Grade 11 Review

Review the following topics

of End-Term 2:
• Alkane and Alkene Reactions
• Synthetic Polymers
• Crude Oil
• Energetics
• Reversible Reactions
Alkane and Alkene Reactions
Describe this trend of straight chain alkanes:
Boiling Point LIQUIDS

25
GASES

- 273
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Carbons
The boiling points of alkanes increase as the length and molecular weight increase.

The first 4 alkanes are gases at room temperature. All others are liquids. Solids start to
appear at about C18H38.
Alkane and Alkene Reactions
Combustion
Alkanes and alkenes burn in the presence of oxygen.

Complete Combustion: If there is enough oxygen, alkanes

burn completely to give carbon dioxide and water.

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

Incomplete Combustion: If there is not enough oxygen,

they combust incompletely making carbon monoxide or
soot (black dust made of pure carbon) and water.

2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO(g) + 6H2O(l)

2C2H6(g) + 3O2(g) → 4C(s) + 6H2O(l)
Alkane and Alkene Reactions
Substitution
Alkanes react with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation (UV light) e.g. from sunlight.
A hydrogen atom in the alkane is replaced (substituted) by a halogen.
Methane + Bromine → Bromomethane + Hydrogen bromide

One bromine replaces one hydrogen.

or
But this can happen on any carbon atom.
Alkane and Alkene Reactions
Addition
Halogens break the double bond of an alkene, then one halogen is added to each
carbon atom.
Ethene + Bromine → 1,2-dibromoethane

When bromine is added, its red-brown colour becomes colourless (decolourised).

Synthetic Polymers
Addition Polymerisation
Under the right conditions, molecules containing C=C can join together to
produce very long chains.

Monomers

Polymer
Synthetic Polymers
Addition Polymerisation
Many ethene monomers combine to form the polymer poly(ethene).

This is used to make plastic

bags and bottles.
Synthetic Polymers
Some other common addition polymers:
Poly(propene) Poly(chloroethene) Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Synthetic Polymers
Disposal Method Advantage Disadvantage
• Less greenhouse gas /
• Ugly, smelly, and noisy. No one
toxic gases produced. wants to live next to a landfill site!
• Uses large areas of land.
Landfill • Cheap • Takes hundred or thousands of
years to decompose and can
release toxic chemicals as they do.
• Requires little space. • It is expensive.
• Produces greenhouse and toxic
Incineration • Can produce heat for gases.
local homes and offices/ • The ash produces must still be
produce electricity. disposed of in landfill sites
Crude Oil
It is then separated by boiling
point:

Shorter hydrocarbons have lower

boiling points so they condense at
the top of the fractionating
column.

Crude oil is Longer hydrocarbons have higher

first heated boiling points so they condense at
until it forms the bottom of the fractionating
a vapour. column.
Crude Oil
Average number of
Fraction Boiling pt. C atoms in chain Uses:
N Cooking/heating
C3H8 Refinery gasC8H18 < 252oC 3
40oC
GasolineS(petrol) 25 – 60oC 8 Cars/motorbikes
Naphtha 60C20H42oC
– 180 10 (Not on test)
C12H2 180 – 220oC 12 Planes
Kerosene O2
6
Diesel 220 –
C H 250oC 20 Trucks/Buses/Trucks
C6H14 16 34

Fuel oil 250 – 300oC 40 Ships

Lubricating oil 300 – 350oC 80 (Not on test)
350oC Bitumen > 350oC 120 Paving roads
Crude Oil
Acid Rain Sulfur impurities form crude oil react
Nitrogen and oxygen react from the with oxygen making sulfur dioxide.
ignition spark and high heat of S + O2 → SO2
engines, forming nitrogen oxides.
N2 + O2 → NxOy

Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide react

with oxygen and water vapour in the air
forming acid (sulfuric, sulfurous, nitric acid).
Crude Oil
Acid Rain Affects forests.
Lowers pH of lakes. -Damages leaves (which are needed
-Causes mucus to build up in in fish for photosynthesis).
gills which can suffocate them. -Lowers soil pH which leaches
-Fish eggs do not hatch at low pH. nutrients, can not be reached by
roots.
Crude Oil
Acid Rain
Buildings and Statues
-Limestone buildings are made of calcium carbonate.
-Acid rain causes the corrosion of these buildings and statues.

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

-Acid rain also corrodes metals like iron. Acid is a catalyst for rust
formation.
Crude Oil
Cracking
1. There are far too many long-chain hydrocarbons, which are
not in such high demand and are not profitable.
2. There are not enough short-chain hydrocarbons that can be
used as fuel for cars (more profitable).
Cracking is a process in which long-
chain alkanes are converted to
alkenes and a shorter-chain alkane.
C14H30 → C6H12 + C8H18
Alkane
Alkene
Crude Oil
The products of cracking
Cracking breaks the bonds in long chain hydrocarbons to make short hydrocarbons:

C18H38 → C6H14 + 2C3H6 + 3C2H4 example

products

Alkane Alkene(s)

Cracking produces exactly 1 alkane and produces 1 or more alkene.

The short alkanes are used as high-demand fuels such as gasoline.

The alkenes are used to make synthetic polymers.

Crude Oil

The long hydrocarbons are:

1. Heated to 600⁰C - 700⁰C.
2. 2 catalysts are used:
Alumina (Al2O3) and Silica (SiO2)
Energetics
The reaction The reaction
releases heat. absorbs heat.

chemical chemical
heat heat
energy energy

The temperature of the The temperature of the

surroundings increases. surroundings decreases.

Since the reaction gives away Since the reaction absorbs

energy, the change in energy, the change in
enthalpy ΔH is negative (- enthalpy ΔH is positive
ΔH). (+ΔH).
Energetics
INVESTIGATING EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

Method:
Alcohol is burnt in a small spirit burner, and the heat
produced is used to heat some water in a copper can
(the calorimeter).
1. Measure 100cm3 of cold water and transfer into a
copper can.
2. Take the initial temperature of the water.
3. Weigh a spirit burner containing alcohol with its lid
on.
4. Light the wick and heat the water - stop when you
reach a reasonable temperature (+30⁰C).
5. Stir the water and measure the temperature.
6. Weigh the spirit burner again with the lid on.
Energetics
INVESTIGATING EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Sample Results Calculate the enthalpy change per mole of ethanol burned.

volume of water/cm3 100

mass of burner + ethanol BEFORE experiment/g 137.36
mass of burner + ethanol AFTER experiment/g 136.58
original temperature of water/◦C 21.5
final temperature of water/◦C 62.8
Energetics
Step 1: calculate the overall enthalpy change
Q = m x c x ΔT
ΔT = 62.8 - 21.5 = 41.3⁰C
m = 100g (100 cm3 x 1 g/cm3)
c = specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 J/g/⁰C

Q = 100 x 4.18 x 41.3 = 17,263.4 J = 17.2634 kJ

Step 2: calculate the moles of ethanol burned
Mass of ethanol burned = 137.36 - 136.58 = 0.78g

Relative Atomic Mass = (2 x 12) + (1 x 5) + 16 + 1 = 46

Number of moles burned (n) = 0.78/46 = 0.0169565 mol

Energetics
Step 3: Calculate the enthalpy change per mole of ethanol burned

Enthalpy Change (ΔH) of combustion of ethanol = Overall enthalpy change (Q)

moles of ethanol burned (n)

17.2634 kJ / 0.0169565 mol = 1018 kJ/mol

ΔH = - 1018 kJ/mol
The negative sign shows that heat is released and the combustion reaction is
exothermic.
Energetics
Enthalpy Changes of neutralisation reactions
1. Place a polystyrene cup in a 250cm3 glass beaker.
2. Transfer 25cm3 of 2mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid into sodium
the cup. hydroxide
3. Record the initial temperature.
4. Add sodium hydroxide to the acid.
5. Stir and record the maximum temperature reached.
6. Continue adding sodium hydroxide and recording the
temperature until all the sodium hydroxide has been
added.
7. Plot a graph of the temperature of the mixture versus
hydrochloric
the volume of sodium hydroxide added.
acid
Acid used: 25cm3, Base added: 80cm3
Temperature rise: 8.5⁰C
Energetics
Total volume of solution at neutralisation = 25cm3 + 80cm3 = 105 cm3
Mass of solution = 105cm3 x 1g/cm3 = 105 g
Change in temperature(ΔT) = 33.5℃ - 25℃ = 8.5 ℃
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 J/g℃
Heat given out (Q) = 105 x 4.18 x 8.5 = 3,730.65 J = 3.73065 kJ
No. of moles of HCl = C x V = 2.00 x (25/1000) = 0.0500 mol
Enthalpy change (ΔH) = 3.73065/0.0500 = -74.6 kJ/mol
Exothermic is negative
Reversible Reactions
When a reaction can occur in both FORWARDS and REVERSE directions, it is
called a Reversible Reaction.

The products of the reaction can interact and revert back to the reactants.
If in a closed system, where the reactants and products can not escape, the
forward and reverse reactions happen at the same time. Eventually, the
forward and reverse rates will be equal. This is called dynamic equilibrium.
Reversible Reactions
In a reversible reaction, one reaction is endothermic whilst the opposite reaction is exothermic.
For example:
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
Endothermic: Heat energy is absorbed

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(s)

Exothermic: Heat is released

CuSO4.5H2O(s) ⇌ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

Reversible Reactions
In a reversible reaction, one reaction is endothermic whilst the opposite reaction is exothermic.

For example:
NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
Endothermic: Heat energy is absorbed

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

Exothermic: Heat is released

NH4Cl(s) ⇌NH3(g) + HCl(g)

 Complete the review booklet and go on the LMS!
Do the textbook questions on the last page of the review booklet.