.

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 Ellis, Rod (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford
Introductions to Language Study. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.

 Haynes, Judie (2007). Getting Started With English Language

Learners: How Educators Can Meet the Challenge. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

 Puteri, C. (2023). Factors influencing second language acquisition:

The perspectives of EFL learners. Lighthouse.

 Yule, George (2008). The Study of Language. 4ed.Cambridge.

Cambridge University Press.

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 ‫الخالصة‬

‫تتناول هذه الورقة اكتساب اللغة الثانية‪ .‬وتسمى‬

‫أحياًنا تعلم اللغة الثانية ‪ -‬ويشار إليه أيًض ا باسم اكتساب‬
‫اللغة الثانية (‪ ،)L2‬وهي العملية التي يتعلم من خاللها‬
‫األشخاص لغة ثانية‪ .‬ويعد اكتساب اللغة الثانية أيًض ا‬
‫النظام العلمي المخصص لدراسة هذه العملية‪ .‬يعتبر‬
‫البعض‪ ،‬وليس الجميع‪ ،‬مجال اكتساب اللغة الثانية بمثابة‬
‫فروع علم اللغة التطبيقي‪ ،‬ولكنه‬ ‫تخصص فرعي من‬
‫يحظى أيًض ا باهتمام بحثي من مجموعة متنوعة من‬
‫التخصصات األخرى‪ ،‬مثل علم النفس وغيره من العلوم‪.‬‬

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