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History of Western Music
HARPERCOLLINS COLLEGE OUTLINE
History of Western Music

5th Edition

Hugh M.:Miller
College of William and Mary

Dale Cockrell
College of William and Mary

ahi
wan Harper Perennial
A Division of HarperCollinsPublishers
HISTORY OF WESTERN MUSIC (Fifth Edition), Copyright 1947, 1953, 1960 by Bames & Noble, Inc.
Copyright © 1972 by Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. Copyright © 1991 by HarperCollins Publishers.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States. No part of this book may be used or-reproduced in
any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical articles and reviews. For information address HarperCollins Publishers, 10 East 53rd Street,
New York, N. Y. 10022.

An American BookWorks Corporation Production

Project Manager: Mary Mooney
Editor: Edgar Williams, Jr., Ph.D.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cockrell, Dale
History of Western music / Dale Cockrell, Hugh M. Miller.— Sth ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: History of music / by Hugh M. Miller, 4th ed. 1973
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-06-467107-0 (pbk.)
1. Music—History and criticism. I. Miller, Hugh Milton, 1908—
II. Miller, Hugh Milton, 1908— History of music Ill. Title.
ML160.C67 1991
780’ .9—dc20 90-56005

91. 92 93:94. °95 -ABW/RRD 10 93> 7 65 4°53 2 1

Contents

PLrelace we Sy ACOA VOT Ms, eek) ea Te Vii

"Introduction: “2. eon ee Pe eee 1

PartiOne CAntiquity7? 225)! Seed LS, 5 eee, Fee 5

D2 ATGUITY se pers eee eee A ae arent he ee ee ee 7

Part Two The Middle Ages (800-1400). ............... 1)

3° Introduction tothe Middle Ages? 9. een ee ee eee 15
APs (GISSOTIAI CHAN. ce eee eae hee aleee ene tartar ies ea 18
S46 SeculanSons agp wtiet Lie Se Gee ae ee 24
6: *Early Polyphony @°ve 2 + Sera aes ae. ee 28
Winn PATS) ANTOI ee athe a ee eae LaMO 5 ule eee i 31
Se» olhe: Bourteenth Century 14.4 spe ie Wks Ales chee alee nalae 37
Ows instruments ands ances rae peas BO ulcer eea: an ee 41

Part Three The Renaissance (1400-1600) .............. 45

LOSSintroductiomsto the@Renaissance, os an ca we eee ee ee 47
DiS ne Filtcenteeunys rte ee ae ere ane eee ne wre 2 aves 3h
Pes LDC I XtCCIb COIL Vaaimetes ee ete aaah ike ah ee dea aca ean 56
135 Sinstrumental Music (ear et ees Pes ees 67
14? SMusical Notation ts aba ee to ete.ce Meee Peeters a3

Part Four The Baroque (1600-1750) ................. 85

OMe INITOCUCHONMOMMNE boatOUUC ma foe erate em, 5 he, ee, 87
1G pera aNday OCAL GlamMDCL IVAUSIC: G5 4c ee hoes ese ow i oA
PR CHSIOUS USI Came etree tater ew ba ais, Ge ora. SORTA 30
Dope astUmlcntaViUsiGwee or er ot ee ao. Se eR 104
vi History of Western Music

Part Five The Classical Period (1750-1820) ............ 117

19 Introduction to the Preclassical and Classical Periods ...... 119

20 * “Instrumental Music’ <7. .-<.4 fous 3 ee eee ee 127

21° (Operacand Ret eious NEUSIC ... 5 1s5, aeacelen wart eden aoe mee 134

Part Six The Romantic Period (1820-1900) ............ 139

22 Introduction to the. Romantic Period’: 95.4

06 2 ee 141

DO CIEE oe ee nay eT here he PER eR eR tee a ee 147

ZA -NOCA MUSIC Scope he ty 8 Baie: ae, ec 154

25... ostrumiental MUsic® «05.00 <-,2..- See es eo, reece ee 160
26 Summary of Major Nineteenth-Century Composers. ...... 171

Part Seven The Twentieth Century. ....)..:.......7. 177

27 Introduction to the Twentieth Century ..........: ee hr
28 General Developments in Twentieth-Century Music ...... 186
29: Specific Styles and Techniques 405" Btkwne 8). 2 ee 192
SUS e-IVSiCa)MeCIaet ts hn bs ee ener er eee ane eee 206
31 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers .... . pH be

Part Eight Popular Music, Jazz,and Rock ............ 232

32 Introduction to Popular Music, Jazz, and Rock ......... 235
Soe SPODUIAL MUSIC on <-s;\<ce 6° can haste tea Ronee eta ners 239
So ies 4 ee nae aa gs RA ec Bele ae I 250
a 456) a ety SN AR Me Bae Move” Bon Ren Biase a. Pa |
Selected Biblidgraphy «|, ape ee ee 267
Glossary. (2.5) AR? co nek eR 6 a se ee 273
UGE ete Ts ene Ohaoe it oe eee 285
Preface

Prof. Hugh Miller’s History of Music was first published in 1947. It

quickly became an important text of reference for many students of music
history. His work eventually underwent four minor revisions, the last in
1972. This is a thorough revision of his book, incorporating new scholarship
on music before the twentieth century and an updated section on twentieth—
century art music, and including for the first time information on vernacular
music.
One of the more obvious changes is the book’s new title: History of
Western Music. It is much less the case today than in 1947 that a title with
the unmodified word “Music” is implicitly about the music of the West (i.e.,
Europe and regions where European culture was transplanted). To many
musicians, even those in the West, the word no longer carries any connotation
of place, time, or function. Given this major shift in perspective, “Western”
was added before “Music” so that the title might reflect more accurately the
book’s content.
This revision acknowledges the tremendous growth in scholarly interest
in vernacular music. A section of the book is accordingly devoted to popular
music, jazz, and rock. The term “art music” is uniformly used to distinguish
“classical music” (as Professor Miller called it) from vernacular music. This
expression, which has recently gained wide acceptance, has the advantage
of preventing confusion between “classical” music and music of the “classi-
cal” period, and is a more accurate denominator of the music’s functions and
the composer’s intentions as well.
Histories of music frequently include a quantity of factual material that
is of purely antiquarian interest. This one has minimized or eliminated
altogether this kind of information. The emphasis is placed on organization
and presentation of essential historical information that bears directly upon
the actual music of any given period or style, or upon the development of
musical ideas. The book deals primarily with characteristics of form and
style as they apply to music of broad and specific periods and types, to
nationalities or schools, and to the most important composers and per-
formers. It is, then, intended to be a substantive guide to the intelligent study
of music by the amateur.
History of Western Music is more than a mere review outline. It is
intended to be a functional work that can be used as the basic text in an

vii
viii History of Western Music

introductory college music history course. This does not preclude collateral
reading in the many excellent survey texts of music history or more special-
ized readings. Indeed, the bibliography to this work directs the student to
some of the more useful of these. |
The acquisition of historical information about music is of little value
unless that information is vivified by the music itself. In keeping with this,
most chapters close with a list of recommended scores and recordings.
Today’s student is fortunate that there are excellent anthologies of scores
with equally fine accompanying recordings. I have relied extensively on two
of these and suggest that the serious student have at least one of them at hand
for ready and frequent use. They are: Claude Palisca, ed., Norton Anthology
of Western Music, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988); and
Roger Kamien, ed., The Norton Scores: An Anthology for Listening, 5th ed.,
2 vols. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990). To refer to the former I have used
the acronym “NAWM)” throughout, followed by the number of the example.
To refer to the latter, “NS” is used, followed by roman numeral “T” or “IT”
to indicate volume number; again, the arabic number is a selection and not
page referent. In the earlier chapters one might also find reference to
“HAM,” an acronym of the venerable Historical Anthology of Music, 2 vols.
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), edited by Archibald T.
Davison and Willi Apel. Selection numbers follow the acronym. Record-
ings of uneven quality have been made to accompany this anthology and are
available in most music libraries.
I wish to express my deep gratitude to two of my colleagues at the
College of William and Mary. Katherine Preston first suggested I undertake
this project and has maintained an active interest in its content and progress
throughout. Edgar Williams read the entire manuscript with a ready green
pen in hand; his numerous suggestions and comments big and small were
invaluable and contributed directly to a manifestly better and more accurate
book. Dan Gutwein and William DeFotis, also colleagues at William and
Mary, offered me their expertise on contemporary music, as did Prof. Fred
Maus (University of Virginia) and Prof. William Brooks (University of
Illinois).

Dale Cockrell
History of Western Music
 >

; ee *
a,
Introduction

The study of music history requires a preliminary understanding of some

basic concepts and approaches.

INTERDEPENDENCE OF MUSIC

Music, like other arts, is not autonomous. It is always one aspect of the
cultural life of a society. Often the relationship with other cultural aspects
is obvious. For example, music has always been closely associated with the
literary arts, and must be appreciated in that context. But it is also important
to study music in the context of seemingly more distant developments, such
as those of social, economic, political, cultural, and philosophical. In this
book, each of the eight parts is prefaced with a “Timeline” containing
musical, cultural, and historical dates and events of significance. Further,
each section detailing the chronology of art music contains a summary of
important historical developments.

MUSIC LITERATURE
The study of music history is necessarily based on the study of music
literature. Factual information is, of course, essential to understanding
history in any field, but unless musical facts are applied directly to the actual

1
2 History of Western Music
Soe A RG Oe nS

sounds of music they are of negligible value to the understanding of music

history. Thus, one must hear representative music of any era or style to
understand that development musically. It is a great advantage to the modern
student that there is a wealth of music authentically recorded and available
for study. Each appropriate chapter here contains a list of suggested record-
ings.
The study of music literature also includes musical scores. Modern
editions and anthologies of music enable the student to see in detail aspects
of musical construction. Whenever possible, it is best to combine the visual
perception with the auditory, to “see” the music while hearing it. Accord-
ingly, most chapters here refer the student to scores for “visual” listening.

KINDS OF HISTORICAL INFORMATION

An adequate study of music history involves a coordinated knowledge

of several areas.

Forms The term form refers to the structural principles governing musical
composition. A given form is determined by a combination of these princi-
ples. An important way of understanding the history of Western music is as
a chronicle of ever-changing forms. Forms are often discrete enough that
they define types of music, or genres.

Style Musical style is present when the vocabulary of music—which involves

melody, rhythm, harmony, texture, dynamics, form, performance practice,
and other elements—forms some state of commonality. Implicit in this term,
though, is an opposition to other stylistic commonalities. This recognition
allows us to speak of certain stylistic periods of music history, in which
several styles might prevail. It helps us speak of composers who have an
individual style, in which a body of music is recognizably related to, but
different from other composers. Eras, countries, schools, and individual
composers have their own stylistic characteristics. Thus, one can speak of
Renaissance style, French style, Venetian style, Beethoven’s style, minimal-
ism, OF jazz.

Medium In music, the term medium means the agent of performance. In general,
media are vocal, instrumental, or both; they are subdivided into various solo
or ensemble combinations. The kinds of media employed in any given period
or style constitute one indication of the kinds of musical sounds encountered.
 Introduction 3

Broad Music history can be approached from the standpoint of broad catego-
Categories ries of music literature such as religious music, secular music, dramatic
music, symphonic music, and so on.

Geographical Music often develops differently in different regions, such as countries

Areas or cities. Music of a particular region, if there is also a stylistic consistency,
is usually referred to as belonging to a school. Hence, we have such
expressions as the Flemish school, the Italian school, or the Venetian school.

Composers To know the history of art music is to be familiar with the important
composers and their contributions to music literature and stylistic develop-
ments. Sometimes a composer represents the culmination of a period (Jo-
hann Sebastian Bach in the Baroque Period); sometimes a composer
represents revolutionary innovations (Igor Stravinsky and Arnold
Schoenberg in the twentieth century). Among vernacular musics (e.g.,
popular music, jazz, and rock) the composer is often less important. In fact,
in some cases, performers are far more significant to understanding the style.

Documents and Valuable contributions to Western music history have been made by
Manuscripts theorists, critics, and historians who have explained the musical practices of |
their own times. Such documents, many of which have been translated and
published in modern editions, often afford insights.
Our present knowledge of earlier periods in the history of art music stems
largely from manuscripts in musical notation preserved in libraries and in
museums throughout the world. The well-informed student of Western
music history should know about them.

Notation Since Antiquity, music has been written down according to various
systems of symbols called notation. How such systems developed is an
important facet of historical knowledge (though such knowledge contributes
little to the student’s perception of musical sound). Perhaps more im-
portantly, notation is an important clue to the thinking and the expression in
music of any time or place.

Chronological The study of the history of Western art music has traditionally involved
Organization establishing the chronological development of thought and practice from its
earliest known beginnings to its present forms. This has led to the conven-
tional divisions into historical eras, or periods of time. These divisions,
which generally conform to similar eras in general history and the history of
other arts, are referred to, respectively, as the pre-Christian Period (Antiq-
uity), the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque Period, the Classical
Period, the Romantic Period, and the Twentieth Century. Some periods are
subdivided into early, middle, and late, and subdivisions of major periods
4 History of Western Music

sometimes carry special names, such as the Ars Antiqua and the Ars Nova
of the Middle Ages.
Vernacular musics are also conventionally treated chronologically. The
notion of periodization is somewhat less rigid than in the study of art music,
though, and some historians of these styles avoid it altogether.
Although period divisions are used for convenience in the historical
organization of events and developments, it must be kept in mind that change
from one period to the next does not take place suddenly. Evidence of change
is invariably manifested before the beginning year of an era, and, conversely,
the characteristics of an era continue long after it has ended. For example,
evidence of Baroque practices can be found at least two decades before the
year 1600, when the period is said to have begun, and Renaissance techniques
continued to be employed well beyond that year. Furthermore, no period or
style is static in itself; change is dynamic and takes place continuously within
periods and styles.
PART ONE
ANTIQUITY
 -
7.
 Antiquity

586 B.C. Sacadas plays aulos at Pythian Games

ca. 500 B.C. Pythagoras determines ratios of musical intervals
ca. 380 B.C. Plato discourses on music in the Republic
ca. 370 B.C. The books of the Old Testament reach their present form
ca. 330 B.C. Aristotle’s Politics discusses music education
ca. 320 B.C. Aristoxenus finishes the Harmonics (oldest extant Greek musical treatise)
ca. 130 B.C. Composition of the two “Delphic Hymns”
ca. 30 A.D. Jesus crucified
first century A.D. “Epitaph of Seikolos” composed
second century “Hymn to Nemesis,” “Hymn to the Sun,” and “Hymn to the Muse Calliope”
A.D. composed by Mesomedes of Crete
ca. 200 A.D. Athenaeus’s Sophists at Dinner includes dialogue on music
fourth century Aristides Quintilianus, the last theorist of Greek music
A.D.

W. do not know precisely how or when music began. Perhaps in prehis-

toric times man used primitive forms of drums and trumpets for signaling. He
may have found these sounds pleasing to the ear and began to use them to
create music. Another theory is that music developed from the natural urge
to accompany human movement with rhythmic sounds, which gradually
became musical creations. Song may have also evolved from the spontaneous
vocal expression of anger, fear, anguish, and joy.
Relatively little is known about the music of Antiquity (from prehistoric
times to about 200 A.D.). We know that music existed in many ancient
civilizations, and there is substantial evidence on musical life in ancient Egypt
and China. It is likely that some of the musical traditions of Antiquity
influenced European musical heritage in important ways. The one about

u,
8 History of Western Music

which we know the most and that has most directly influenced the theoretical
basis of Western music is that of Ancient Greece.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Our knowledge of the music of Antiquity is seriously limited by the

ephemeral nature of the musical medium, unlike ancient pictorial art, archi-
tecture, or literature. Notation is a method for preserving information about
sound, but it was not fully developed in Antiquity. The few bits of extant
music notated before the birth of Christ are mostly indecipherable.
We have gathered information about ancient music in four ways. (1)
Pictorial representations of musical activity, especially those of people
playing instruments, tell us something about the music of Antiquity. These
images certainly confirm the existence of music making. (2) Several import-
ant writers have recorded their ideas about music and noted the rules of its
construction. Literary sources constitute our best information about ancient
music. (3) Aconsiderable number of instruments have been excavated from
the sites of ancient culture. Analysis of them yields conclusions about scales,
modes, and social function. (4) Ethnomusicology, the study of non—Western
systems of music, provides some insight into ancient practices. For example,
by studying mature folk cultures (Indian, Middle Eastern, Persian, etc.) that
were directly influenced by the ancient Greeks, scholars have been able to
draw conclusions about the music of Antiquity.
Though we possess no definite knowledge of how the music actually
sounded, we can make certain generalizations about the practice of music in
ancient times.

Dependency It is unlikely that ancient music was an independent art created solely
for the pleasure of casual listening. Rather, it seems to have been an adjunct
to other activities, such as dancing and ritual.

Monophony It is generally believed that the music of Antiquity, like that of many
aboriginal cultures today, was monophonic. That is, it was comprised of a
single melodic line without accompaniment or harmonic support.

Improvisation Probably all ancient musical cultures encouraged the musician to im-
provise. Skill in performance was to some degree a function of the
musician’s ability to alter, vary, and ornament a melody. This helps explain
why so little music was notated.
 Antiquity 9

Powers of Music Ancient man seems generally to have believed that music had mystic and
magical powers capable of affecting his life, character, and well—being.
References to this aspect of music are found in abundance in the literature
of the ancients.

MUSIC OF ANCIENT CULTURES

Greek The music of Antiquity about which we know most and that has most
profoundly influenced European musical concepts, theories, and aesthetics
is that of Greece. The word “music” itself comes from Greece, as do many
other musical terms, such as tetrachord, lyric, rhythm, polyphony, and hymn.
Present knowledge of Greek music is based on a wealth of extant literature
and pictorial evidence, although little music is preserved in notation.
Characteristics
Greek music was largely monophonic. If the melody was sung or played
by two performers, most likely the accompanying line sounded simulta-
neously as an elaborated version of the primary melody. This texture is
called heterophony. Most music was improvised and heavily ornamented.
The performer’s ability to embellish a melody was a critical aspect of skill.
Greek music was inseparable from poetry and drama and was important in
mythology and in ceremonial rites.
Cults
Two cults dominated musical concepts: (1) the cult of Apollo, which
used the kithara (a plucked string instrument), was characterized by clarity
and simplicity of form and restraint of emotional expression; and (2) the cult
of Dionysus, which used the aulos (a double—pipe reed instrument), was
characterized by subjectivity and emotional expression. These two concepts
have played varying roles in the subsequent development of Western music.
Doctrine of Ethos
Aristotle and Plato, among others, articulated a doctrine of ethos, in
which music was stated to have a direct and profound influence on character.
They believed music could imitate two general states of being (peacefulness;
excitement and enthusiasm) and inculcate them in the listener. Factors that
determined a particular musical ethos were its rhythm, mode, and the
instrument employed.
10 History of Western Music

Theory
Greek theory was based largely on the acoustical mathematics of
Pythagorean ratios. Music was organized by modes, with names like Dorian,
Phrygian, Lydian, and so on, each one of which produced different mental
states. The modes were based on tetrachords (groups of four notes spanning
the interval of a perfect fourth) that could be arranged in conjunct order (the
highest note of the lower of two tetrachords being the lowest note of the
tetrachord immediately above) or disjunct order (the highest note of the
lower of two tetrachords being adjacent to the lowest note of the tetrachord
immediately above). There were three genera of tetrachords: (1) the dia-
tonic (e.g., the notes B, C, D, and E), (2) the chromatic (e.g., the notes B, C,
C#, and E), and (3) the enharmonic (e.g., the notes B, B#, C, and E). (The
modern system of notation does not easily allow for intervals smaller than a
half—step. The first three tones of all these tetrachords were most likely such
microintervals.) Eventually a two—octave scale made up of conjunct and
disjunct tetrachords evolved, called the Greater Perfect System.
Another important aspect of Greek theory was the systematic application
of poetic meters. Rhythmic modes were developed as a result of this (see
Example 7.1).
Notation

The Greeks were among the first to develop systems of notation. There
were two kinds: an instrumental notation, its symbols from Phoenician
letters, and a vocal notation, with symbols derived from the Ionic alphabet
and placed above the words of the text.
Instruments

The principal instruments used were the /yre and kithara (both small
harps), aulos, syrinx (panpipes), krotola (a castanetlike instrument),
tympanon (a frame drum from which the word timpani comes), and
hydraulus (water organ).
Extant Music
There are six melodies and about the same number of fragments left to
us. The more-or-less complete melodies are two “Delphic Hymns to
Apollo” (ca. 130 b.c.), two short “Hymns to the Muse,” a “Hymn to Neme-
sis,” and the “Epitaph of Seikilos” from the first century a.d. Obviously,
these constitute a wholly inadequate basis upon which to judge ancient Greek
music.
Writers
About twenty treatises, most of them fragmentary, provide knowledge
about ancient Greek music. Some of the more important are the writings of
Terpander (ca. 675 b.c.), Pythagoras (ca. 500 b.c.), Timotheus (ca. 450 b:c:),
 Antiquity 11

Aristoxenos (Harmonics, ca. 330 b.c.), Aristotle and Plato (fourth century
b.c.), and Ptolemy (second century a.d.).

Roman After Greece became a Roman province in 146 b.c., Roman music
imitated the Greek. Apparently musical life flourished, for there are many
reports of large choral and orchestral performances from the first two decades
of the Christian Era. Brass instruments were developed and used mainly for
military purposes. No Roman music has been preserved in notation, how-
ever, and apparently the Romans contributed little to the development of
music in theory or practice. Much Roman music was grounded in social
occasions abhorrent to the early Catholic Church, and our lack of knowledge
about this music may result from the Church’s attempt to eradicate Roman
rituals and accompanying music.

Hebrew Although no pictorial material is preserved from ancient Hebrew culture,

there is ample literary reference in the Old Testament to music, singing,
dancing, and many kinds of instruments. Hebrew music was primarily
religious, and in the form of psalms sung in unison responsorially (a solo
singer answering choral groups) or antiphonally (two alternating choral
groups). Various flutes, string instruments (psalteries), and percussion in-
struments were employed. Aspects of the music of the Catholic Church were
borrowed from Hebrew music.

Scores and Greek

Recordings “Epitaph of Seikilos”: NAWM 2
“First Delphic Hymn”: HAM 7a
Hebrew
HAM 6
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PART TWO
THE MIDDLE AGES
(800-1400)
 Introduction to the
Middle Ages

312 Constantine, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, converts to Christianity

- 386 The singing of psalmody introduced at Milan under Ambrose
395 Holy Roman Empire separates into an Eastern and Western Empire
ca. 500 Boethius writes De institutione musica
590-604 Reign of Pope Gregory the Great, who begins systematizing
church liturgical chants
800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor by Pope
ca. 850 Arelian of Réome writes earliest treatise on Gregorian Chant
ca. 900 Musica enchiriadis
early tenth St. Gall becomes center for troping
century
ca. 935 Odo of Cluny’s Enchiridion musices
ca. 1025-1028 Guido of Arezzo’s Micrologus
1163 Construction begun on Notre Dame Cathedral
ca. 1180-1201 Léonin at Notre Dame, Paris
early thirteenth Play of Daniel, Play of Herod, liturgical dramas
century
ca. 1190-1236 Pérotin at Notre Dame, Paris
ca. 1250 “Sumer is icumen in” composed
ca. 1250 Rhythmic modes codified
ca. 1260 Ars cantus mensurabilis by Franco of Cologne

15
16 History of Western Music

1284 Adam de la Halle: Robin et Marion

1310-1314 Roman de Fauvel
1322-1323 Ars Nova (Philippe de Vitry), treatise
ca. 1325 The Speculum musicae, the most comprehensive of medieval writings on
music
1377 Death of Machaut
1397 Death of Landini

The period from the ninth to roughly the early fifteenth century is referred
to as the Middle Ages (sometimes, the Medieval Period). With the crowning
of Charlemagne in 800 by the Pope, much of Western Europe was con-
solidated politically and religiously. It became possible also to speak of a
common Society and culture. Liturgical music of the Roman Catholic Church,
Gregorian chant, was the first common Western European body of music,
although regional traditions were still important. A theory of its usage was
written during this time. Additions were made to the body of chant. Methods
for its embellishment were developed. This impulse led eventually to the
revolutionary rise and growth of polyphony, the most important development
in Western music. As part of this development, the act of composition replaced
improvisation, the norm during earlier periods. With this came a need for
notation, a system of preserving sounds. Individuals began laying claim to
their musical work, and we have the first names of composers in Western music
history. By the end of the period composers had learned to construct large—
scale, complex musical works of sophisticated forms, melodies, and rhythms.
The feudal system, which developed during the Middle Ages, provided a
cultural balance to the hegemony of the Catholic Church. Feudal courts
fostered developments in secular music, which celebrates earthly pleasures.
The creation of a courtly poetic tradition flourished, as did music to accom-
pany it. Instrumental music and stylized dances also came to be important.
As was probably also true of religious music, folk music (i.e., music that exists
only in a non-notated, oral tradition) was influential. The fourteenth century
applied techniques learned in the composition of sacred music to the writing
of nonreligious music. Secular music’s inherent immediacy fueled the
development of an extraordinarily vibrant polyphonic tradition, the Ars Nova,
or New Art.
 Introduction to the Middle Ages 17

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The period immediately before the turn of the millenium (sometimes

called the Dark Ages) saw the groundwork laid for the building of modern—
day Europe. That work began in 800 when Charlemagne was crowned
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, thus consolidating much of Europe
under one rule. By the eleventh century, the power of the Empire had
dissipated to the point that there was a final schism in 1054 between Eastern
and Western Churches. Nevertheless, there was prosperity in western Eu-
rope, an increase in population, and the beginning of modern cities. The
Norman Conquest of England in 1066 brought the English into Europe.
Intellectual, vitality is manifest in the beginnings of the university and
scholastic philosophy, the first translations of Arabic and Greek literature,
and the rise of Romanesque architecture.
The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were the time of the Crusades, the
building of the Gothic cathedrals, chivalric poetry and song, and the eco-
nomic, political, and social system known as feudalism. Some important
persons were St. Francis of Assisi, Roger Bacon, St. Thomas Aquinas,
Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, and Louis IX, King of France from
1226 to 1270.
The decline of feudal aristocracy and the rise of urban middle classes
began in the fourteenth century. It was also the time of the initial separation
of church and state, and between religion and science. Political dissension
in the Church resulted in two, sometimes three, claimants to the papacy. It
was the century of the Great Plague (1348-1350), and the beginning of the
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). Asa result, the population of Europe was
significantly smaller at the end of the century than at the beginning. Giotto,
a Florentine painter, was the most famous artist of the period, partly resulting
from personalization of his subject and the development of perspective.
Significant literary activity reflected the thought and spirit of the period in
the works of Petrarch, Dante, Boccaccio, and Chaucer, who with others
developed the novel and vernacular epics. Above all was a pervading sense
of humanism, after centuries of domination by the Church.
 Gregorian Chant

Gregorian chant, variously referred to as plainsong or plainchant, was the

principal religious music of the Roman Catholic Church for approximately its
first thousand years. It constitutes the largest and oldest single body of
Christian music. Gregorian chant is important because it was the source of
religious polyphony in the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

HISTORY

Early Christian chant was borrowed from three especially important

areas. (1) Byzantium (later Constantinople, now Istanbul) contributed a
wealth of hymns (songs of praise not taken from biblical scripture). (2) Syria,
a part of the Roman Empire near Palestine, and the scene of significant
religious activity, developed antiphonal and responsorial singing. (3) Pales-
tine was probably the most direct influence on early Christian chant through
its extensive body of Hebrew chant.

Branches of During the first millennium of Christianity chant developed into five
Chant discrete styles. (1) Byzantine chant, which continued to influence all plain-
song, ultimately became the chant of the Greek Orthodox Church. (2)
Ambrosian chant, named for Ambrose, a fourth-century bishop of Milan, is
noted for its hymns and antiphonal singing. (3) Gallican chant was used by
the Franks until the time of Charlemagne in the eighth century. (4) Mozara-
bic chant, which was used in Spain, was influenced by the Moors who
invaded the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century. (5) Gregorian chant, a
term often used for all chant types, is named for Gregory the Great, a
sixth-century pope who was largely responsible for organizing existing

18
 Gregorian Chant 19

chant into a unified body. Ultimately, Gregorian chant came to dominate all
Western plainsong as Rome became the center of Western Christianity.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Gregorian chant (1) is monophonic; (2) is modal (based on the church

modes); (3) was normally sung a cappella (without instrumental accompa-
niment); (4) is nonmetric (does not employ time signatures or bar lines); (5)
uses free and flexible prose rhythms; (6) is melodically conjunct (stepwise
progression with few skips); (7) has a limited range (from the highest to the
lowest notes of the melody); (8) was sung in Latin (now often in translation);
(9) and was written in a special neumatic notation. (See Example 14.3 for
an example of Gregorian chant.)

The Church Plainchant theory evolved during the early Middle Ages partly as a result
Modes of the attention then being given to the writings of the ancient Greeks. This
theoretical system, like Greek music, is based on a system of modes. The
eight church modes are divided into two classes: authentic and plagal
modes.
Authentic Modes
The authentic modes have an ambitus (melodic range) from the final (the
final tone of a plainsong melody) to about an octave above it. The four
authentic modes have Greek names: Dorian, with a final D; Phrygian, with
a final E; Lydian, with a final F; and Mixolydian, with a final G.
Plagal Modes
The plagal modes have the same ambitus as the authentic modes, but
they range from approximately a fourth below to a fifth above the final. The
four plagal modes have the same finals as the corresponding authentic modes
and contain the prefix “hypo”: Hypodorian, with a final D; Hypophrygian,
with a final E; Hypolydian, with a final F; and Hypomixolydian, with a final
G.
Mode Number
The eight church modes are conventionally numbered so that the authen-
tic modes are the odd-numbered modes and the plagal modes are the
even-numbered modes: (1) Dorian, (2) Hypodorian, (3) Phrygian, (4)
Hypophrygian, (5) Lydian, (6) Hypolydian, (7) Mixolydian, and (8)
Hypomixolydian.
20 History of Western Music
a ea

Other Modes
Four additional modes are occasionally found in Gregorian chant. These
are the Aeolian and Hypoacolian modes, with a final A (the same as the
natural minor mode), and the Jonian and Hypoionian modes, with a final C
(the same as the major mode). Although not recognized by the Church until
the sixteenth century, these four modes existed as a result of musica ficta
(accidentals, or altered notes). For example, the use of the note By in the
first and second modes would produce the natural d minor mode, and the
same note used in the fifth and sixth modes would produce the F Major mode.

Authentic Plagal

1. Dorian 2. Hypodorian
os oe * inc
é os eee —
es
re Sate —— —

3. Phrygian 4. Hypophrygian
oe —— ~-—7? =e =e
a rJ oe?
s

5. Lydian 6. Hypolydian
ae ed a =
T=? san > ==
>

7. Mixolydian 8. Hypomixolydian
z—o—#

16 a =
é —— es

Aeolian —* Hypoaeolian
oe =? : 4 ——" = =e =
é

Jonian a o= Hypoionian
et ees ae S 1G ao
6 Soe
= oe

Example 4.1. The Church Modes

Mixed Modes
It is not unusual to find the plagal and authentic forms of a mode used
in the same chant. This allows a useful range from several notes below the
final to an octave or more above it.
 Gregorian Chant 21

FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF CHANT

Gregorian chant’s primary responsibility is to enhance the meaning of

the church liturgy. Text setting, the relationship between the chant melody
and the text, is divided into four categories: (1) syllabic, in which one note
of the melody is set to one syllable of the text—typical of hymns and
sequences; (2) neumatic, in which a few notes of melody are set to one
syllable of text—the most common style; (3) melismatic, where many
melodic notes are set to one syllable of text—used commonly in settings of
the Alleluia; and (4) psalmodic, in which there are numerous syllables on
one repeated note—used in settings of the Psalms. It should be noted that a
chant may shift from one style of text setting to another, but usually one style
predominates.

The Roman Because of its close association with developments in Western music,
Catholic Liturgy the basic organization of the Catholic liturgy should be understood. It
consists of two main divisions: the Divine Offices and the Mass.

The Divine Offices

The eight services celebrated at certain times of the day are called Divine
Offices, or Canonical Hours. They are Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext,
Nones, Vespers, and Compline. The most important Offices employing
music are Matins, Lauds, and Vespers.
The Mass
The Roman Mass is divided into two main parts: the Proper of the Mass
and the Ordinary of the Mass. The Proper contains the variable portions of
the mass, which are liturgical texts unique to the feasts of the church year
being celebrated. The Proper includes six sections that use music. These are
the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory, and Communion. The Ordi-
nary, which contains the five invariable portions of the mass, includes the
Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. Musical compositions enti-
tled “Mass” are usually settings of the Ordinary because these liturgical texts
can be sung at any mass throughout the church year. Such works include
Palestrina’s Missa Brevis and J. S. Bach’s Mass in B Minor.

Requiem Mass
The Requiem Mass (also called Missa pro Defunctis [Mass for the Dead])
is a special funeral mass that includes sections from the Ordinary (Kyrie,
Sanctus, Agnus Dei) and the Proper (Introit, Offertory, and Communion).
22 History of Western Music
a eee

Tropes and From the ninth to the twelfth centuries two new forms of liturgical chant
Sequences were created: tropes and sequences.

Trope
A trope is a phrase of text inserted syllabically into the melodic line of
a chant. The text was either fitted to preexistent notes in a melismatic
passage, or else a new melody was composed to the interpolated text.
Example 4.2 illustrates the form of a trope. The words “Christe eleison”
(“Christ have mercy upon us”) are the original words of the plainsong. The
words (presented here in italics) “Dei forma virtus patrisque sophia” (form,
strength, and wisdom of God the Father”) is the inserted trope, set syllabi-
cally to the originally melismatic passage of the chant. Note also that this
characteristic example of a notated chant is monophonic, modal (Dorian),
sung a cappella (without instrumental accompaniment), nonmetric, and that
it exhibits free rhythm, a narrow ambitus (a perfect fifth), conjunct progres-
sion, and is in Latin.

a e we Og © ¢ oo a

Chn - ste, Dea for - ma vir - tus pa - tris - que

—o =
9: = e Zz 5 < = oe = < 0 ——— i

SO) =) Ont = Va: e - - - - - ley. - son.

Example 4.2. The Form of a Trope

The most famous composer of tropes was Tuotilo (d. 915), a monk who
resided at the Swiss Abbey of St. Gall.
Sequence
A special kind of trope called a sequence was created by adding texts
syllabically to joyous, melismatic passages associated with the Alleluia. The
sequence had an indefinite number of sections beginning with a single line
of text and melody, then a series of pairs of text lines with the same melody,
and concluded with a single line of text and melody. Thus, the sequence form
can be represented by the formula a bb cc dd... n. Sequences were later
separated from the Alleluia, and became autonomous sections of the liturgy.
Probably the most famous example of this is the thirteenth-century sequence,
the Dies Irae, which is one of the sections of the Proper of the Requiem Mass.
Notker Balbulus (ca. 840-912), a contemporary of Tuotilo at St. Gall, is
the earliest known composer of sequences. Other composers were Adam of
St. Victor (twelfth century), St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), and Jacopo
da Todi (thirteenth century).
 Gregorian Chant 23

Scores and Mass for Septuagesimi Sunday: NAWM 3

Recordings Office of Second Vespers, Nativity of Our Lord: NAWM 4
Gradual: NSI 1
Trope: NAWM 6
Sequence: NAWM 5
 Secular Song

Secular song undoubtedly played an important role in medieval society,

but relatively little of it has been preserved. Extant historical evidence
suggests secular song and poetic creativity flourished mainly in France and
Germany during the Middle Ages.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Secular song was stylistically more diversified than Gregorian chant, and
it had several distinguishing traits. (1) Like chant, it was notated monophon-
ically. Although pictorial evidence suggests that secular songs may have
been performed with some kind of improvised instrumental accompaniment,
the manuscripts contain only single—line notation. (2) Unlike chant, it was
metrical and mostly in triple meter. (3) It had stronger and more regular
rhythms and employed recurrent short rhythmic patterns. (4) It had clear
phrase and sectional structures with repeated sections and refrains. (5)
Secular song generally employed the traditional church modes, but it also
used extensively the major (Ionian) and minor (Aeolian) modes. (6) It was
generally syllabic. (7) It was mostly in vernacular languages, unlike the
Latin of Gregorian chant. (8) Secular songs dealt with a wider range of
subjects than plainsong.

Performers Minstrels of a low social order were called jongleurs in France, Gaukler
in Germany, and g/eemen in England. They roamed Europe in the Middle
Ages, entertaining the feudal courts with juggling, card tricks, trained ani-
mals, and songs composed by others. Although neither poets nor composers,

24
 Secular Song 25
rN
ek II RE Oe RS a ee I ae i i na ee

they were important musically because they kept alive and disseminated the
large body of secular song literature.

FRENCH SECULAR SONG

The largest body of medieval secular song came from two classes of
French poet-composers: troubadours and trouveres, both terms meaning
“finders.” They were educated and cultured noblemen, mostly residents in
the feudal courts.

Poetic Types Troubadour and trouvére poetry is classified according to the following -
subject categories: (1) canso, a love poem; (2) sirventes, a satirical poem;
(3) planh, a plaint or lament on the death of an eminent person; (4)
pastourelle, a song, often in dialogue form, between a knight and shepherd-
ess; (5) chanson de toile, a spinning song; (6) enueg, a satirical poem; (7)
aube, the song of a friend watching over lovers until dawn; (8) tenso or
jeu-parti, a poem in dialogue; and (9) chanson de geste, an epic chronicle,
the most famous of which is the eleventh-century Chanson de Roland.

Genres and The lines of distinction among the numerous song forms are less clearly
Forms defined than those among the poetic types, and there is considerable diversity
of structure within each type. Recurrent sections of text and melody, called
refrains, were common to several forms. One of these, which carried over
into later polyphonic music, was the virelai, constructed according to this
formula:
phrase 12345
text anbrcid'a
melody AbbaaA
(Capital letters indicate the refrain.)
Another popular form was the rondeau, with the following sectional
plan:
pitase * teste O2/088
text arte a e°a'D
melody ABa AabA B
The ballade employed several different structures but was similar to the
virelai and rondeau in the use of refrains.

Troubadours The troubadours flourished in Provence in southern France from the end
of the eleventh to the end of the thirteenth centuries. Approximately 2,600
26 History of Western Music

poems and some 260 melodies have been preserved. Some important trou-
badours were Marcabru of Gascony (ca. 1100—ca. 1150), Bernart de Venta-
dorn (ca. 1130-ca. 1200), Giraut de Bornelh (ca. 1140-ca. 1200), Guiraut
Riquier (ca. 1230-ca. 1300), and Bertran de Born (ca. 1145-ca. 1215).

Trouveres The trouveres flourished in northern France slightly later than the trou-
badours. Of their poems, 2,130 are extant, and 1,420 of them have been
preserved with melodies. Some important trouvéres were Conon de Béthune
(ca. 1160-1220), Blondel de Nesle (fl. 1180-1200), King Thibaut IV of
Navarre (1201-1253), and Adam de la Halle (ca. 1245—ca. 1288 orca. 1306),
the last and most famous trouvére, who wrote a medieval play with music
entitled Jeu de Robin et de Marion.

GERMAN SECULAR SONG

French troubadour and trouvére songs were the models for German
poet-composers, minnesingers and meistersingers, from the twelfth to the
sixteenth centuries.

Minnesingers The minnesingers (“love singers”), who flourished from the twelfth to
the fourteenth centuries, produced a literature of German poetry and song
(Minnelied) dealing with a variety of subjects, including those of a quasi—re-
ligious nature. Minnelieder were usually in duple meter. The most typical
form was a Structure in three melodic sections, AAB (called bar form), in
which a melodic phrase (Stollen) was sung, then repeated with a different
line of text, and this was followed by a different melodic phrase (Abgesang).
The principal minnesingers were Walther von der Vogelweide (ca. 1170-ca.
1230), Neidhart von Reuental (ca. 1180—ca. 1237), Heinrich von Meissen
(nicknamed “Frauenlob”; ca. 1250-1318), Wizlav von Riigen (ca. 1265-—
1325), and Heinrich von Morungen (d. 1222).

Meistersingers The successors to the minnesingers were the meistersingers (master

singers), who flourished in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and who were
members of middle-class guilds rather than the aristocracy. Their music,
called Meistergesang, was created according to strict rules. Bar form was
the standard structure. Among the principal meistersingers were Konrad
Nachtigall (ca. 1410—ca. 1484), Adam Puschmann (1532-1600), and Hans
Sachs (1494-1576), the most famous of all, who was immortalized in
Richard Wagner’s Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg (1862-1867).
 Secular Song 27

OTHER COUNTRIES

The development of secular song was negligible outside France and

Germany. In England, the Anglo-Saxon classes of scops (resident minstrels)
and gleemen (traveling minstrels) produced a limited song literature, little of
which has been preserved. In Italy the nonliturgical religious Jauda, a song
of praise to the Virgin, was composed in the Italian ballata form, which
corresponds to the French virelai (AbbaA). In Spain a similar form, the
cantiga, also extolled the Virgin and employed the same sectional structure,
which in Spain was called villancico.

LATIN SECULAR SONGS

A sizable literature of Latin songs, called conductus, was created from

the tenth to the early thirteenth centuries by vagrant students and minor
clerics called goliards. Conductus dealt with a variety of subjects: love,
drinking, political satire, ribald themes, and humorous paraphrases of
Gregorian chant. A famous conductus is The Song of the Sibyl from the early
Middle Ages. .

Scores and Troubadour song: NAWM 7

Recordings Trouveére song: NAWM 9; NSI 4
Minnelied: NAWM 10
Meistergesang (by Hans Sachs): NAWM 11
Lauda: HAM 21
Cantiga: HAM 22
English song: HAM 23
 Early Polyphony

Probably the greatest single development in the entire history of Western

music was the advent of polyphony toward the end of the first millennium of
the Christian Era. It is not known when part singing began. A prototype was
surely the practice of heterophony, common to many ancient and folk cultures.
It is generally believed that different parts singing the same melody in octaves,
in thirds (called gymel or cantus gemellus [ “twin song” ]), and perhaps in
other intervals (most likely fourths and fifths) was practiced in secular song
before it was known in church music. The earliest reference to part singing
is from the eighth century. The known developments in polyphony from the
ninth through the thirteenth centuries took place in church music and were
based on Gregorian chant.

ORGANUM

The term organum (plural organa) is used in various stages of polyphony

from its beginning to about the middle of the thirteenth century.

Parallel The earliest form of polyphony, first clearly described in the late ninth
Organum century, consisted of two voices moving in parallel motion. A Gregorian
chant melody, called vox principalis, was doubled a fourth below by a second
voice, called vox organalis. Either or both voices could also be doubled at
the octave to create three— or four—part music.
At about the same time, a slightly different form of two-part organum
was described. In this the voices begin on a unison, then, while the vox
organalis remained at a stationary pitch level, the vox principalis moved
upward until the interval of a fourth was reached, after which the parts

28
 Early Polyphony 29

proceeded in parallel motion. At a cadence they converged again toward the

unison.

Rex coe - li Do - mi - ne ma - ns UNC =55SON = nT

Example 6.1. Parallel Organum

This practice suggested the possibility of melodic independence in part

writing and led to the next stage in development.

Free Organum In the eleventh century, strict parallel organum was replaced by free
organum in which oblique and contrary motion between the voices was added
to parallel motion, giving the two parts melodic independence. The intervals
were predominantly fourths, fifths, and octaves. The organal voice was
added above the tenor. During this time, the chant came to be called the tenor
(Latin, tenere, to hold). The two parts, moving in note—against—note style,
still lacked rhythmic independence.

Cun - cti po - tens Pega) Dispos etor de - us

Example 6.2. Free Organum

The Latin expression describing this music, punctus contra punctum

(note against note), was the origin of the term counterpoint.

Melismatic In the early twelfth century a new type emerged. It is referred to

Organum variously as melismatic organum, florid organum, St. Martial organum, or
organum purum. A plainsong was assigned to one voice (the tenor) in long
sustained notes, to which was added a higher voice in faster-moving note
values.

@
ie: o=e_? Cd a
=
Cun - - =) cti po - - - tens

Example 6.3. Melismatic Organum

At this stage, polyphonic music thus achieved both melodic and rhythmic
independence.
30 History of Western Music

SOURCES

Theoretical Among a number of treatises dealing with practices of organum, the most
Writings important are (1) an early reference to part singing by Bishop Aldhelm (ca.
640-709); (2) an anonymous treatise entitled Musica Enchiriadis (ca. 900)
and (3) a commentary on it entitled Scholia Enchiriadis, which together
constitute the first clear description of organum; (4) Enchiridion Musices by
Odo de Cluny (ca. 878-942), a theoretical treatise in the first half of the tenth
century; (5) the most important writings of Guido d’Arezzo (ca. 991-ca.
1033) in the first half of the eleventh century; and (6) the writings of the
so-called John Cotton (eleventh to twelfth century), who describes the
contrapuntal techniques attained by the early twelfth century.

Manuscripts The most important manuscripts are the Winchester Troper (eleventh
century), which contains tropes in organum, and the manuscripts of St.
Martial (Limoges, France) and Santiago di Compostela (northwestern
Spain), which contain melismatic organa of the early twelfth century.

Scores and Parallel organum: NAWM 13

Recordings Free organum: NAWM 14; HAM 26
Melismatic organum: NSI 2; HAM 27
 Ars Antiqua

The century and a half from approximately the middle of the twelfth to the
end of the thirteenth centuries is commonly known as the Ars Antiqua (the Old
Art), as it was referred to by musicians in the fourteenth century. It was an
era offurther significant developments in polyphony.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The geographical center of music was Paris. The names of the first truly
important composers became prominent. Polyphony continued to develop
mainly under the auspices of the Church, but independent secular forms of
polyphony appeared as well.

Polyphony Polyphony involved mainly three parts (or “voices”), though two-part
writing continued and four—part writing was introduced. All voices were
generally in the same register (range) so crossing of parts was characteristic.
Imitation, in which a part or parts copied another part’s melody, was rare and
incidental. A greater degree of rhythmic and melodic independence among
parts was evident. Cantus firmi (“firm melodies,” usually borrowed or
derived from Gregorian chant), continued to be the principal basis of con-
struction.

Meter Triple division of notes, called tempus perfectum, dominated secular

monophonic and polyphonic forms. This resulted in metric schemes equiv-
alent to as4 or 3time when transcribed into modern notation.

31
32 History of Western Music
ee a a ppt ec

Rhythmic Rhythmic modes determined the rhythmic patterns of music. The medi-
Modes eval rhythmic modes consist of six patterns of long (— ) and short (U ) units.
According to theorists of the Middle Ages, these modes, labeled with Greek
names, corresponded to patterns of three or six beats.

1. Trochaeus - vu and d

2. Iambus vu- = dJ

3. Dactylus -vu= pi J d

4, Anapaest Uv - = d d at

5.Spondeus — — = ah a:

6. Tribrachys uu vu = d d d

Example 7.1. The Rhythmic Modes

In actual practice only the first three modes were commonly used. There
was some flexibility in the use of modes, for the patterns did not remain
rigidly the same, and even the mode itself sometimes changed during the
course of a melodic line.

Harmony All harmonic intervals were employed. Fourths, fifths, and octaves still
predominated, but dissonant intervals (seconds and sevenths) became prom-
inent and were not restricted by rules of usage as they came to be in the
Renaissance.

Instruments Although instruments were certainly employed, they were not indicated
in the notated music. It is probable that parts or passages without texts were
played instrumentally and that instruments sometimes doubled vocal parts.

GENRES

New genres developed in the Ars Antiqua were Notre Dame organum,
polyphonic conductus, motet, hocket, rota, and rondellus.

Notre Dame Organum, as developed in the Notre Dame School in Paris in the second
Organum half of the twelfth century, evolved from St. Martial (melismatic) organum.
It consisted of sections in melismatic style with both parts sung by solo
voices, alternating with sections of Gregorian chant sung by a choir. The
 Ars Antiqua —-33

new feature of this organum was the appearance of sections in discant style
in which the tenor was in shorter notes. Such a section was called a clausula
(plural clausulae). Clausulae generally corresponded to the parts of Gregor-
ian chant that were themselves melismatic. From the beginning of the
thirteenth century, the melismatic sections of organa were gradually replaced
by ones in discant style. Organa were composed in two-part textures
(erganum duplum), three—part textures (organum triplum), and four—part
textures (organum quadruplum). Correspondingly, the second part was
called the organum duplum, the third the organum triplum, and the fourth the
organum quadruplum. Example 7.2 illustrates a fragment of organum
duplum followed by the beginning of a clausula section on the syllable “Do”
of “Domino.”

|
Sedppd tJ)
Do

Example 7.2. Organum Duplum and Clausula

Polyphonic Polyphonic conductus, not to be confused with the earlier monophonic

Conductus conductus, flourished principally in the first half of the thirteenth century.
Unlike organum, the parts moved together in similar rhythm, and the tenor
part was composed rather than borrowed from Gregorian chant. Although
sacred, the texts were nonliturgical and set mostly in syllabic style.

se es Sees a
Be a ee
Se =e = asf =
Hac in hoc in

Example 7.3. Polyphonic Conductus

Polyphonic conducti were composed in two, three, and four parts.

Conductus style was also employed in secular forms such as ballades and
rondeaux.
34 History of Western Music

Motet During the second half of the thirteenth century, the motet became the
principal polyphonic form, gradually replacing organum and conductus. It
originated in the process of adding words—the French mot means “‘word”—
to the duplum (upper) part of a clausula. This part was also called the
motetus, a term that came to be applied to the entire composition. The
thirteenth-century motet was constructed according to the following steps:
(1) a Gregorian chant was selected for the tenor (lowest) part; (2) it was
modified according to one of the rhythmic modes; and (3) above it were
added two parts (motetus and triplum) in faster-moving notes. These parts
carried different texts, religious or secular or both, in Latin or the vernacular.
Since the tenor part carried no text other than the first word or words (called
the incipit) of the chant melody, it was probably played on an instrument. As
in other medieval polyphony, tempus perfectum was a typical feature, as
were also the occasional clashes of dissonant intervals.

=
Pu-ce-le - te beleet a - ve - nant, Jo-li-e - te, po-lie

aS
SS 2Se

;
Do [mino]
a

Example 7.4. Thirteenth-Century Motet Style

After the mid—thirteenth century a new style of motet came into being,
with more rhythmic differentiation between all voices. The Franconian
motet, named after theorist Franco of Cologne (fl. 1250-1280), placed the
fastest rhythms in the top part. Later in the century, two new motet types
emerged: (1) one with a fast, speechlike triplum, a slower duplum, and a
sustained tenor based on a chant (called a Petronian motet after composer
Petrus de Cruce [fl. ca. 1290]); and (2) one in which all parts moved at
more—or—less the same speed, with a secular tenor melody.

Hocket Hocket (also hoquet or hoketus, meaning “hiccup”) was a device com-
monly found in late thirteenth— and fourteenth-century polyphony. A me-
lodic line was frequently interrupted by rests that alternated between two
voice parts.
 Ars Antiqua 35

eS

Example 7.5. Hocket

Although hocket appears in virtually all music of the Middle Ages, a

composition that used the device extensively was called a hocket.

Rota The rota is a canon or round in which two or more parts carry the same
melody at different times—a form of imitation. Isolated examples of rota
appear in the Ars Antiqua. The most famous rota is “Summer is icumen in,”
which probably dates from about 1250.

Rondellus The rondellus (not the same as rondeau) was a secular form, usually in
three parts, employing the principle of exchange (also, Stimmtausch) in
which three different melodies (a, b, and c) were exchanged among the parts
according to a rotational plan, such as the following:
triplum .a bc
duplum bce a
tenor cab
The parts begin together, rather than consecutively as in the rota.

COMPOSERS

Notre Dame composers Léonin (or Leoninus; ca. 1159-ca. 1201) and
Pérotin (or Perotinus; ca. 1170—-ca. 1236) composed organa, polyphonic
conducti, and motets. Franco of Cologne, author of a late thirteenth—-century
treatise on notation, was also an important composer of motets. Petrus de
Cruce (or Pierre de la Croix) composed motets in the late thirteenth century.
36 History of Western Music

MANUSCRIPTS

Léonin’s Magnus Liber Organi is a collection of two-part melismatic

organa for the entire church year. The most important manuscript is the
Montpellier Codex, which contains medieval compositions, mostly motets.
Other manuscript collections are the Bamberg Codex, containing 108 three—
part motets and Las Huelgas Codex, containing organa, conducti, and some
58 motets.

Scores and Léonin, Organum duplum: NAWM 16b

Recordings Polyphonic conductus: NAWM 1l6c; NAWM 18
Clausula: NAWM 16d
Motet: NAWM l6e, 16f, 16g; NSI3
Pérotin, Organum quadruplum: NAWM 17
Franconian motet: NAWM 20
Petronian motet: NAWM 19
The Fourteenth Century

Musical leadership in the fourteenth century was shared by France, where

the period is commonly called the Ars Nova, and by Italy, where it is called
the Trecento. Important characteristics were held in common. (1) Far more
secular than sacred music was composed. (2) Tempus imperfectum (duple
division of notes) was used more often than tempus perfectum. (3) The
rhythmic modes were abandoned in favor of more complex and diversified
rhythms. (4) Cantus firmus was used less often; more music was freshly
composed without any borrowed material. (5) Melodic and rhythmic interest
tended to center in the top voice. (6) Harmonic thirds and sixths appeared
more frequently. (7) A melodic formula, commonly known as the Landini
cadence, was often used. It consists of the scale—degree pattern 7-6-1 (and
is sometimes called a 7-6-1 cadence). It appears in several different forms
in fourteenth— and early fifteenth-century music.

Example 8.1. Forms of the Landini Cadence

THE ARS NOVA

The Ars Nova in France was an evolutionary extension of the Ars

Antiqua, unlike the Trecento in Italy. Still, forms and techniques were newly
developed that characterized the Ars Nova.

37
38 History of Western Music

Forms The polyphonic motet continued to be written in France, but with

important changes. Equally important were new polyphonic secular forms—
ballade, rondeau, and virelai. These were collectively referred to as the
formes fixes. Continuing the traditions of the trouvéres, monophonic songs
were also composed.
Isorhythmic Motet
The most important fourteenth-century form still based on the cantus
firmus was the isorhythmic (‘same rhythm”) motet, which evolved from a
melding of the thirteenth-century motet and certain compositional tech-
niques imported from the Indian subcontinent. In a typical isorhythmic
motet, (1) a chant (or part of a chant) is selected for the tenor; (2) the chant
melody constitutes the color; (3) the color is repeated until the end of the
piece; (4) the rhythmic pattern, called talea, is composed; (5) it is of much
more extended length than the old rhythmic modes and of a length different
from the color; (5) it, too, is repeated, but since its ending does not coincide
with the ending of the color, a new relationship of talea and color results; (6)
the upper parts are free to use the isorhythmic principle (but based on a newly
composed cantus firmus), or not; (7) the isorhythmic motet continues the
practice of using different texts in the upper parts and passages of hocket.
Ballade
The ballade consisted of several four—line stanzas, each with the same
music. The first two lines were sung to the same music, the third to a new
melody, and the fourth, the refrain, to yet another. The sectional formula is
thus aabC, in which the uppercase letter refers to the music of the text refrain.
Ballades were mostly three—part compositions with melodic and rhythmic
interest in the top voice.
Rondeau
The polyphonic rondeau, not to be confused with the rondellus, derived
from the monophonic trouvére form and followed the same formula
(ABaAabAB). It could be in two, three, or four parts, but was most commonly
in three parts, with a solo vocal line and two lower instrumental parts in
slower—moving rhythms.
Virelai
The virelai, also called chanson balladée in the fourteenth century, was,
like the rondeau, derived from the monophonic trouvére form, but with the
sectional plan AbbaA for each stanza of the poem. Most chansons balladées
were monophonic, but many polyphonic compositions were also written in
this form.

Composers The leading composer of the French Ars Nova was Guillaume de
Machaut (ca. 1300-1377), who was also an eminent poet. His compositions
 The Fourteenth Century 39

include all the French forms of the time, and, typically, he wrote more secular
than sacred music. However, his longest and most celebrated composition
is the Messe de Notre Dame, one of the first complete polyphonic settings of
the Ordinary. In four—part texture, it employs the isorhythmic principle in
all but the Gloria and Credo.
Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), also a poet-composer, is known primar-
ily for his treatise on notation, entitled Ars Nova (ca. 1325), from which the
entire fourteenth-century musical practice in France took its name.

Compositions In addition to the Machaut Mass, other important works of the period are
(1) the Roman de Fauvel, a satirical poem that contains 130 interpolated
compositions of various types including some isorhythmic motets; (2) the
Mass of Tournai (ca. 1300), containing a complete setting of the Ordinary,
but whose sections were probably composed at different times by different
composers; (3) Ars Novae Musicae, a treatise by Jehan des Murs (ca.
1300-ca. 1350); and (4) another treatise, Speculum Musicae (Mirror of
Music), by Jacques de Liege (ca. 1260—ca. 1330), which argued in favor of
the “old art,” against the Ars Nova.

THE TRECENTO

Italian polyphonic music came prominently into the picture for the first
time. The principal distinguishing features were that (1) it did not usually
employ cantus firmus technique; (2) it was rhythmically less complex than
French music; (3) it employed simpler textures; and (4) it introduced a
characteristic florid vocal style.

Forms Three secular forms dominated the Italian Trecento: madrigal, caccia,
and ballata.

Madrigal
The earliest Italian polyphonic form was the madrigal, usually in two
vocal parts. Each stanza, in duple time, concluded with a ritornello section
in triple meter. The texts were idyllic, pastoral, amatory, or satirical.
Caccia
The caccia (“chase” or “hunt’”), which flourished from about 1345 to
1370, was the first musical form to exploit the principle of canon based on
continuous imitation between two or more parts. Two upper parts were sung
40 History of Western Music
ne eairrrsrrirnnnenr pe rarsaser srSanDUnOUESUREERUSEERSE NSE

in strict imitation at the unison and with a long time—interval between the
first and second parts. The third and lowest part was freely composed in
slow-moving notes and was probably played on an instrument. Caccias
usually had a canonic ritornello section at the end. Texts typically described
a hunt or some other outdoor activity.
Ballata
The ballata (not to be confused with the French ballade) originated as a
dance song, and it developed somewhat later than the madrigal and caccia.
Its sectional structure resembled the French virelai, with a refrain called
ripresa sung at the beginning and end of each stanza (AbbaA).

Composers The principal composer of the Trecento was Francesco Landini (or
Landino, ca. 1325-1397). He was a blind organist in Florence who com-
posed over 140 two— and three-part ballate, some ten madrigals, and one
caccia. Other composers were Jacopo da Bologna (fl. 1340-1360),
Gherardello da Firenze (ca. 1320-ca. 1362), and Giovanni da Cascia (also
known as Johannes de Florentia; fl. 1340-1350). Johannes Ciconia (ca.
1335-1411) was French but settled in Italy, where he wrote some of the
liveliest music of the period, combining features of both national styles.

Documents and The Pomerian by Marchetto of Padua is an early fourteenth-century

Manuscripts treatise that first established the acceptance of tempus imperfectum. The
most important manuscript collection is the Squarcialupi Codex, which
contains some 350 compositions, mostly two— and three—part pieces repre-
senting twelve fourteenth— and fifteenth-century composers.

Scores and Ars Nova

Recordings Isorhythmic motet (de Vitry): NAWM 21
Isorhythmic motet (Machaut): NSI5
Ballade (Machaut): NAWM 24
Machaut Mass (Agnus Dei): NAWM 25
Rondeau: NAWM 26
Virelai: HAM 46
Trecento
Ballata (Landini): NAWM 23
Madrigal (Jacopo da Bologna): NAWM 22
Caccia: HAM 52
 Instruments and Dances

Pictorial.and literary sources establish that instruments were widely used

in the Middle Ages. However, little purely instrumental music has been
preserved in notation and there are no composers of instrumental music
known to us by name.

INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES

There were many medieval instruments. Only the principal kinds are
listed here.

Bowed The most important bowed string instruments were vielles, the ancestors
Instruments of the Renaissance viol family. The rebec was a pear-shaped instrument.
The tromba marina of the later Middle Ages was a long, single—string
instrument, or it had two strings tuned in unison.

Plucked The most important instrument in this class was the Jute, which had a
Instruments pear-shaped body and an angled neck. The psaltery, an instrument of the
zither family, had a flat sounding—board.

Wind End-blown flutes were called recorders. The shawm was a double-reed
Instruments instrument, an early ancestor of the oboe. Various types of horns and
trumpets were also in common use.

Organs A small portable organ was called a portative organ, or organetto. A

medium-sized, nonportable organ was the positive organ, important because
it was probably the first organ for which polyphonic music was composed.

41
42 History of Western Music
en
en SS SS ees

In the fourteenth century, still larger organs (up to twenty-five hundred or

more pipes) were built for churches in Europe. The earliest organ music
preserved in notation is in the Robertsbridge Codex (ca. 1325).

Other Keyboard instruments of the harpsichord and clavichord types were not
Keyboard in general use until the fifteenth century.
Instruments

Percussion Drums of various sizes and shapes were used mostly for dance music
Instruments and military purposes. Kettledrums used in pairs were called nakers. The
principal cylindrical drum was the tabor. Various kinds of cymbals and bells
were also employed.

USES OF INSTRUMENTS

Whether a composition was to be performed wholly or partly by instru-

ments was never indicated in a manuscript, nor were specific instruments
named. Medieval practice can be described by the five ways in which
instruments were probably used. (1) Textless parts in polyphonic music were
likely intended to be played by instruments as, for example, in thirteenth—
century motets and fourteenth—century caccias and ballate. (2) Instruments
were used to double one or more vocal parts. (3) They may have been
substituted for voices in one or more parts with texts. (4) Vocal polyphony
was occasionally played entirely by instruments. (5) Music clearly intended
for instrumental performance was mainly dance music and a few instrumen-
tal motets and conducti.

DANCE FORMS OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Almost all of the relatively few dances preserved are notated monophon-
ically. Folk and court dance music was mostly improvised or played from
memory. The estampie (also estampida, istanpitta, stampita) was the prin-
cipal thirteenth-century dance form, usually in triple time, and with repeated
 Instruments and Dances 43

sections corresponding to repeated dance patterns. Other dances were the

danse royale and the fourteenth-century Italian saltarello. A dance in three
or four sections was called ductia. A concluding section of a dance piece,
with change of meter, was variously called rotta, rotte, or rota—terms that
were also used to designate a canonic form and an instrument.

Scores and Estampie: NAWM, 12; HAM 40

Recordings Danse Royale: HAM 40a and 40b
Ductia: HAM 41a and 41b
Saltarello: NSI 6; HAM 59b
Organ estampie: HAM 58
 a day
: s vings
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PRY« ry 5
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A Gtr
PART THREE
THE RENAISSANCE
(1400-1600)
10
Introduction to the
Renaissance

1417 Single papacy restored to Rome

1450 Gutenberg perfects printing from movable type
1453 End of Hundred Years’ War
1475 Tinctoris’s Terminorum Musicae Diffinitorium
1477 Demise of the duchies of Burgundy
1492 Columbus’s voyage to the West Indies
1496 Practica musice by Franchinus Gaffurius
1497 Death of Ockeghem and Josquin’s composition of “Déploration sur le trépas
de Jean Ockeghem”’
1501 Petrucci first prints polyphonic music (Harmonice musices odhecaton A)
1503 Josquin commands high salary as maestro di cappella at Ferrara
1508 Intabulatura di lauto by Joan Ambrosio
1511 Sebastian Virdung’s Musica getutscht und ausgezogen (A Summary of Music
in Germany)
1517 Martin Luther’s Ninety—Five Theses nailed to the Wittenberg Cathedral door
1524 First publication of Lutheran chorales
1536 Luis de Mildn: Libro de musica de vihuela de mano intitulado El Maestro
1539 Arcadelt’s first book of madrigals published
1545-1563 Council of Trent
ca. 1549 First publication of Sternhold and Hopkins’s Psalter
1558 Gioseffo Zarlino’s Le Istituzioni harmoniche (The Art of Counterpoint)

47
48 History of Western Music

1559 Adrian Willaert: Musica nova

1567 Palestrina’s Missa Papae Marcelli published
1575 Byrd-Tallis: Cantiones sacrae
1592 Anthology of Italian madrigals, // trionfo di Dori
1601 Thomas Morley’s collection of madrigals, The Triumphes of Oriana
ca. 1609 Fitzwilliam Virginal Book copied by Francis Tregian

Avjeer a century in which the supreme authority of the Church was under-
mined by political intrigue, petty jealousies, and cataclysmic disasters, the
fifteenth century sought to build a stable world upon human achievement. The
scholars and writers of the period spoke of a philosophy of humanism, which
elevated the rank of the individual. They sought to learn more about the
culture of ancient Greece, where reason and free inquiry, not just faith, had
prevailed. They also pondered the emotional power of music manifested in
Plato’s doctrine of ethos, turned to their music, and believed it by comparison
to be cold and unnecessarily intricate. Efforts to rekindle music’s power over
human emotions led to a period of sensuous, deeply felt music making. A
paradox was implicit in this movement, though, for on the one hand the subject
matter of this mostly vocal music was generally religious, while on the other
it celebrated the human ability to create. The Renaissance was an era of two
worlds—the sacred and the secular—that came to complement each other:
the shining individual in a bright world created by God.
This creative paradox was evident even in the patronage system that
supported musicians and music making. After the dissolution of papal
authority in the fourteenth century, the courts filled the void and hired the
musicians who were expected to provide music both for both religious edifica-
tion and courtly entertainment. A result of courtly patronage was that the most
sought-after composers, who were from the Franco—Flemish area, spread all
over Europe and produced something like an international musical style. Only
toward the end of the period was it possible to identify musics with distinct
regional and national characteristics.
Franco-Flemish composers continued the development of large-scale
vocal music structures, primarily the mass. This was achieved by balancing
sections of imitative counterpoint and homophony within a cantus firmus
framework. The technique of imitative counterpoint may be the single most
important development of the period. The resulting texture, more than any
other musical quality, characterizes the music of the Renaissance. Homo-
phony, designed initially to contrast and complement imitative counterpoint,
received its fullest development after the Renaissance. Early— and middle-—
Renaissance compositions are tightly knit, with no musical gesture out of
 Introduction to the Renaissance 49

place. What might seem initially calm and quiet is in fact filled with details
of great sensitivity. The music is flexible, but it has tremendous potential for
quiet, intensive expression. Only toward the end of the period did music
incorporate distortion and highly charged emotions.
Humanist regard for scientific inquiry led to momentous technological
breakthroughs and improvements. Among them was the most important
invention of the period—movable type—which directly affected the dissemi-
nation of music, its audience, and its creation. With the first polyphonic music
publication in 1501, notated music was suddenly widely available to those of
moderate wealth—generally the enterprising bourgeois classes of the new
Europe. They wanted to buy music meaningful to them, on their own terms.
Hence, music became more secular. New technologies also led to im-
provements in instrument making. As a result, for the first time in Western
music, composers wrote idiomatic instrumental music, including works for
keyboard instruments. Instrumental ensembles were formed. Most im-
portantly, instrumental music implicitly questioned the basis for almost all
music making of the previous several centuries: the relationship between
word and sound. As such, its development is one of the most powerful portents
of the vast changes that lay ahead.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Y The fifteenth century saw medieval feudalism replaced by urban culture.

+ Humanism became firmly established. Important historical events were the
English victory at Agincourt (1415), the fall of Constantinople (1453), the
close of the Hundred Years’ War (1453), and Columbus’s discovery of the
New World (1492). The invention of movable type was ultimately to have
a profound effect on the dissemination of ideas. Ghiberti, Donatello,
Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Van Eyck, and Raphael created great paintings,
frescoes, and sculpture.
Humanism became even more firmly entrenched in the philosophy of
the sixteenth century. Religiously, the period was dominated by the Protes-
» tant Reformation and the Catholic Counterreformation. Each followed from
the deliberations of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The century’s polit-
ical landscape was determined by a unusual number of strong—willed mon-
archs: Charles V and Philip II of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis I of
France, and Henry VIII and Elizabeth I of England. The defeat of the Spanish
Armada in 1588 shifted power toward England. It was a period of explora-
50 History of Western Music

tion and included excursions by Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh,
Cortez, Magellan, De Soto, and Balboa. Important names in Italian and
Germanic art include Leonardo da Vinci in the early sixteenth century,
Cellini, Michelangelo, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Diirer, Griinwald, and
Holbein. In science, Copernicus and Galileo are the most famous names.
Literature is represented by the Dutch theologian and humanist Erasmus; by
Machiavelli in Italy; Rabelais, Montaigne, and Ronsard in France; Cervantes
in Spain; and Shakespeare, Spenser, and Bacon in England.
 The Fifteenth Century

The fifteenth century witnessed the final transition from the Middle Ages
to the Renaissance, an evolution reflected generally in the arts, literature, and
philosophy. The centers of musical activity shifted from central France and
Italy to England, northern France, and the Franco—Flemish region.

ENGLISH AND BURGUNDIAN MUSIC

English composers first developed a style that broke with medieval

manners of stylistic expression. Their influence was felt by musicians at the
Burgundian courts, who enjoyed the munificent patronage of the dukes Philip
the Good (1396-1467) and Charles the Bold (1433-1477).

Musical One can make observations about the period’s musical characteristics.
Characteristics (1) There was a preponderance of three-part composition in the early
fifteenth century. (2) Melodic and rhythmic interest was characteristically
in the top part. (3) Many of the compositions were essentially solo songs
with textless (instrumental) parts below. (4) There was a marked trend
toward a homophonic texture (also called chordal style or familiar style),
with a topmost melody supported by chordal harmonies. (5) Melodic pro-
gression was characterized by numerous thirds (see Example 11.1). (6)
Triple meter was more commonly employed than in the fourteenth century.
(7) Passages of parallel sixth chords (first—inversion triads), called discant
in England and fauxbourdon on the Continent, were typical, as illustrated in
Example 11.2. (8) Cantus firmi were less frequently employed than in
Franco—Flemish music after 1450. (9) Imitation was infrequently used.
(10) The Landini cadence (7—6—1 cadence) was still quite common.

51
52 History of Western Music

Example 11.2. Discant or Fauxbourdon

Genres The genres found in the first half of the fifteenth century. were essentially
those of the late Middle Ages, but new styles and techniques evolved.
Mass
Polyphonic settings of the Ordinary of the mass became a standard
_ liturgical form. Composers sometimes employed Gregorian chant tenor
parts, and they also began to use secular tunes as cantus firmi.
Motet
The isorhythmic motet was still used occasionally, but it was gradually
replaced by styles emphasizing the top voice, or else a homophonic texture
that included fauxbourdon.
Carol
A popular fifteenth—-century form in England was the two-part carol. It
was sung to a religious poem of numerous stanzas with the same music, and
a refrain called a burden.
Secular Polyphony
The main type of polyphonic secular music during the entire fifteenth
century was the chanson, which was a general term referring to compositions
that used secular French texts. Most chansons were like solo songs, with the
principal melody in the top part. The most common sectional structure was
that of the rondeau (ABaAabAB).

Composers The principal English composer of the first half of the fifteenth century
was John Dunstable (ca. 1390-1453). Others were Leonel Power (d. 1445),
 The Fifteenth Century 53

John Cooke (fl. 1419), and Thomas Damett (ca. 1389-ca. 1436). The
continental composers of the Burgundian school were Guillaume pea (ca.
1400-1474) and Gilles Binchois (ca. 1400-1460).

FRANCO-FLEMISH MUSIC

Although Burgundian composers continued their creative activities well

4 past the middle of the century, the Franco—Flemish (also, Netherlands, Low
Countries, or Flanders) school came to the fore in the late fifteenth century.
Its techniques spread throughout Europe, establishing a style that later
dominated sixteenth—-century music.

Musical (1) Four—voice writing became more common from the middle of the
Characteristics century. To the tenor, heretofore the lowest part, now was added a lower
part. Thus, the conventional designation of parts, from top to bottom, was
cantus or superius, altus, tenor, and bassus. (2) There was more stylistic
equality among parts, creating a balanced polyphony. (3) Imitation played
a more prominent role than ever before. (4) New types of canons were
created. (5) Fauxbourdon and Landini cadences disappeared. (6) Pairing of
voices in alternating passages, called duet style or, simply, voice pairing, was
acommon procedure. (7) Alternating passages of homophony and rhythmi-
cally diversified polyphony were typical. (8) Authentic (V — I) and plagal +
(IV — I) cadences became more common than modal cadences. (9) Great
attention was paid to representing the normal speech patterns of the text, or
to accurate declamation of the text. (10) In general, composers of the late
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries initiated a more expressive style,
which they called musica reservata, that was intended to reflect as power-
fully as possible the nuances of text.

Genres Franco—Flemish composers developed new techniques rather than new

genres.
yo Canon
Canonic form, exploited in the fourteenth-century caccia but abandoned
in the early fifteenth century, became important again in the late fifteenth
century. In addition to canons at various pitch and time intervals, new
imitative devices appeared: (1) augmentation (an increase of the time values
of the notes in the imitating voice); (2) diminution (a decrease of the time
values); (3) inversion (imitation of ascending intervals by descending inter-
54 History of Western Music

vals and vice versa); (4) retrograde motion (backward motion of the imitating
voice, called cancrizans or crab canon); (5) mensuration canons (the same
melody carried by several voices at different rates of speed); (6) double
canons (in four parts with two different melodies, each canonically imitated);
and (7) combinations of these techniques. Canons were employed mainly in
settings of the mass and in some motets.
Mass
In addition to a canonic setting of the mass, called prolation mass,
another type was the cantus firmus mass or cyclical mass, in which the same
melody was used for each successive section of the Ordinary. The cantus
firmus was usually a Gregorian chant, but secular tunes were also employed,
the most popular of which was “L’ Homme Armé,” used by composers from
Dufay to the end of the sixteenth century. Masses were usually given the
title of the cantus firmus (for example, Missa L’ Homme Armé or Missa Salve
Regina). Some masses were based on newly composed cantus firmi. Masses
not based on a cantus firmus were called Missa Sine Nomine. Still another
procedure, called soggetto cavato, was the derived construction of a theme
from the vowels of a name or phrase.
Motet

Motets were composed for the Proper of the mass and some of the
Offices. Cantus firmi were used less often in motets than in polyphonic
settings of the Ordinary. Franco—Flemish motets often included sections in
homophonic style, in duet style, in imitative style, and in free nonimitative
counterpoint. Changes from one style to another corresponded to divisions
of the text.
Secular Music
The chanson continued to be the principal type of secular music. It
became less sectionalized, as it had been in the earlier rondeaux and virelais,
and had a more cohesive structure. Monophonic and polyphonic secular
songs, in Germany called Lieder (singular Lied), flourished from the late
fifteenth century to the end of the sixteenth century.

Composers The principal Franco—Flemish composers of the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries were Antoine Busnois (ca. 1430-1492), Johannes
Ockeghem (ca. 1410-1497), Jacob Obrecht (ca. 1450-1505), Heinrich Isaac
(ca. 1450-1517), Pierre de la Rue (ca. 1460-1518), Alexander Agricola
(1446-1506), Loyset Compére (ca. 1445-1518), and Josquin Desprez (ca.
1440-1521), acknowledged by his own time to be the greatest of them all.
 The Fifteenth Century 55

MANUSCRIPTS AND DOCUMENTS

Many important collections belong to the fifteenth and early sixteenth

centuries. The Old Hall Manuscript contains masses and motets by English
composers. The Trent Codices contain 1,585 compositions in six volumes
by some seventy-five composers of the fifteenth century. The first collection
of motets for the entire church year, by Isaac, is the Choralis Constantinus
(early sixteenth century). The first printed polyphonic music, the
Odhecaton, published in Venice by Ottaviano dei Petrucci (1466-1539) in
1501, contains late fifteenth-century polyphonic chansons. The first diction-
ary of musical terms, Terminorum Musicae Diffinitorium (ca. 1475), was
compiled by Johannes Tinctoris (ca. 1435-1511), a noted theorist, composer,
and commentator on the music of his time. Important collections of German
monophonic and polyphonic secular music are Liederbticher (song books)
of Lochamer, Munich, and Glogauer.

Scores and English

Recordings Motet: NAWM 29
Mass: HAM 63
Secular music: HAM 85 and 86
Burgundian
Motet: NAWM 30; NAWM 31; NSI 7
Mass: NAWM 39
Chanson: NAWM 45 and 46
Franco—Flemish
Motet: NAWM 32; NAWM 33
Mass: NAWM 40; NAWM 41; NSI 10
Chanson: NAWM 48; NAWM 49; NSI9
 The Sixteenth Century

The sixteenth century was an era of great achievements in all the human-
ities. In music, vocal polyphony reached a pinnacle of expressiveness that
stands among the highest in the history of Western music. Among the most
important musical developments were the following. (1) Although Franco—
Flemish techniques continued to dominate both sacred and secular music
throughout Europe, other national schools emerged over the course of the
century. (2) The technique of vocal polyphony was highly developed. (3)
4 Vocal style was dominant, but the beginning of an independent instrumental
style was evident. (4) Religious music was still dominated by the Roman
Church, but Protestant music, principally in Germany, France, and England,
began a development that culminated with the end of the Baroque. (5) Secular
music rose to a new eminence under the patronage of the nobility. (6)
Modality still influenced both sacred and secular music, but the trend was
strongly toward major and minor tonalities. (7) Triadic, chordal structures
came to permeate sixteenth—century music. (8) Textures varied from homo-
phonic to contrapuntal and were generally characterized by balanced poly-
Phony with equality of parts.

ROMAN CATHOLIC MUSIC

Forms and styles of liturgical music, founded by the Franco—Flemish

composers in the early sixteenth century, had a continuous and widespread
development throughout the century.

Musical (1) Equality of voice parts was the characteristic texture. (2) The number
Characteristics of parts ranged from three to eight or more, but five—part texture was the

56
 The Sixteenth Century 57

most common. (3) The texture sounds full because triads gave the music a
rich harmonic sonority (or, overall blend of sound). (4) As in the fifteenth
‘century, homophony often alternated with contrapuntal sections. (5) Treat-
ment of dissonant intervals was strict, and confined to the following devices:
passing tones, neighboring tones, anticipations, suspensions, and cambiatas
(see Example 12.1). The dissonant intervals were seconds and sevenths
between any two voices, and fourths between the lowest—sounding voice and
any other. Passing tones, neighboring tones, anticipations, and the dissonant
tone in cambiatas always appeared in rhythmically weak positions; the
dissonance of a suspension always appeared on a strong beat. (6) Although
instruments were undoubtedly used in performance, the music was written a
cappella with no instruments indicated. (7) The music was mostly diatonic,
but chromaticism began to appear late in the century. (8) Latin continued to
be the language of the Roman Catholic Church, but vernacular languages'¥
were occasionally used outside Italy.

pee
lag ee ne
SSS ea
passing tones neighboring tones anticipation

: ai
f =2- re)

suspensions cambiata

Example 12.1. Treatment of Dissonance

Genres Masses and motets dominated religious music. Some nonliturgical reli-
gious forms also belong to the period.
Mass
Cantus firmus masses on Gregorian chants and secular melodies and sine
nomine masses were the principal types. Another form, which appeared in
the late fifteenth century, was the parody mass (or imitation mass). In this
form, part of a preexistent motet or a secular chanson was musically altered
to fit the liturgical text. Composers borrowed from their own or another’s
compositions. Complete canonic masses were less common after the early
sixteenth century.
Motet
Motet construction did not change appreciably from that employed by
the Franco—Flemish composers early in the century. In imitative motets each
successive phrase or line of text introduced a new musical motive that was
then imitated in other voices, permeating the texture. These points of
58 History of Western Music
Hise RONEN, ote SeAct ES WGI es ee ee

imitation overlapped in such a way that a new text phrase (with anew musical
motive) was heard while the preceding phrase and motive was still develop-
ing, giving an on—flowing motion and continuity to the music. This proce- |.
dure is illustrated in Example 12.2, an excerpt from the motet Ave Maria by *
Josquin Desprez (ca. 1440-1521). One line of text ends with the word
“mulieribus,” and the next line begins with ‘et benedictus” accompanied by
a new theme introduced in the bass and imitated in successive voices.

Example 12.2. Overlapping Points of Imitation

Example 12.3, an excerpt from the beginning of a motet by Jacob Handl

(1550-1591), illustrates a typical shift from strict homophony on the words
“Ecce quo modo moritur,” to a cadential measure of rhythmically indepen-
dent counterpoint on the syllable “ju” of “justus,” and back to homophony
at the conclusion of the cadence.

Ec quo mo-do - i - tur - - stus,

sai
- quo
Sac
mo-do - ri - tur if - r cs - stus,

ee
sce quo mo-do ri - tur jus - - stus,

See
ce quo
ae ee
mo-do - stus,

Example 12.3. Change of Texture

Nonliturgical Genres
Religious songs of praise, called /Jaude, were given simple homophonic
settings. The texts were sometimes in Latin, other times in Italian.

Schools and Despite the continued influence of Franco—Flemish composers, there

Composers were important regional schools of Catholic liturgical music.
 The Sixteenth Century 59

Franco—Flemish School
Franco—Flemish composers continued to hold important musical posts
throughout Europe. Among these the best-known were Orlande de Lassus-*
(1532-1594), Philippe de Monte (1521-1603), and Clemens non Papa (ca.
1510-ca. 1555).
Roman School
At the head of Catholic music in Rome stands Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina (ca. 1525—1594) whose name is traditionally synonymous with the
perfection of sacred polyphony. His successors were Marc Antonio
Ingegneri (ca. 1547-1592), Felice Anerio (ca. 1560-1614), and Giovanni
Nanino (ca. 1550-1623).
Spanish School
Cristobal Morales (ca. 1500-1553) and Tomas Luis de Victoria (ca.
1548-1611) were the principal Spanish composers. Their music is passion-
ate, with an intense religious fervor about it, and a characteristically stark
quality.
Venetian School
The most notable feature of the music by composers at the Church of
San Marco in Venice was the use of impressive antiphonal effects produced
by split choirs (cori spezzati). Adrian Willaert (ca. 1490-1562), a Flemish—
born musician, was the founder of the Venetian school. Late Renaissance
music, foreshadowing Baroque style, was composed by Andrea Gabrieli (ca.
1510-1586) and his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612).
English School
An extensive literature of Catholic masses and motets was created by
English composers, most of whom also wrote Protestant and secular music.
The leading name among these is William Byrd (ca. 1543-1623). Earlier
composers were John Taverner (ca. 1490-1545), Christopher Tye (ca. 1505—
1572), Robert White (ca. 1538-1574), and Thomas Tallis (ca. 1505-1585).
German School
Catholic Church music did not flourish in Germany, mainly because of
the Protestant Reformation. Nevertheless, there were several illustrious
German composers who contributed substantially to Catholic literature:
Ludwig Senfl (ca. 1486—ca.1543), Jacob Handl, and Hans Leo Hassler
(1562-1612), a product of the Venetian school, who wrote polychoral music.
60 History of Western Music

REFORMATION MUSIC

Perhaps the most cataclysmic event in the history of the Christian Church
was the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century. Although church
music was dominated by Roman Catholicism during the century, Protestant-
ism also stimulated musical creativity.

Germany The Reformation movement dates from Martin Luther’s Ninety—Five x

Theses in 1517, and subsequent political and theological attacks on the
Roman Church. A musician of some stature, Luther believed strongly in the
value of music in worship and thought that the congregation should partici-
pate in the service, including hymn singing.
Chorale
The most important musical contribution of the Lutheran Reformation x
was anew type of religious song called chorale. These hymns were intended
primarily for congregational singing. There were four sources of chorale
tunes: (1) the body of Gregorian chant modified by metrical settings, (2)
preexisting tunes, usually secular, (3) nonliturgical German religious songs
existing before the Reformation, and (4) newly composed hymns. The first
two of these substituted new German religious texts for the original ones, a
process known as contrafactum.
Chorales were monophonic at first, then they were set in simple four—part
harmony with the chorale melody uppermost, and finally, they were used in
more elaborate contrapuntal settings for performance by chorus. Contrapun-
tal arrangements of chorales played on the organ, usually preliminary to
congregational singing, were called chorale preludes.
Composers
The principal composers of Lutheran chorales and polyphonic settings
were Sixt Dietrich (ca. 1493-1548), Johann Walter (1496-1570), who was
Luther’s musical collaborator, Johannes Eccard (1553-1611), Hans Leo
Hassler, and Michael Praetorius (ca. 1571-1621).

France Music played a less significant role in Protestant movements in Switzer-

land under Zwingli and in France under Calvin, neither of whom was
favorably disposed toward music in worship. The Huguenot movement,
however, produced an important literature of psalms set to music.
Psalms
Biblical psalms were translated into French verse by Clément Marot (ca.
1496-1544) and Théodore de Beze (1519-1605), and set to melodies by Loys
Bourgeois (ca. 1510—ca. 1560). They were intended for unison singing by
 The Sixteenth Century 61

the congregation and for use in the home. Also, four—part harmonizations
as well as more elaborate contrapuntal arrangements were made.
Composers
The principal composers of Psalter music were Loys Bourgeois, Claude
Goudimel (ca. 1505-1572), Claude Le Jeune (ca. 1528-1600), and, in
Holland, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621).

England * Henry VIII officially broke with the Roman Church in 1534, which led
to the establishment of the Anglican Church.
Genres
The English counterpart of the Catholic mass was called thet
Service, the
texts of which were set polyphonically. Anglican chant was derived mostly ~
from Catholi¢ chant. English texts were substituted for Latin, and the
melodies were given metrical organization. In addition to Services, there
were two Protestant forms of polyphony: (1) the cathedral anthem (or full
anthem), which was like the Catholic motet but with English text, and (2) a
later form, the’verse anthem, in which solo and choral sections alternated,
and organ or string accompaniments were used.
Psalm singing was commonly practiced in England, too. The most
important Psalter in England was by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins
(first published ca. 1549). The 1612 Psalter by Henry Ainsworth (1570-a.
1622) was the one brought to the New World by the Pilgrims in 1620.
Composers
The principal composers of Anglican music were Christopher Tye,
Thomas Tallis, and William Byrd, all of whom also wrote Catholic music,
and Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625), who composed both types of Protestant
anthems.

SECULAR MUSIC

The current of Renaissance secular polyphonic music, which began in

the fifteenth céntury, continued its course into wider geographical areas. It
became more diversified in form and style in an ever—expanding literature
that flowed without interruption well into the seventeenth century.

Musical (1) As in the fourteenth century, secular music again rivaled sacred
Characteristics music, largely because of the widespread Renaissance spirit of humanism
62 History of Western Music

“put also because the writing of nonreligious poetry was flourishing. (2) The
rise of national schools was even more pronounced in secular than in sacred
music, although the influence of Franco—Flemish composers was still strong.
(3) Secular music thrived in all European courts under the patronage of
nobility. (4) It should be remembered that Renaissance secular music was
intended as entertainment for amateur performers rather than as concert
music. (5) It was composed and performed as chamber music for a few
participants rather than for large choral ensembles.

Italian Music Secular music, which dominated the Trecento, was not again significant
in Italy until the sixteenth century, when Italian forms and styles influenced
those of other countries.
Genres
In the late fifteenth century, popular vocal forms, referred to collectively
as vocal canzoni, included the frottola in northern Italy, the villanella in
southern Italy, canti carnascialeschi (carnival songs), and strambotti. These
uncomplicated forms were usually in four parts, strongly metrical, with
dancelike rhythms, and predominantly homophonic. They were the forerun-
&——ners
-Y’ of the sixteenth—century /talian madrigal (unrelated to.the fourteenth—
century madrigal). As the Italian madrigal developed during the sixteenth
century and into the seventeenth century, it became more stylized, more
contrapuntally elaborate, with more exaggerated emotional content. The use
of musical devices suggesting representation of words or ideas in the text,
called madrigalisms, was characteristic. Some late Renaissance madrigals
exploited striking chromatic effects in homophonic passages.
A special class of madrigals called madrigali spirituali were nonliturgi-
cal compositions based on religious texts.
Astyle of madrigal called balletto was developed briefly in the latter part
of the century. It featured dancelike rhythms and contained refrains consist-
ing of nonsense syllables such as ‘“‘fa—la—la.”
A few madrigal cycles called madrigal comedies were composed at the
end of the century. They were groups of madrigals based on pastoral
subjects, loose plots, or humorous dialogues. L’Amfiparnasso, by Orfeo
Vecchi (ca. 1550-ca. 1604), is the most famous of these. J/ trionfo di Dori
is an important collection of madrigals by different composers.
Composers
Composers of canzoni and madrigals in the first half of the century were
Philippe Verdelot (ca. 1475-ca. 1552), Costanzo Festa (ca. 1490-1545),
Adrian Willaert (ca. 1490-1562), and Jacques Arcadelt (ca. 1505-1568).
Late sixteenth— and early seventeenth-century composers were Cipriano de
Rore (1515-1565), Orlande de Lassus, Philippe de Monte, Giaches de Wert
(1535-1596), Luca Marenzio (ca. 1553-1599), Giovanni Gastoldi (ca. 1555—
 The Sixteenth Century 63

1622), and Baldassare Donato (ca. 1525-1603), noted for balletti; Don Carlo
Gesualdo (ca. 1561-1613), famous for chromatic madrigals; and Claudio
Monteverdi (1567-1643), whose madrigals represent the culmination of that
form.

French Music Although French secular music was somewhat influenced by Italian
models, it retained a distinctly Gallic flavor.

Genres

The polyphonic chanson, first developed by Franco—Flemish composers,

and the solo chanson with contrapuntal accompaniment continued in favor.
Some chansons were homophonic; others employed elegant counterpoint
with imitation, The chanson rimée had regular metric rhythms. The chanson
mesurée, a late sixteenth-century type, employed rhythms in which stressed
syllables were given twice the note values of unstressed syllables, resulting
in frequently shifting meters. A characteristic of many chansons, especially
those using imitative counterpoint, was a repeated—note motive at the begin-
ning of the initial theme (see Example 13.2).
Composers
Principal names are Clément Janequin (ca. 1485-1558), noted for his
descriptive chansons, Nicholas Gombert (ca. 1495—ca. 1560), Claudin de
Sermisy (ca. 1490-1562), Pierre Certon (d. 1572), Claude Le Jeune, Thomas
Crécquillon (ca. 1490-1557), Orlande de Lassus, Claude Goudimel
(1514/20-1572), Guillaume Costeley (ca. 1530-1606), and Jacques Mauduit
(1557-1627).

English Music Secular music in England flourished somewhat later than on the Conti-
nent and continued to develop until nearly the middle of the seventeenth
century.
Genres
“The English madrigal received its initial impetus from Italy when a
collection of Italian madrigals with English translations was published in
1588 in London. English madrigals usually employed a five—voice texture
set to texts on pastoral and amorous subjects. Like French chansons they
were mostly in a light and gay style. They employed madrigalisms, as in
Italian madrigals.
A strophic form of madrigal called ballett, derived from the Italian
balletto, contained “‘fa—la—la” refrains in lively contrapuntal style after each
homophonic stanza.
The terms canzonet and ayre, which appear among English madrigal
compositions, do not constitute types clearly distinct from the madrigal
proper. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the /ute ayre
64 History of Western Music

was much in vogue; it was a solo song with a contrapuntal lute accompani-
ment.
YC The most famous collection of English madrigals, entitled The Triumphs
of Oriana, was patterned after the Italian // Trionfo di Dori. Each madrigal
concludes with the words “Long live fair Oriana,” a reference to Queen
Elizabeth I, to whom the collection was dedicated. It represents the peak of
English madrigal composition by the most illustrious composers of the
period.
Composers
The English madrigal school is represented by these composers: Thomas
é Morley (ca. 1557-1602), who wrote madrigals, canzonets, and balletts,
William Byrd, John Wilbye (1574-1638), Thomas Weelkes (1576-1623),
John Ward (1571-1638), John Bennet (fl. 1599-1614), Thomas Bateson (ca.
1570-1630), and Orlando Gibbons. Composers of lute ayres were Francis
Pilkington (ca. 1570-1638); Thomas Campion (1567-1620), and the most
important of all, John Dowland (1563-1626).

German Music German secular music in the sixteenth century was influenced by
Franco—Flemish and Italian composers.
Genres
The polyphonic lied was the central type. For the most part, it was a
four—voice texture with imitative counterpoint. Popular songs were often
the melodic basis. Another popular form in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries was the quodlibet, in which several different popular tunes and their
texts were humorously and incongruously combined in a contrapuntal man-
ner.
Composers
The composers of polyphonic lieder in the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries were Adam von Fulda (ca. 1445-1505), Heinrich Finck
(ca. 1444-1527), Heinrich Isaac (ca. 1450-1517), Paul Hofhaimer (1459~—
1537), and Ludwig Senfl. In the latter part of the sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries, the composers were Orlande de Lassus, Johannes
Eccard, Hans Leo Hassler, and Melchior Franck (ca. 1579-1639),

Spanish Music Little is known about indigenous Spanish secular music before the late
fifteenth century. Burgundian and Franco—Flemish composers were proba-
bly well known in Spain.
Genres

The principal Spanish form was the villancico, the counterpart of the
Italian frottola. It was a four—part composition, predominantly homophonic,
with a regular metric construction. It was based on a three—stanza poem,
 The Sixteenth Century 65

musically structured according to the formula ABBA in which the first stanza
(A), called estrihillo, was followed by the second stanza in two couplets to
the same music (B), called copla or mudanza, and the concluding last stanza,
called vuelta, was sung to the same music as the first stanza. Villancicos
may have been performed as solo songs with instruments playing the lower
parts. The earliest literature of solo songs with vihuela (Spanish lute)
accompaniments flourished in Spain during the sixteenth century.
Composers
The principal composer of villancicos was Juan del Encina (1468-a.
1529). Some of his music is contained in a collection entitled Cancionero
del Palacio. The leading composer of Spanish lute songs was Luis de Milan
(ca. 1500-ca. 1561).

TREATISES

Among important treatises dealing with the theory and practice of music,
the most important are Practica musicae by Franchinus Gaffurius (1451-—
1522); Musica getutscht by Sebastian Virdung (b. ca. 1465), a treatise dealing
mainly with instruments but important also because it discusses methods of
transcribing vocal music to instrumental media; Dodecachordon by the
Swiss theorist Henricus Glareanus (1488-1563), who, dealing with the
subject of scales and modes, recommended the Ionian and Aeolian modes,
thus reflecting the current trend toward major and minor tonalities; Le
Istituzioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino (1517—1590); and Morley’s A
Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke, which addresses a
number of subjects relating to compositional techniques and performance.
66 History of Western Music

Scores and Catholic Music

Recordings Mass: NAWM 42, 43, and 44; NSI 12
Motet: NAWM 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38; NSI 14
Reformation Music
Psalms: HAM 126 and 132
Cathedral Anthem: HAM 169 and 171
Verse Anthem: HAM 151 and 172
Secular Music
Italian Madrigal: NAWM 56, 57, 58, 59, and 60; NSI 15
Frottolas NAWM 56
Canto Carnascialesco: NAWM 51
Balletto (Italian): HAM 158
Chanson: NAWM 53 and 54; NSI 13
English Madrigal: NAWM 61; NSI 17
Bailett (English): HAM 159, 170
Lute Ayre: HAM 162 and 163b
Polyphonic Lied: NAWM 52
Quodlibet: HAM 80
Villancico: HAM 97 and 98
Spanish Lute Song: HAM 123
 Instrumental Music

Athough instrumental music in the Renaissance never matched the quantity

or quality of vocal music, it is important because it reveals the rise of interest
in instrumental media and the first realization of an independent instrumental
idiom. Among important characteristics of this music’s development are the
following. (1) With a few notable exceptions, instrumental music generally
stayed within the limits defined by vocal idioms. (2) Improvisation played an aS
important role in performance, especially in melodic ornamentation. (3) As
in the Middle Ages, instruments were freely employed in the performance of
vocal music, though they were not often specified. They were used to double x
or replace voice parts, and vocal compositions were even performed entirely
by instruments. (4) Published transcriptions of vocal music for instrumental
performance were numerous. (5) Some instrumental genres were directly
derived from vocal ones; others were instrumentally conceived.
Where a distinctly instrumental style occurs in Renaissance music it is
manifested in these ways: (1) rapid and long scale passages; (2) numerous
wide skips; (3) melodic range wider than vocal limitations; (4) in lute and
keyboard music, contrapuntal parts freely added or dropped out without rests
indicated; (5) extensive ornamentation (coloration, embellishment, and figu-
ration); and (6) a much freer treatment of dissonance. Most of these charac-
teristics are illustrated in Example 13.1, an excerpt froma keyboard piece.

Example 13.1. Instrumental Style

67
68 History of Western Music

INSTRUMENTS OF THE RENAISSANCE

There was a steady improvement in instrument—building technology

during the Renaissance. The instruments in most common use fall mainly
into three categories: strings, winds, and keyboard instruments. String and
wind instruments were manufactured in families consisting of instruments
ranging in size from the highest to lowest registers.

Bowed Strings Renaissance viols, ancestors of the seventeenth—century violin family,

were fretted instruments with six strings tuned in fourths with a third in the
middle (Ad gbe’a’). They were used in various ensembles called consorts,
consisting entirely of viols, or mixed consorts, with recorders and other
instruments.

Plucked Strings The lute was the most popular solo instrument. It had a pear-shaped
body and an angled neck. Lutes were fretted instruments with six strings
tuned, like viols, in fourths with a third in the middle (G c fad’ g’). Lute
music was written in a special kind of notation called tablature, which
indicated the string and fret for a given note. Lutes were used as solo
instruments, accompanying instruments, and in some ensemble music.
In Spain, the guitarlike vihuela was the principal plucked stringed
instrument.

Wind The most important Renaissance wind instrument was the recorder, an
Instruments end—blown wooden flute. Recorders, made in all sizes from treble to bass,
were used in various kinds of ensemble music. The shawm and krummhorn
were double—reed woodwinds. Cornets, made of wood or ivory, were
soft—toned instruments. Various kinds of trumpets and trombones were in
use, but they were limited to the natural tones of the harmonic series. Such
instruments were confined to fanfares or to outdoor festival music for large
ensembles.

Keyboard Large church organs were built in the Renaissance, but only in Germany
Instruments did they have pedalboards. Positive organs (also called regals) had been in
common use since the Middle Ages, but the portative organ (a smaller,
portable organ) disappeared before the end of the fifteenth century.
String keyboard instruments were of two types: clavichord and harpsi-
chord. The latter were also designated as spinet, virginal (English), clavecin
(French), clavicembalo (Italian), and Klavier or Clavier (German terms that
also included the clavichord).
A considerable solo literature was composed for all the keyboard instru-
ments. The organ was also used to accompany vocal polyphony but not in
 Instrumental Music 69

instrumental ensembles. The harpsichord and clavichord were less often

used as accompanying instruments or in ensembles.

Ensembles Renaissance instrumental ensembles were almost entirely small chamber

groups, rarely orchestras. Specific instrumentation of ensembles was almost
never indicated in the scores.

GENRES

The fact that Renaissance composers were not much concerned with
distinctions between instrumental and vocal media is attested to by inscrip-
tions such as “per cantar e sonar” (for singing and playing), which appeared
on title pages. A large portion of sixteenth-century instrumental music
consisted of arrangements of sacred and secular vocal compositions, but
originally composed instrumental pieces were numerous and some new
instrumental forms evolved.

Dance Music The earliest extant dance music was largely intended to accompany
social dancing, but during the second half of the sixteenth century stylized
dance music was favored. Generally, dance music had heavily stressed
rhythms, and structures consisting of several repeated sections. Renaissance
dances were often composed in pairs or groups of three. In dance pairs, the
first dance was in slow tempo, the second in fast tempo with change of meter.
Both dances often used the same tune. The most popular dance pair was the
pavane (also padovano, paduana) in slow duple time, and gaillard, in fast
triple time. An Italian dance pair was the ronde and saltarello. German
dance pairs were designated as Tanz und Nachtanz or else Der Prinzen
Tanz—Proportz. Other dances were passamezzo, basse—danse, branle (also
bransle) and, toward the close of the century, allemande (alman) and cou-
rante (corrento).
Dance music was composed for various ensembles, lute, and harpsi-
chord.

Cantus Firmus Compositions based on Gregorian chants, chorales, or secular songs

Forms were composed for organ, harpsichord, and sometimes ensembles of viols.
They occasionally had liturgical functions as verses or versets played by the
organist between stanzas of a hymn sung by the congregation or choir. Most
cantus firmus instrumental music was conservatively styled in a vocal idiom.
70 History of Western Music

Imitative Forms In this category belong a number of genres that made prominent use of
contrapuntal imitation. Organ transcriptions of motets were common. Orig-
inal organ pieces composed in motet style were called ricercare. Such pieces
were also composed for lute and instrumental ensembles. An imitative form
derived from the French polyphonic chanson was called canzona (or canzona
francese). Canzonas, composed for instrumental ensembles (canzona da
sonar), harpsichord, or organ (canzona d’ organo), were more lively in
rhythm and tempo than the ricercare, and they employed the characteristic
repeated—note motives of the chanson. Other imitative forms were the
fantasia (also fantasy, fancy) and capriccio.

Example 13.2. Canzona Style

Improvisational Instrumental types that relied on conveying a sense of improvisation

Forms were the prelude (also praeludium, praeambulum). Such pieces were com-
posed for lute or one of the keyboard instruments.

Variation Forms Genres based on the principle of variation are the oldest to have a
continuous history to the present. They were first developed by the Spanish
vihuelists and later in the sixteenth century by the English virginalists. It
was perhaps in variations that composers first fully explored instrumental
idioms. Variations were constructed in several different ways. (1) Cantus
firmus variations were based on a given melody restated a number of times
with little or no change, but with each statement the melody was accompa-
nied by different counterpoint and in a different voice. (2) The theme and
variations form was based on a popular tune that itself was modified with
each restatement. (3) English hexachord variations used the first six notes
of a scale as a theme. Variations of this type were usually entitled Ut re mi
fa sol la, after the solfége symbols, and were common in virginal music. (4)
A variation form called ground was based on a short theme of four to eight
measures in the bass with continuous and changing counterpoint above.
 Instrumental Music 71

SCHOOLS AND COMPOSERS

As a general rule, most composers of Renaissance instrumental music

wrote little vocal music, and they usually specialized in one medium. Nota-
ble exceptions were some of the English virginal composers and some of the
Venetian composers late in the century.

- Germany A long line of German organ composers began with Conrad Paumann
(ca. 1410-1473), whose Fundamentum Organisandi contained two-part
organ pieces. Other organ composers were Hans Buchner (1483-1538),
Hans Kotter (ca. 1485-1541), Leonhard Kleber (ca. 1495-1556), Paul
Hofhaimer (1459-1537), and Arnolt Schlick (ca. 1460—after 1521).
Lute composers were Hans Judenktinig (ca. 1450-1526), Hans Gerle (ca.
1500-1570), and Hans Neusiedler (ca. 1508-1563).
Composers of instrumental ensemble music were Elias Nikolaus
Ammerbach (ca. 1530-1597), Valentin Haussmann (ca. 1565—ca. 1614), and
Melchior Franck (ca. 1579-1639).

Spain The leading Spanish vihuela composer was Luis de Milan (ca. 1500-ca.
1561). His contemporaries were Luys de Narvaez (fl. 1530-1550), Enriquez
de Valderrdbano (fl. mid—sixteenth century), and Miguel de Fuenllana (d. ca.
1568). Antonio Cabézon (1510-1566) was the outstanding composer of
Spanish organ music.

Italy Francesco Spinacino (fl. 1507) and Ambrosio Dalza (fl. 1508) were early
sixteenth-century lute composers. More important was the organ music of
Claudio Merulo (1533-1604), Girolamo Cavazzoni (ca. 1525—ca. 1577),
Annibale Padovano (ca. 1527-1575), Andrea Gabrieli (ca. 1510-1586),
Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1554-1612), and Giovanni de Macque (ca. 1548-
1614). Composers of instrumental ensemble music were Florentio Maschera
(ca. 1540-ca. 1584) and the two Gabrielis.

France The first French music printer, Pierre Attaingnant (ca. 1494—ca. 1551),
published numerous collections of organ, lute, and clavecin music by un-
named composers. Jean Titelouze (ca. 1562—1633) composed cantus—firmus
organ pieces based on Gregorian chant.

England The English virginal school includes the names of Hugh Aston (ca.
1485-1558), Giles Farnaby (ca. 1563-1640), William Byrd (1543-1623),
John Bull (ca. 1562-1628), and Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625). The most
important among several collections of virginal music is The Fitzwilliam
Virginal Book.
72 History of Western Music

Organ music, less important in England, is represented by John Redford

(ca. 1485-1547) and John Bull in the early seventeenth century. English lute
music was composed mainly by John Dowland (1562-1626), Francis
Pilkington (ca. 1562-1638), and Thomas Campion (1567-1620). Orlando
Gibbons also composed fantasias for viols.

Scores and Examples of instrumental music are listed here according to form rather
Recordings than school or medium. Medium is indicated by the symbols / (lute), h
(harpsichord), o (organ), v (viols), and e (ensemble).
Dance
NAWM 62; HAM 83 (e), 102 (h), 103 (h), 104 (A), 105 (J), 137 (e),
154 (e), 167b (e), and 179 (h); NSI 11 (e)
Cantus Firmus
NAWM 65 (e); HAM 100 (0), 117 (0), 120 (0), 133 (0), 176 (v), and
180 (0)
Canzona
NAWM 63 (e); HAM 88 (e), 118 (0), 136 (e), and 175 (e)
Fantasia
NAWM 64; HAM 121 (/) and 181 (0)
Ricercare
HAM 99 (7), 115 (e), 116 (0), 119 (v), and 173 (e)
Toccata
HAM 153 (0) and 174 (0)
Prelude
HAM 84 (0), 135 (0), and 178 (A)
Variations
HAM 122 (7), 124 (/), 134 (0), 154b (A), 177 (A), and 179 (A)
Transcriptions of Vocal Music
HAM 81b (0) and 160 (A and /)
 Musical Notation

The history of musical notation is an evolution toward accurate symbolic

representation of two musical factors: pitch and rhythm. Progress was
generally slow and, until the Renaissance, methods and styles of writing music
varied considerably from one locality to another. Modern notation dates from
the early seventeenth century. Prior to 1600, various other systems had been
used. The principal systems of Western notation before the modern one were
neumatic, modal, and mensural notation.

NEUMATIC NOTATION

Although numerous attempts at notation were made in pre-Christian

times and during most of the first millennium of the Christian Era, they were
largely unsuccessful. The history of Western notation began near the end of
the ninth century.

Neumes Plainsong notation was first recorded by signs called neumes. They
originated as chironomic inflection symbols: acute (’), grave (‘), and circum-
flex (4). Placed above words of a text, neumes served merely as reminders“
of the general upward or downward direction of a melody already known.
The number of neumatic note forms increased to more than a dozen signs.

Diastematic At first, neumes were written only above some of the words of a text and
Notation in campo aperto (“in the open field,” or without any indication of relative
pitch). By the early tenth century, neumes were written in relatively high or
low positions, and were known as diastematic or heighted neumes (see

73
74 History of Western Music
aa

Example 14.1). These provided a more accurate guide to melodic contours,

but they still did not indicate exact pitch, intervals, or duration of notes.

Example 14.1, Diastematic Notation

- St. Gall, Cantarorium (late ninth century), cod. 359, fol. 125. Repro-
duced from Carl Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music, Plate Il. Re-
printed by permission from W. W. Norton.
 Musical Notation 75

Staff Notation The first important step toward indicating exact pitch, initiated near the
end of the tenth century, was the introduction of a horizontal line representing
the tone F, above or below which neumes were written (see Example 14.2).
This was the origin of the staff. Soon thereafter, two-line staves in color
were used to indicate the tones F (upper line, red) and C (lower line, green
or yellow). By the eleventh century four—line staves were described by
Guido d’Arezzo (ca. 997-1050). This is the staff used in modern Gregorian
notation (see Example 14.3). More and more lines were added, up to eleven
or more, then separated into two staves by eliminating the Middle C line.
Eventually, by about the thirteenth century, five—line staves were favored.

Clef Signs Medieval scribes used the letters C, F, and G placed on one of the staff
lines to indicate the pitch of that line and, by extension, the pitches of all the
other lines. Modern clefs are derived from these same letters in old script.

MODAL NOTATION

Notation from the end of the twelfth century to about the middle of the
thirteenth century is referred to as modal notation because it was based on
the rhythmic modes. Although it was capable of indicating the relative
duration of a note, considerable ambiguity still existed because the shape of
the note had to be interpreted in the context of a modal pattern in order for
the performer to determine duration.

Notes Modal notation is also called square notation because of its notehead
shapes, which were distinct from the various forms used in neumatic nota-
tion. Three types of notes were the /ong (orlonga ‘|),thebreve (or brevis @ ),
and semibreve (or semibrevis ). These notes were used singly and in
groups called ligatures.

oh
A
Example 14.4. Ligatures
76 History of Western Music

ame, eeBaneachat abyomyalSees

: : Fela ee “a I os, i Pd

fermen anstt ttt zSerre oe

oe oe ete ee
on aa acaba ore
fo Pe Js Jj 7 J x 2 4
oe “ 2 =
cance = ae ns cen eI

Gi
j — a ek 7 ar
=
ag Als dvs, |Fe oo nent.” baer

2 aie Ti
Ata a nino silt tise spreruftay Snwe hae
hee
4 |eke ~ Vig eG

ee lad hate
.

y
: > 3

aie nef (berate cage Grung) rich

pedo), mila ype eid: ge

Example 14.2. One-Line Neumatic Notation.

Reproduced from Homer Ulrich and Paul Pisk, A History of Music and
Musical Style, p. 36. Reprinted by permission from Harcourt, Brace &
World.
 Musical Notation 77

Il. — On Solemn Feasts. 2.

(Kyrie Deus sempiterne)

Chri- ste e-lé- i-son. Christe

e-lé-i-son. Chri- ste e-lé- i-son. Ky- ri-

e e-lé- ison, Ky-ri- e

e-lé-i-son. Ky-ri-e =

** e-lé- i-son.

Example 14.3. Modern Plainsong Notation.

‘Kyrie Deus Sempiterne,” reproduced from Plain Song for Schools, p.

12. Reprinted by permission from J. Cary & Co., London.
78 History of Western Music
ec sald en ek i ee ey eaeee OP eee er Snes een Set ee eee

Perfection Modal notation was based on a concept of triple division called perfec-
tion, in which a note of one denomination was equal to three of the next—
smaller denomination.

Music in Modal Music written in modal notation included some of the troubadour and
Notation trouvére songs, clausulae, organa, conducti, and some of the earliest motets.
Gregorian chant and some secular monophonic songs continued to be written
in the older neumatic notation.

MENSURAL NOTATION

Notation in use from the second half of the thirteenth century to the end
of the sixteenth century is referred to as mensural notation (measured
notation). The thirteenth century witnessed the transition from modal to
mensural notation. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were periods of
rapid and often complex evolutions. Problems and uncertainties still existed,
but mensural notation finally achieved a high degree of accuracy in repre-
senting relative duration.

Franconian Notation in the second half of the thirteenth century is called Franconian
Notation notation after Franco of Cologne (fl. 1250-1280) who described the current
system in his Ars Cantus Mensurabilis around 1260. The Franconian system
used the same kinds of black noteheads as did modal notation (long, breve,
and semibreve). The breve became the basic time unit and its division was
still predominantly perfect (triple). Around 1280, Petrus de Cruce (fl. ca.
1290) was using more than three semibreves to a breve.
Choirbooks
Until about 1230, polyphonic music was notated in score in which the
various parts were arranged one above the other on one or more staves. This
plan was abandoned in favor of choirbook arrangement. The two upper parts
of a three—voice composition were placed either on opposite pages or else in
two columns on a single page, and the tenor part was notated on one
continuous staff across the bottom of the page (see Example 14.5). In
composition for more parts, they were all similarly arranged ona single folio
opening. The reason for this change was probably that the textless tenor part,
which had fewer notes, left too much valuable parchment space in the score
form, whereas in the choirbook arrangement it could be greatly condensed.
Performers would gather around this single large book, which might be three
feet high, and read their individual parts. Choirbooks remained in use until
about the middle of the sixteenth century.
 Musical Notation 79

Example 14.5. Franconian Notation and Choirbook Arrangement.

Three—voice motet: “Plus joliement/Quant le douz/Portare.” Repro-

duced from Chansonnier de Montpellier, Ms. H 196. Reprinted by permis-
sion from Le Conservateur en Chef, Biblioth¢que Universitaire, Section de
Médecine, Montpellier, France.
80 History of Western Music

Ars Nova French and Italian composers in the fourteenth century developed men-
Notation sural notation still further and established the basic principles that remained
in effect throughout the Renaissance.
Characteristics
In his Ars Nova (ca. 1322), Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361) recognized
duple and triple meter as being equally important. The late fourteenth
century used a system of great complexity, referred to as mannered notation.
The long was less often used, and the minim (L ) and semiminim (b were
added. Notes colored red in the manuscripts were used to indicate imperfec-
tion (duple division) and also to indicate a change of proportion as, for
example, three red notes equal to two black notes of the same denomination.
Mode, Time, and Prolation
In the fourteenth-century system, each note was subject either to duple
or triple division. The relation of long to breve was called mode; the relation
of breve to semibreve was called time (or tempus); and the relation of
semibreve to minim was called prolation. A long was usually equal to two
breves (imperfect mode), A breve could equal two semibreves (imperfect
time) or three semibreves (perfect time). A semibreve could equal two
minims (minor prolation) or three minims (major prolation). These five
relationships are represented in Example 14.6, a table of note values.

Mode: imperfect 5 = 8

: perfect B=-¢¢¢
Time: :
imperfect M = @ @

: major o=46 4
Prolation: | :
minor kg 4 +

Example 14.6. Note Values in Mode, Time, and Prolation

Mesuration Signs
Time and prolation were represented by two signs each, one for triple
and one for duple division. Perfect time was represented by a full circle (©),
imperfect time by a half—circle (C ). Major prolation was represented by
three dots, minor prolation by two dots. Thus, time and prolation were
combined in four ways.
 Musical Notation 81

¢ . ¢

© etads lage

Example 14.7. Mensuration Signs

An additional sign, a half circle with a vertical line drawn through the
center (€ ), indicated that notes were to get half the normal value. This was
called alla breve. The sign and the term are both still used today, as is also
the C for 4meter.

Dots

In addition to indicating prolation in mensuration signs, dots were also

used in two other ways: (1) a dot (called punctus) following a note could
indicate the separation of basic note units (called point of division) compa-
rable to the modern bar line; or (2) it could indicate the addition of half the
note’s value (called point of addition), just as it does today.

Renaissance From about the middle of the fifteenth century to the end of the sixteenth
Notation century, mensural notation was standardized in what is called classical
mensural notation. The complexities of Ars Nova notation largely disap-
peared. White breves, semibreves, and minims (Oy 4 ) replaced the former
black notes. The semiminim had a new form ( | ), and the fusa (J) was
added. Mensuration signs were the same as before except that a single dot
(@or @ ) now indicated major prolation, and no dot (Oor C ) meant minor
prolation. Sixteenth—century notation is shown in Example 14.8.
82 History of Western Music

Be i iets
: Y)= —

\ Taig
Prayltoger f fl 4
ee hn actt4giha=
ye Shepp oo 535
5, stay the
;
oo Patrem loripotemtem Walls

ay shagsalattwh
oo Moi)
="als

hesi aws——

{on}tap
rie
pittiiyvia -
z 3
adhe Bikes
= t vite aT

al
ct Sem LON aan \s
it ®s

Example 14.8. Classical Mensural Notation.

Tenor and contratenor parts of Missa Il’Homme Armé, “Patrem Om-

nipotentum,” Faugues. Biblioteca Apostolico—Vaticana, Cappella Sistina
14, fol. 143r. (Retouched, reproduced by permission of The Institute of
Medieval Music.)
 Musical Notation 83

Partbooks

In the second half of the sixteenth century, partbooks replaced

choirbooks. In the newer plan, single parts for a number of different
compositions were bound together in one volume. Thus, four—part music
would require four separate books, one each for superius, altus, tenor, and
bassus parts. The disadvantage of this system is obvious, and in the seven-
teenth century part music came once again to be written in score.

KEYBOARD AND LUTE NOTATION

The history of notation thus far has dealt exclusively with vocal music.
With the exception of early Greek notation, there was no special notation for
instrumental music or intended instrumental parts until the early fourteenth
century.

Organ Tablature The earliest keyboard music is preserved in the Robertsbridge Codex
(early fourteenth century), which contains two-part organ pieces written on
a staff with the upper part in notes and the lower part in letters. This system,
commonly called German organ tablature, was the means of writing organ
compositions until the end of the sixteenth century.

Lute Tablature Renaissance composers of lute music devised a special kind of notation
called Jute tablature. Instead of writing notes or letters on a staff, they used
six parallel horizontal lines that represented the six strings of a lute. Since
the lute was a fretted instrument, letters or numerals placed on a line indicated
where the finger stopped the string. Numerals were used in Spanish and
Italian tablatures, letters in French, English, and most German tablatures.
The cipher (0) in numeral tablature and the letter a in alphabet tablature
indicated the open string to be played. Hence, the number 2 or the letter c
on a line indicated the second half—step above the open string. Rhythmic
signs were placed above the tablature lines (see Example 14.9). Similar
tablatures were occasionally used also for viols.
84 History of Western Music

UNQUIET THOUGHTS

LUTE

Example 14.9. English Lute Tablature and Transcription.

Dowland, “Unquiet Thoughts.” Reprinted from English Lute—Song

Writers, vol. 1, p. 2, by permission from Stainer & Bell, London.

Harpsichord Music for harpsichord was notated in keyboard score, usually on two
Notation five—line staves, the same as it is today.
PART FOUR
THE BAROQUE
(1600-1750)
15
Introduction to the Baroque

1573-1590 Florentine Camerata

1581 Vincenzo Galilei’s Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna
1597 Peri and Rinuccini collaborate on Dafne
1600 Peri, Caccini, Rinuccini: Euridice
1602 Caccini’s Le Nuove musiche
1605 Monteverdi: Fifth Book of Madrigals
1607 Monteverdi: Orfeo
1615 Giovanni Gabrieli: Symphoniae sacrae
1617 Schein: Banchetto musicale
1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War
1619 Schiitz: Psalmen Davids
1637 First public opera house opens
1642 Monteverdi: L’/ncoronazione di Poppea
1643 Death of Monteverdi
1644 Rossi: Orfeo
1650 Carissimi: Jephtha
1660 English Restoration
1669 Paris Academy of Music founded
1670 Moliére—Lully: Le Bourgeois gentilhomme
1672 First public concert, London
1672 Death of Schiitz
1681 Corelli’s first trio sonatas published
1686 Lully’s Armide produced

87
1689 Purcell: Dido and Aeneas
1695 Death of Purcell
1700 Corelli: Op. 5, solo sonatas
1707 Death of Buxtehude
1711 Handel: Rinaldo
1712 Vivaldi: Concertos, Op. 3
1712 Handel moves to London
1722 Rameau’s Traité de I’ harmonie
1722 J.S. Bach: Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I
1723 J.S. Bach becomes kapellmeister at Leipzig
1725 Death of Alessandro Scarlatti
1725 Paris, Concert Spirituel, series of public concerts
1725 Fux: Gradus ad Parnassum
1726 Vivaldi: The Seasons
1728 Gay-Pepusch: The Beggar’s Opera
1729 J.S. Bach: St. Matthew Passion
1733 Pergolesi: La Serva padrona
1737 Rameau: Castor et Pollux
1741 Death of Vivaldi
1742 Handel: Messiah
1747 J.S. Bach: A Musical Offering
1750 Death of J. S. Bach
1759 Death of Handel
1764 Death of Rameau
1767 Death of Telemann

The Baroque saw the rise of drama. Theater, painting, architecture, and
music were all characterized by grandiose concepts, magnificent gestures,
ornate design, and an overall theatrical quality. These effects were often
created by vivid contrasts. The grand and the small, the brilliant and the dull,
the extraordinary and the ordinary all coexisted. Historians have come to
characterize this tendency as Baroque dualism. This concept was manifest
right at the transformation of the Renaissance into the Baroque, when musi-
 Introduction to the Baroque 89

cians recognized the concordance of two styles, the old (stile antico) and the
new (stile moderno). The greatest master of the early period, Claudio
Monteverdi (1567-1643), composed comfortably in both of these, which he
respectively called the first practice (prima prattica) and the second practice
(seconda prattica). Essentially, the old practice was that of vocal counter-
point, while the new practice continued development of homophony, vocal and
instrumental. Both received extensive treatment in the Baroque, although
historically the new style was to be the wave of the future. Stile moderno itself
embodied the notion of dualism, specifically in the use of stile concertato. The
concertato style was a pervasive ideal in which different media were in
cooperative opposition to one another, either simultaneously or in alternation:
vocal against instrumental, solo against ensemble. This principle was mani-
fest in the use of different dynamic levels, which were always graphically and
sharply contrasted (terraced dynamics). Dualism was at play even in the
relationship of melody and bass. The bass, which became more prominent
during the Baroque, consisted of both melodic underpinning and outlined
harmonies. Such is implicit in the concept of the basso continuo, the lowest
part in most Baroque ensembles. Harmonies were organized around the*
opposing functions of the dominant (implying tension) and the tonic (implying
resolution). Although this relationship was generally observed in practice
during the whole period, it was not recognized in theory until the late Baroque
in Rameau’s Traité de Vharmonie (1722). Functional harmonies were neces-
sary for the full development of tonality, the most important contribution of
the period:* As a result, modulation (a harmonic progression that begins in
one key and ends in another) became commonplace.
Musicians in the Baroque employed dualistic concepts first utilized by
those in the Renaissance. Primary among these was that of word and sound.
x
Instrumental music provided the Baroque with one of its principle problems:
how to shape and organize without the benefit of a text. Stile concertato and
tonality were parts of the answer. The Doctrine of the Affections provided the
rest of it, by abstractly associating ideas capable of articulation with abstract
musical ideas. Even the use of tempo indications (eé.g., adagio, allegro) and
dynamic markings (forte, piano, etc.), both new to the Baroque, reflected
composers’ concerns with heightening the emotional content of abstract
music,
The Baroque saw the decline of the church and the aristocracy as primary
benefactors of musical life. They were still important institutions, no doubt,
and composers like J. S. Bach (1685-1750) received their lives’ support from
them. The cosmopolitan George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) was more
typical, though, and his livelihood often came from the public. Operas,
invented as entertainment for the private elite, became public in 1643. Con-
certs, originally for the privileged, later sponsored by private musical orga-
nizations, were first opened to the public in 1672. A rising and influential
90 History of Western Music
on
wa eT Se a a

middle class demanded and received music appropriate to its taste and
pocketbook.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Important historical events of the Baroque were the Thirty Years’ War in
Germany (1618—1648), the reign of Louis XIV of France from 1643 to 1715,
the English Civil War (1642-1649), the Commonwealth and Protectorate
(1649-1660), and the Restoration (1660). It was a time of worldwide
colonization. Illustrious names in science were Newton, Harvey, Galileo,
Bacon, Kepler, and Leibnitz. The foremost philosophers were Locke,
Descartes, Pascal, and Spinoza. Leading artists of the period were the Dutch
painter Rembrandt and the Flemish Reubens and Van Dyck, the English
Hogarth, and, of the Spanish school, El Greco and Velasquez. English
literature was represented by Milton, Dryden, Defoe, Addison, Swift, Pope,
and Samuel Johnson; French literature, by Corneille, Racine, and Moliére.
Opera and Vocal Chamber
Music

The end of the sixteenth century first saw a conscious revolt against
Renaissance polyphony, which the antagonists wanted to replace with entirely
new techniques. The innovations that followed, instigated by a group of
Florentine intelligentsia who called themselves the Camerata, included mon-
ody (accompanied solo song), recitative, and a new concept of drama with
music later called opera (literally, “work’). Monody was given an early
example in a 1602 collection by Giulio Caccini (ca. 1545-1618), entitled Le
Nuove musiche. From this collection early seventeenth—century music prac-
tice took its name.
Opera was the central innovation of Italian nuove musiche. It soon
influenced virtually all types of Baroque music. Other secular vocal forms
were solo songs and chamber cantatas.

OPERA

The association of music and drama goes back to Antiquity. Greek

tragedies employed choruses, and dialogue may have been sung. Medieval
liturgical dramas, mystery plays, and miracle plays were at least partly sung.
Renaissance plays made use of musical interludes between acts, called
intermezzi or intermedi. Madrigal comedies of the late sixteenth century
approached the idea of musical narrative and dialogue, though they were not
intended for stage performance.

91
92 History of Western Music

Operas, like plays, are performed on a stage, and they include acting,
costumes, scenery, props, and lighting. The text of an opera is called a
libretto. The musical components are (1) solo song, in opera first. called
monody, later aria; (2) ensembles of two or more solo voices, called duet,
trio, and so on; (3) recitative, a declamatory style of singing dialogue; (4)
chorus; (5) the orchestra, which accompanies singing and provides instru-
mental introductions and recurring interludes (ritornelli); (6) the overture,
the instrumental introduction to an opera; and (7) in some operas, formal
dances called ballets.

Italy The main developments in Italian opera were centered, more—or-—less

consecutively, in four Italian cities: Florence, Rome, Venice, and Naples.

Florentine Opera
In the last decade of the sixteenth century, the Florentine Camerata
sought to revive ancient Greek tragedy. Although, as classical scholars, they
were aware of the function of music in drama, they also realized that the
prevailing polyphonic madrigal style was not suitable for dramatic expres-
sion. Consequently they initiated a new style of singing called stile
rappresentativo (theater style) for their dramas, which became the earliest
operas.
Dafne, probably the first opera but now lost, was written in 1597 by the
Florentine poet Ottavio Rinuccini (1563-1621) and set to music composed
by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633). The first still-extant opera is Euridice written
collaboratively by Camerata members Rinuccini, Peri, and Caccini in 1600
for the wedding celebration of Henry IV of France and Maria dé Medici in
Florence. In the following year, each composer published his own version
of the opera. Both Peri and Caccini differentiated only subtly between
monody and recitative.
The most important opera composer in the first half of the seventeenth
century was Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643), whose Orfeo, in 1607, assim-
ilated the new techniques of the Camerata and achieved much greater
dramatic expression. His music is the first in which there is a clear division
between aria and recitative.

Roman Opera
Rome became the center of opera development in the 1630s. Roman
opera was based more on religious subjects than on Greek mythology, and it
made more use of choruses. Distinctions between recitative and aria were
finely drawn.
The principal composers were Stefano Landi (ca. 1586-1639), who
composed Saint Alexis (Santo Alessio), and Luigi Rossi (1598-1653), whose
principal opera was another Orfeo.
 Opera and Vocal Chamber Music 93

Venetian Opera
Shortly before the middle of the century, Venice assumed the leadership
that it retained to the end of the century. Until the first public opera house,
Teatro San Cassiano, was opened in Venice in 1637, opera had been primarily
a spectacle for the wealthy.
The principal characteristics of Venetian opera were (1) more emphasis
on formal arias; (2) the beginning of bel canto (‘beautiful singing”) style,
and more attention to vocal elegance than to dramatic expression; (3) less
use of choral and orchestral music; (4) complex and improbable plots; (5)
elaborate stage machinery; and (6) short fanfarelike instrumental introduc-
tions, the prototypes of the later overture.
The principal composers of the Venetian school were Pier Francesco
Cavalli (1602-1676), who wrote Giasone, and Marc’ Antonio Cesti (1623-
1669), whose most important opera was J] Pomo d’oro. Claudio
Monteverdi’s last operas, produced in Venice, were II Ritorno d’ Ulisse and
L’Incoronazione di Poppea. Later Venetian composers were Antonio
Sartorio (ca. 1630-1680) and Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690).
Neapolitan Opera
A school of composers in Naples emerged in the second half of the
century and dominated European opera in the early eighteenth century. In
general, Neapolitan operas were more formalized and artificial from the
dramatic standpoint. They consisted mainly of da capo arias (ABA sectional
structure). Another type of aria introduced by the Neapolitans was the
siciliana, in slow tempo, ! meter, and usually a minor key. Choruses were
almost nonexistent, and the orchestra was relegated to a subordinate accom-
panying role. Less important than arias, recitatives were composed in two
styles: (1) “dry recitative” (recitativo secco), which was a declamatory
melody with sparse basso continuo accompaniment, and (2) “accompanied
recitative” (recitativo accompagnato, also called recitativo strumento),
which employed a more active orchestral accompaniment for especially
dramatic passages of dialogue. Still another style of operatic song was the
arioso, a dramatic compromise between recitative and aria. Castrati (male
sopranos) reigned supreme as the opera stars of the day, and they were
responsible for the excesses of showy virtuosity with improvised display of
vocal gymnastics. The Italian overture, called sinfonia, was established as
a formal plan in three sections: fast-slow-—fast. The sinfonia was the
forerunnner of the later classical symphony.
The central figure of Neapolitan opera was Alessandro Scarlatti (1660—
1725), who composed some 114 operas. Other composers were Alessandro
Stradella (1642-1682), Carlo Pallavicini (1630-1688), Francesco
Provenzale (1627-1704), Agostino Steffani (1654-1728), Nicola Porpora
(1686-1768), Leonardo Vinci (1690-1730), Attilio Ariosti (1666—ca. 1740),
94 History of Western Music

and Giovanni Bononcini (1670-1747). German-born George Frideric

Handel (1685-1759), in London, was the last composer of Neapolitan—style
operas in the Baroque.

French Opera France developed an indigenous opera to a greater extent than any other
and Ballet country outside Italy, but that development did not come until the second half
of the seventeenth century.
French opera was strongly influenced by two flourishing national insti-
tutions: the court ballet, and the dramas of Corneille, Racine, and Moliére.
As compared to Italian opera, the outstanding traits of French opera were (1)
use of ballet; (2) greater importance of the drama; (3) more use of the
orchestra and instrumental music; (4) shorter and simpler dancelike airs; (5)
careful attention to accentuation of the text; (6) more expressive and melodic
recitative; (7) less emphasis on virtuosity; and (8) the French overture, which
became an important instrumental form in the Baroque. The French overture
consisted of two sections, each repeated: the first in slow tempo and dotted
rhythm, the second in lively tempo and of imitative texture. Later, the French
overture included a third section in slow tempo, similar to the first.
Ballet
Court dances with costume and scenery, but without singing or spoken
dialogue, were common in the Renaissance. The earliest extant ballet music
was the Ballet comique de la Reine in 1581. Royalty customarily took part
in the performances of ballets that flourished in the court of Louis XIV at
Versailles. Jean Baptiste Lully’s (1632-1687) Ballet de la nuit was a court
ballet. Lully and Moliére collaborated to create a new form, the comédie—
ballet, which was a combination of play and ballet. Le Bourgeois
gentilhomme was the most famous of these. Later, Lully introduced ballets
into his operas, which he called tragédies—lyriques or opéra—ballets.
Composers
The first opera in the French language was called Pastorale and was
written in 1659 by Abbé Pierre Perrin (ca. 1620-1675), librettist, and Robert
Cambert (ca. 1628-1677), composer. It marked the opening of the Royal
Academy of Music in Paris.
Lully was the leading composer of French opera and ballet in the second
half of the seventeenth century. In addition to his court ballets and comédie—
ballets, his principal works (tragédies—lyriques) were Cadmus et Hermione,
Alceste, Amadis, and Armide.
The principal operas by Jean Philippe Rameau (1683-1764), who repre-
sents the culmination of French Baroque opera, are Hippolyte et Aricie and
Castor et Pollux.
 Opera and Vocal Chamber Music 95

English Indigenous serious opera never achieved the popular following in Eng-
Dramatic Music land that it did in Italy and France. Many Italian operas were performed in
London. The principal types of theater music in England were the masque,
incidental and entr’acte music, and ballad opera.

Opera
Two works represent virtually the entire repertory of serious English
opera. One was Venus and Adonis by John Blow (1649-1708); the other was
Dido and Aeneas by Henry Purcell (1659-1695), the most important English
composer of the middle Baroque.

Masque
A kind of theatrical court entertainment called masque was in vogue in
England in the seventeenth century. Masques, which were lavish produc-
tions performed privately for nobility, are plays based on mythological and
allegorical subjects, and they included songs (called ayres), poetry readings,
dances, choruses, instrumental pieces, and occasionally recitatives. A fa-
mous masque was Comus, by poet John Milton, with music by Henry Lawes
(1596-1662).

Incidental and Entr’acte Music

A significant amount of incidental music was written to be performed

during the action of plays, and entr’acte music for performance between
scenes or acts. The latter consisted of instrumental pieces, called act tunes
or curtain tunes. Examples of incidental music are Purcell’s music for The
Fairy Queen (after Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream) and King
Arthur. Entr’acte music is represented by /nstrumental Musick used in “The
Tempest” by Matthew Locke (ca. 1630-1677) and Purcell’s music for
Dioclesian. Incidental and entr’acte music for some plays was so extensive
that they approached true opera.

German A dearth of indigenous opera in Germany was due to the impact of Italian
Dramatic Music opera in that country, and also to the cultural disruption of the Thirty Years’
War. Furthermore, there was little German libretto literature of sufficient
quality.
Aside from an early opera by Heinrich Schiitz (1585-1672), Daphne
(now lost), nearly all operatic activity in Germany consisted of Italian operas
performed by Italian companies. Even German composers were for a while
content to write operas in Italian style to Italian texts. Costanza e fortezza
by Johann Fux (1660-1741) was such an opera. Italian opera flourished in
Vienna, Munich, and Dresden.
German opera, called Singspiel, began in Hamburg, where an opera
house opened in 1678 with Adam und Eva by Johann Theile (1646-1724).
96 History of Western Music

Other names connected with Hamburg opera were Reinhard Keiser (1674—
1739) and Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767).

COMIC OPERA

Comic opera emerged in the early eighteenth century primarily as a

reaction to Italian serious opera (opera seria). It was a dramatic genre in
which elements of humor, parody, and satire were prominent.
Comic opera differed from serious opera in several respects: (1) Light,
frivolous, and humorous subjects were used; (2) commonplace characters
replaced the exalted or heroic figures of serious operas; (3) except in Italian
comic opera, spoken dialogue replaced the recitatives of serious opera; (4)
popular tunes replaced the dramatic and formal arias; (5) ensemble finales
of soloists and chorus became common features at the conclusions of acts;
and (6) characters, aria texts, and melodies of serious operas were often
parodied.
Comic opera was generally more indigenous than serious opera, and it
developed somewhat differently in different European countries.

Italian Opera Comic opera in Italy, called opera buffa, originated as intermezzi be-
Buffa tween acts of serious operas. Early in the eighteenth century it emerged as
an independent form, principally in Naples. Opera buffa employed recitative
more than spoken dialogue. Choral finales were typical. A famous opera
buffa was La Serva padrona by Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736). Other
composers of them were Alessandro Scarlatti and Baldassare Galuppi (1706—
1785).

French Opéra French comic opera, known as opéra comique, originated in the early
Comique eighteenth century as a form of popular entertainment. The tunes in opéra
comique were called vaudevilles. However, originally composed comic
operas were not produced in France until the second half of the eighteenth
century. An early opéra comique was Le Devin du village (1752), by
philosopher—musician Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

English Ballad A form of comic opera, called ballad opera, flourished in England in the
Opera second quarter of the eighteenth century. They employed well-known tunes,
often borrowed from the serious Italian operas that they parodied. The most
famous ballad opera is The Beggar's Opera, by librettist John Gay (1685-
1732), with songs arranged by John Pepusch (1667-1752).
 Opera and Vocal Chamber Music 97

German The word singspiel meant serious opera at the beginning of the eigh-
Singspiel teenth century. About the middle of the century it came to designate German
comic opera. The first singspiels were translations of English ballad operas,
but in the second half of the eighteenth century they were originally com-
posed works. The principal composer was Johann Adam Hiller (1728-
1804).

Spanish Serious opera did not develop in Spain. A popular dramatic form, akin
Zarzuela to opera buffa, was the zarzuela, an example of which is Celos aun del ayre
matan by Juan Hidalgo (ca. 1612-1685).

VOCAL CHAMBER MUSIC

Though less important than opera, a considerable literature of nontheat-

rical vocal music was composed in the Baroque. Classified as vocal chamber
music, it was for a few performers and an intimate audience in a small room.
Two general types of vocal chamber music are solo songs and chamber
cantatas.

Solo Song By 1600 an impressive literature of solo songs with lute accompaniment
already existed in Spain and England. Solo songs continued to be composed
during the Baroque, principally in Italy, Germany, and England.

Italian Song
The Baroque was ushered in by Italian monody, the first collection of
which was Giulio Caccini’s Le Nuove musiche with its solo songs and
instrumental accompaniment. Also in the early Baroque were the Italian solo
madrigals such as Claudio Monteverdi’s Fifth Book of Madrigals. Such
works were the forerunners of the Italian secular cantata in the second half
of the century.
German Lied
In the second half of the seventeenth century an important school of lied
composers developed. Lieder were often published in sets. The composers
were Adam Krieger (1634—1666), Johann Theile, Philipp Erlebach (1657—
1714), Johann Scholze (also known as Sperontes, 1705-1750), and Georg
Philipp Telemann.
98 History of Western Music :
PONS DARE Cian en NeAna Were te agen Lene Be is Oe a eel

English Song
Two collections of English solo songs were Amphion Anglicus by John
Blow and Orpheus Britannicus by Henry Purcell.
A favorite form among seventeenth—century English composers was the
catch, an a cappella vocal canon or round, often based on ribald and
humorously witty texts. John Blow, William Lawes (1602-1645), Henry
Purcell, and many other composers wrote catches.

Chamber In the second half of the seventeenth century an important form of secular
Cantata vocal music emerged in Italy—the chamber cantata (cantata da camera).
Chamber cantatas were short, nontheatrical compositions (that is, not per-
formed on a stage with acting, scenery, costumes, and dialogue), based on
texts of a somewhat narrative character. Composed for one or two solo
voices with basso continuo accompaniment, they consisted of secco recita-
tives alternating with da capo arias, usually two or three of each.
Composers
Alessandro Scarlatti, with more than six hundred chamber cantatas,
represents the summit of Italian cantata composition. Most Italian opera
composers wrote cantatas, including Luigi Rossi, Giacomo Carissimi (1605—
1674), Marc’ Antonio Cesti, Giovanni Legrenzi, and Alessandro Stradella.
French chamber cantatas, which were influenced by Italian models, were
composed by Marc—Antoine Charpentier (ca. 1645-1704), André Campra
(1660-1744), Louis Clérambault (1676-1749), and Jean Philippe Rameau.
German composers of chamber cantatas (Kammerkantate) were
Reinhard Keiser, Georg Philipp Telemann, and Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750), who composed some twenty secular cantatas, the most famous
of which are the Coffee Cantata, the Peasant Cantata, and the Wedding
Cantata.
In England, Henry Purcell composed nine secular cantatas for two or
more voices, and, for special occasions, a large number of works called odes,
for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. These works fall outside the category
of chamber music because of the larger resources involved.

Scores and Several of the following examples are drawn from larger works.
Recordings Opera: NAWM 70-82, 121, and 122; NSI 16, 19, and 22
Madrigals: NAWM 66-68
 Religious Music

Although overshadowed and strongly influenced by opera, religious

music constituted a significant portion of Baroque literature. It falls into two
broad classes: liturgical and nonliturgical music.

LITURGICAL MUSIC

Liturgical music, composed for use in a church ritual, continued to

develop in both branches of Christian religion. The forms and styles of opera
permeated Catholic and Protestant music alike.

Catholic Music More than any other type of music, Catholic music manifested Baroque
dualism. Throughout the seventeenth century the conservative stile antico
existed side—by—side with stile moderno, often within the works of a single
composer.
Mass and Motet
Settings of the Ordinary and motets for the Proper and Offices were
composed in both styles. The a cappella tradition was preserved in the Sistine
Chapel in Rome, and elsewhere there were strong adherents of the Renais-
sance polyphonic style. On the other hand, masses and motets were also
composed in the new dramatic style, and were often musically indistinguish-
able from opera. They used solo voices (e.g., in arias and duets), concertato
effects with one or more choruses, and instrumental groups; there was no
place, however, for recitative in the mass. Polychoral writing, which began
in the Venetian school late in the sixteenth century, was not neglected in the
seventeenth century.

99
100 History of Western Music

Schools and Composers

The earliest example of stile moderno church music, Cento concerti
ecclesiastici, composed in 1602 by Lodovico Grossi da Viadana (1564—
1645), was a collection of a “hundred church pieces” for one or more solo
voices with basso continuo. An example of the imposing Baroque style was
a festival mass composed by Orazio Benevoli (1605-1672) in fifty-three
parts, for two eight—part choruses, soloists, and instrumental choirs with
basso continuo. Most Italian opera composers wrote church music. An
example of late-Baroque dramatic style is Missa di Santa Cecilia by
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725).
Munich, Salzburg, Prague, and Vienna became important centers of
church music outside Italy. Among numerous Italian and Austrian compos-
ers were Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) at San Marco in Venice,
Christoph Strauss (ca. 1575-1631), Johann Stadlmayr (ca. 1575-1648),
Giovanni Valentini (1582-1649), Antonio Bertali (1605-1669), Johann
Schmelzer (ca. 1620-1680), Johann Kerll (1627-1693), Antonio Draghi (ca.
1634-1700), Marc Antonio Ziani (ca. 1653-1715), Alessandro Scarlatti,
Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736), Antonio Caldara (ca. 1670-1736), and
Johann Fux (1660-1741), who was one of the more conservative composers
and the author of a famous treatise on counterpoint entitled Gradus ad
Parnassum. Perhaps the greatest, and certainly the most famous, master-
piece in all Baroque Catholic music is the Mass in b minor by J. S. Bach
(1685-1750).
French composers of Catholic music, mostly motets in cantata form,
were Jean—Baptiste Lully (1632-1687), Marc—Antoine Charpentier (1634—
1704), Michel Richard de Lalande (1657-1726), and Francois Couperin
(1668-1733).

Protestant The main developments in Protestant church music took place in Ger-
Music many.

Church Cantata

The principal form of Protestant church music was the church cantata
(Kirchenkantate), which became an integral part of the Lutheran service in
the second half of the seventeenth century. Texts were taken from chorales
and biblical passages. In the early eighteenth century, Erdmann Neumeister
(1671-1756) and others wrote cycles of cantata texts. There were solo
cantatas for one or more voices with continuo accompaniment, and there
were cantatas on a larger scale employing solo voices (arias and duets),
recitative, chorus, and orchestra. Chorale melodies were used extensively
in choruses and in some arias. Lutheran cantatas concluded with the singing
of the chorale by congregation and choir.
 Religious Music 101

Composers
The leading composer of German Protestant music in the seventeenth
century was Heinrich Schiitz (1585-1672). His church music, in diverse
forms and styles, ranged from conservative Renaissance—style motets to
polychoric music and larger works that approached the cantata form. He
made little use of chorale melody. His most important works include Latin
motets (Cantiones sacrae), German motets (Kleine Geistliche Konzerte, also
called sacred concertos) for solo voices with organ accompaniment, and
Symphoniae sacrae for various media.
Schiitz’s predecessors were Hans Leo Hassler (1564-1612), Michael
Praetorius (1571-1621), Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630) and Samuel
Scheidt (1587-1654). Middle— and late-Baroque composers were Franz
Tunder (1614-1667), Andreas Hammerschmidt (ca. 1611-1675), Dietrich
Buxtehude (1637-1707), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Johann Kuhnau
(1660-1722), and Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767). The master of the
church cantata was J. S. Bach, who composed over two hundred cantatas.
English Church Music
Anglican services and anthems continued to be composed in the
Baroque. The older cathedral anthem in Renaissance motet style and the
later verse anthem reflected Baroque dualism. Although they used solo
voices, chorus, and instrumental accompaniment, verse anthems were more
conservative and less influenced by opera than most church music on the
Continent. Principal composers were John Blow (1649-1708), Henry Pur-
cell (1659-1695), Pelham Humfrey (1647-1674), and William Croft (1678—
1727).

Instrumental Two forms of instrumental church music, the organ chorale prelude and
Church Music the church sonata, will be discussed under organ music and chamber music,
respectively, in the following chapter.

NONLITURGICAL MUSIC

Nonliturgical music is music based on religious subjects but not intended

to be performed as part of a church service. The principal category of
nonliturgical music is oratorio.

Oratorio About the middle of the seventeenth century, oratorio emerged as a

religious form distinct from opera and liturgical music.
102 History of Western Music
Se ee NB EE Ne iS aaa

Components
In its mature form, oratorio employed most of the musical components
of opera: arias and duets for solo voices, recitative, chorus, overture, and
other instrumental pieces; but, except in its earliest stages, it made no use of
dramatic scenery, or costumes. Oratorio differs from opera in two additional
respects: it employs a narrator (called testo or historicus) who tells the
religious story in recitative, and it makes considerably more use of chorus
than opera does.
Two types of Italian oratorios were the oratorio Latino, with Latin texts,
and oratorio volgare, with Italian texts. The former disappeared in the
second half of the seventeenth century.

Origins
Religious plays with music were common in the Middle Ages and
Renaissance. In the late sixteenth century, Filippo Neri, a priest, organized
informal devotional meetings held in a Roman prayer chapel called the
oratory, where laudes and religious dialogues were performed. One of the
latter was an allegorical play with monodic music by Emilio dé Cavalieri (ca.
1550-1602), entitled The Play of Soul and Body (La Rappresentazione di
anima e di corpo), produced in Rome in 1600. This work is considered to
be the earliest prototype of oratorio. Later, the religious operas of the Roman
school, such as Landi’s Santo Alessio, approached the realization of true
oratorio, except that they were fully staged theater works.

Composers
The first composer of oratorios was Giacomo Carissimi (1605-1674),
whose Jephte, Judicium Salomonis, and others were composed on Latin
texts.
Marc—Antoine Charpentier, a French pupil of Carissimi, wrote oratorios
in both French and Latin (Le Reniement de St. Pierre). Successors of
Carissimi were Antonio Draghi, Alessandro Stradella (1642-1682),
Alessandro Scarlatti, Antonio Lotti (ca. 1667-1740), Antonio Caldara (ca.
1670-1736), and Leonardo Leo (1694-1744).
The culmination of Baroque oratorio is represented by George Frideric
Handel (1685-1759), who in his later years abandoned opera for oratorio,
and established a long tradition of that form in England. His eminence in
the field of oratorio rests primarily on his superb mastery of choral technique.
Best known among his more than twenty oratorios are Samson, Israel in
Egypt, Judas Maccabaeus, Solomon, and the famous Messiah, composed in
Dublin in 1741.

Passion Music Presentation of the Easter story, the Passion, according to the gospels of
the Evangelists Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, has a long history dating
 Religious Music 103

back to the early Christian Era. Musical settings of the Passion sometimes
have been liturgical, sometimes nonliturgical in oratorio form.
Gospel Recitation
From about 300 to 1100 a.d. it was common practice to have the gospels
recited in church during Holy Week.
Plainsong Passion
In the twelfth century the Passion story was presented as a play in which
the part of Christ was sung in a low register by a priest, the part of the
Evangelist—narrator was sung in a middle register by another priest, and the
part of the crowd (turba) was sung in a high register by a third priest. This
was done in a psalmodic chant style.
Polyphonic Passion
In the Renaissance, composers began using polyphony, at first setting
only the exclamations of the turba in motet style. Polyphonic Passions were
composed by most of the sixteenth—-century masters, including Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-1594).

Oratorio Passion
With the advent of dramatic styles in the seventeenth century, it was not
long before Passions were composed in oratorio fashion. Early examples are
the Resurrection Story and the Seven Last Words by Heinrich Schiitz.
Chorale Passion
The importance of the chorale in the Lutheran service ultimately affected
settings of the Passion, and, early in the eighteenth century, chorales were
added as reflective elements in oratorio Passions. A famous chorale Passion
is J. S. Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, in which the chorale ‘““O Sacred Head”
by Hans Leo Hassler is used in this way.

Religious Songs Apart from chorales and arias from oratorios and cantatas, religious solo
songs constituted a relatively small and unimportant part of Baroque reli-
gious music.

Scores and The following items are mostly selections from larger works.
Recordings Mass: NAWM 91
Cantata: NAWM 90; NSI 26
Oratorio: NAWM 86 and 89; NSI 23
Motet: NAWM 83 and 85
Sacred concerto: NAWM 84 and 87
Verse anthem: NAWM 88
 Instrumental Music

During the Baroque, instrumental music for the first time became as
important as vocal music, in quality as well as in quantity.

MUSICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Between 1600 and 1750 notable developments took place in various

aspects of instrumental concepts and practice. Some characteristics apply
more-or-less equally to the entire period; others evolved gradually or else
made their appearance late in the period.

Instrumental Although awareness of the special properties and capacities of instru-

Idiom ments was evident to a limited extent in some Renaissance music, instrumen-
tal idiom was fully developed during the Baroque.

Basso Continuo The basso continuo (or thoroughbass), a purely instrumental concept,
lent a characteristic prominence to bass parts in all categories of ensemble
music. It is one of the most distinct and consistent features of the Baroque
as a whole. Functioning as both melodic and harmonic bass, it was played
by a combination of two kinds of instruments: (1) one or more melodic
instruments (viola da gamba, cello, or bassoon) and (2) a keyboard instru-
ment (organ or harpsichord) or lute. The basso continuo part was written in
the bass clef with numerals and accidentals below the notations, a musical
shorthand known as figured bass. It was the duty of the keyboard or lute
performer to fill in the harmony dictated by the numerals, a procedure called
realizing the figured bass. Numerals indicated the characteristic interval
above the bass note. For instance, a 6 indicated a first-inversion chord, a 7

104
 Instrumental Music 105

designated a seventh chord. Absence of a numeral meant a chord in root

position. A sharp, flat, or natural sign by itself indicated the corresponding
alteration of the third of the chord. A line through a numeral indicated a
raised upper note of that interval. Some of these signs are illustrated in
Example 18.1, a figured bass, along with its harmonic realization.

Figured Bass S}*

7-4 | 4&y e
a
6 ¢ 6 5 $ ¢
if 4 4

Realization

Example 18.1 Figured Bass and Realization

Improvisation Improvisation was an important discipline in the Baroque, and generally

more important in instrumental than in vocal music. In addition to originally
improvised music on solo instruments, it played an important role in the
realization of figured bass, in ornamentation, and in improvisations on a
given theme. These improvisatory aspects create problems today in the
performance and understanding of Baroque music.

Variation The principle of thematic variation permeated much instrumental music,

even in forms that were not primarily based on structural variation.

Sequence Repetition of melodic patterns on successively higher or lower pitches

became a typical feature of instrumental music in the middle Baroque.
Harmonic progressions suggested by melodic sequences were often used to
modulate to other keys.

Ensemble Media A clearer distinction between chamber and orchestral media was estab-
lished in the late seventeenth century.

Tuning Equal—tempered tuning of keyboard instruments replaced the older

method, called meantone intonation, in the late Baroque. J. S. Bach’s
(1685-1750) Well-Tempered Clavier, in two volumes, each containing
twenty-four preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys, was
composed partly to demonstrate the equal utility of all the keys in the new
system of tuning.
106 History of Western Music

INSTRUMENTS OF THE BAROQUE

Most of the instruments used in the Renaissance continued to be used

throughout the Baroque, but all underwent further technological improve-
ment during the period. The violin family emerged toward the end of the
seventeenth century.

Keyboard Keyboard instruments were used for basso continuo parts and for solo
Instruments music. Three keyboard types were clavichord, harpsichord, and organ.

Clavichord
The clavichord produced tone by means of a metal wedge that struck the
string when the key was depressed (see Example 18.2). It had a weak tone
but was capable of producing delicate shades of dynamics. It was used
principally in Germany and was limited to solo and small-ensemble music
in the home.
LISTING Ze dats oe tes OF STRING
HITCH PIN

YJ
runine
PIN
BRIDGE

GUIDE BAR

Example 18.2 Clavichord action.

Harpsichord
The harpsichord was known under several names: clavecin (French),
clavicembalo (Italian), virginal (English, 16th and early seventeenth centu-
ries), and by the German words Klavier or Clavier, which meant either
harpsichord or clavichord. The harpsichord usually had two manuals (key-
boards). Its tone, produced by quills that plucked the strings mechanically
when a key was depressed, was stronger than that of the clavichord, but it
was incapable of producing dynamic shading. Being the principal basso
continuo instrument, the harpsichord was one of the most distinctive sounds
in Baroque ensemble music. It was perhaps the most favored medium for
solo compositions.
Piano
The piano, originally called gravicembalo col piano e forte, was invented
in 1709 by Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655-1731) in Florence. Despite the
significance of the new hammer and escapement action, the piano was not
 Instrumental Music 107

generally used until late in the eighteenth century, and virtually no Baroque
music was composed for this instrument.

Organ
The Baroque organ possessed a greater variety and power of tone than
the Renaissance organ. It was primarily associated with church music, both
as solo and accompanying instrument. There was a remarkable growth of
idiomatic organ literature.

Stringed Types of stringed instruments in general use between 1600 and 1750
Instruments changed appreciably.

Viols

Instruments of the viol family were the principal strings during the
seventeenth century, but around 1700 they were being replaced by the new
instruments of the violin family.

Violin Family
The eighteenth century found viols replaced by violins, violas, and
cellos. The bass viol (contrabass or double bass) was retained from the viol
family. The master violin makers came from three families in Cremona,
Italy, the most famous members of which were Nicolo Amati (1596-1684),
Giuseppe Bartolomeo Guarneri (1698-1744), and Antonio Stradivari (1644—
1737). The violin sound became the dominant timbre in late—-Baroque
ensemble music.

Lute

The lute lost its place of eminence during the seventeenth century. A
small amount of lute music was composed in France and Germany. In Spain,
the vihuela was replaced by the guitar.

Wind The principal woodwind instruments were the oboe, bassoon, and flute.
Instruments The older end—blown recorders were still being used in the late Baroque, but
the transverse flute was also commonly employed as a solo and ensemble
instrument.
Brass instruments included various kinds of trumpets, horns, and trom-
bones, which were employed mostly in large ensembles, rarely as solo
instruments.

Percussion Timpani were the only percussion instruments in general use, and they
instruments were employed only in unusually large orchestras.
108 History of Western Music

INSTRUMENTAL GENRES

Most instrumental genres of the first half of the seventeenth century were
first developed in the Renaissance. New ones emerged mainly in the second
half of the century.

Terminology It must be emphasized that terminology regarding form in the Baroque

was Often loosely applied and ambiguous. A given term sometimes implied
one type in the early Baroque and something quite different later on. In some
instances a single term was applied to several different genres; in others,
different terms were used for one type of composition. In the following
classifications it will be noted that overlapping occurs: a form name in one
category may appear again in another classification.

Imitative Forms In this category are contrapuntal forms based primarily on systematic
imitation of one or more themes.
Early Forms
Forms that carried over from the Renaissance were the ricercare, can-
zona, fantasia, and capriccio. Compositions so named were composed for
keyboard instruments and ensembles. The contrapuntal fantasia was pri-
marily for ensembles of viols. The sectional canzona was the forerunner of
the sonata. After 1650 these older forms were generally replaced by the
fugue.
Fugue
By the end of the seventeenth century the monothematic fugue (also
fuga) had reached a certain degree of standardization. Each voice in turn
introduced the theme, alternating between subject in the tonic key and answer
in the dominant key. Episodes between statements of the subject were
characteristically modulatory, and sequential in structure. Within this gen-
eral framework, there was much flexibility of procedure and style. Fugues
were composed in all media, including choral ensembles. They were com-
posed as independent pieces and also as movements in larger works.

Variation Forms The principle of thematic variation was used in several genres outside
this classification, including canzona, dance suite, and cantus firmus com-
positions. Keyboard instruments were the principal media for variation
forms. In Italy during the first half of the seventeenth century, variations on
a popular theme were called partitas (a term also used later for suites). Other
terms for Baroque variations were passacaglia, chaconne, and ground. The
latter form, used chiefly in England, was a short recurrent theme in the bass
 Instrumental Music 109

over which the counterpoint continuously changed. Pieces called passa-

caglia and chaconne sometimes used this plan, and at other times they were
somewhat free variations on a harmonic progession.
Cantus firmus variations, especially important in Germany, consisted of
restatement of a chorale melody in its entirety, each statement in a different
contrapuntal setting.

Dance Suite As in the Renaissance, dance music was an important category. Stylized,
nonfunctional dances were mostly composed in groups called suites or
partitas. Media for dance music were harpsichord, chamber ensemble, and
orchestra.
There was no standard number, type, or order of movements in the suite.
With few exceptions, the movements of a suite were all in the same key. The
form of individual dance movements was almost always binary. Baroque
binary form consisted of two sections, each repeated. The first section
modulated to the dominant key (or relative major); the second section began
in the contrasting key and modulated back to the tonic key at the end. The
dance movements most commonly appearing in the late Baroque were the
allemande (or allemanda), courante (or corrente), sarabande (or
sarabanda), and gigue (or giga).
Allemande
The allemande was usually moderately fast, in duple meter, and began
with an eighth— or sixteenth—note upbeat. It was probably of German origin
(allemande is the French word for ““German’’).

Courante
The courante was in triple meter, sometimes combining or alternating
3and 8meters. It was in a faster tempo than the allemande (courant means
“running” in French). It, too, usually began with a short upbeat.
Sarabande
The sarabande, of Spanish origin, was in triple meter and a slow tempo,
and employed one or both of these rhythmic patterns: ee and Jd

Gigue
The gigue was usually the final dance in the late Baroque suite. It was
normally in compound triple meter Q, 2, or Wes and lively tempo. Its texture
was generally more imitative than that of the other movements.
Other Dances
One or more of the following dances were often included in suites,
usually between the sarabande and gigue: gavotte, bourrée, minuet, loure,
110 History of Western Music

polonaise, rigaudon, and passepied. It was not uncommon for a dance

movement to be followed by an ornamental version, called a double.
Nondance Movements
Baroque suites usually began with a prelude. Other nondance move-
ments appearing in suites were fugues, variations, and airs.

Chorale Prelude The most important category of German Baroque organ music was the
chorale prelude, a form of instrumental church music. The term chorale
prelude is used here to include all organ compositions in which the material
was derived from a chorale melody identified in the title. The four main
types of chorale preludes are cantus firmus, coloration, partita, and fantasia.
Cantus Firmus Chorale
The most common type presented the chorale melody continuously as a
cantus firmus in longer note values against faster-moving counterpoint,
either derived from or independent of the chorale melody. The cantus firmus
could appear in any part, including that of the foot pedals. In some chorale
preludes the phrases of the chorale were separated by short interludes of
continuing counterpoint in the accompanying parts. Another style intro-
duced each phrase of the chorale in imitative counterpoint preceding the
cantus firmus in longer notes.
Coloration Chorale
The type known as coloration chorale stated the chorale melody in the
top part as a cantus firmus, but in a highly ornamented version that disguised
the original melody.
Chorale Partita
Sets of variations on a chorale tune were called chorale partitas. In each
variation, called a verse, the chorale melody itself was modified, or else it
was kept intact as a cantus firmus while the style of accompanying counter-
point changed.
Chorale Fantasia
A composition in which the counterpoint in all parts was freely derived
from a chorale melody was called a chorale fantasy (or fantasia). Chorale
preludes of this type were sometimes written as trios with one part for each
manual (keyboard) and a third part in the pedals. These were called chorale
trios. Chorale fugues orfughettas derived subjects freely from one or more
phrases of a chorale that were treated in fugal style but without a continuous
cantus firmus in any voice.

Improvisatory Keyboard compositions bearing the titles toccata, prelude, or fantasia

Forms appeared frequently in the Baroque. These terms implied no specific struc-
 Instrumental Music 111

ture or style, nor was there any basic distinction among them. The predom-
inant characteristic was an improvisatory effect. Such pieces variously
included sections featuring sustained chords, rapid scales, figuration, and
contrapuntal textures. They lacked any distinct thematic material and any
formal unity. In the late Baroque they were often paired with a fugue in the
same key, resulting in such titles as Toccata and Fugue in d minor and
Fantasia and Fugue in g minor. The genre was associated with Italy in the
early Baroque, but had spread by the end of the seventeenth century.

Sonata No word in Baroque terminology is more imprecise than sonata. In the

course of the Baroque it had quite different implications of style, form, and
medium.

Origin
The term “sonada” appeared as early as 1535 ina collection of lute music
by Luis de Milan (ca. 1500-ca. 1561). A famous early composition that
contained the word is Sonata pian’ e forte (1597) for two choirs of brass
instruments, composed by Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1554-1612). Thus, in its
early use, “sonata” meant nothing more than a composition for instrumental
medium—as opposed to cantata, a vocal composition.
Between 1600 and 1650 instrumental canzonas were composed in sev-
eral sections contrasting in tempo and meter. These sections became longer
and fewer, ultimately evolving into separate movements so that by 1650 the
canzona had merged with the sonata, and the latter term replaced the former.

Media

In the second half of the seventeenth century, multimovement sonatas

were written for small chamber media: unaccompanied solo sonatas for
violin or cello, accompanied solo sonatas for different instruments with basso
continuo, and trio sonatas, the most important chamber media in the middle
and late Baroque. The latter were written on three staves for two solo
instruments and basso continuo played by a cello and keyboard instrument.

Sonata da chiesa

The sonata da chiesa (literally, church sonata) evolved in Italy after

1650. It consisted of several movements contrasting in tempo and texture.
By the late Baroque the church sonata was mostly in four movements with
tempos indicated according to the slow—fast-slow—fast plan. The trio church
sonata was intended to be performed (like ricercare, canzoni, and toccatas)
in parts of the service, and it employed the organ in the continuo part. Some
of the movements, especially the last, had a distinctly dancelike character,
though they were not labeled as such.
112 History of Western Music
PON
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Sonata da camera
The sonata da camera (literally, chamber sonata), or partita, was in
effect a suite of dance movements bearing such titles as (in Italian) al-
lemanda, corrente, sarabanda, giga, and so on. Trio chamber sonatas em-
ployed the harpsichord for the continuo part.
In the late Baroque, the distinction between church and chamber trio
sonata forms became less clear, and sonatas often included dance names for
some movements and only tempo indications for others.
Tower Sonatas
In Germany in the seventeenth century pieces called tower sonatas
(Turmsonaten) were composed for small ensembles of wind instruments.
They were intended for performance at certain hours of the day from
municipal towers or church steeples. This literature is represented by a
collection titled Hora Decima, by Johann Pezel (1639-1694).
Keyboard Sonatas
Solo sonatas for harpsichord, introduced at the end of the seventeenth
century, constitute a relatively small portion of Baroque instrumental litera-
ture. Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722) in Germany was one of the principal
composers.

Orchestral A clearer distinction between chamber and orchestral media became

Music evident toward the end of the seventeenth century. Form terminology typi-
cally lacked standardization in such genres as sinfonia, overture, and con-
certo, terms that occasionally applied to smaller instrumental media.
Concerto
The term concerto was first used to designate a composition for voices
with separate instrumental parts as, for example, in Cento concerti
ecclesiastici by Lodovica da Viadana (1560-1627). Around the mid—seven-
teenth century the term came to mean an instrumental composition in which
there were opposing instrumental groups in typically Baroque concertato
style.
Concerto Grosso
The most important form of Baroque orchestral music was the concerto
grosso. Exemplary of Baroque dualism, it was constructed on the basis of a
group of two or three solo instruments (concertino) opposing the full orches-
tra (ripieno or tutti), often in alternating and contrasting sections within a
movement.
Solo Concerto
The latest to develop was the concerto for one instrument and orchestra.
At the end of the Baroque it was standardized in a three-movement form.
 Instrumental Music 113
SS ee ee Be ea ie Be ee ee ne ee iw ee aE ee oe

The fast-slow—fast plan of movements has remained constant until the

present.

Other Orchestral Forms

Orchestral music was also composed in the form of overtures (French
overture and Italian sinfonia), individual dances, and dance suites. No small
portion of Baroque orchestral music was that written as components of
operas, oratorios, and other large vocal works.
The Orchestra
The Baroque orchestra also lacked standardization. It was composed
mainly of strings; wind and percussion instruments were used sparingly. The
basso continuo was consistently the bass part of the orchestra. There was
generally a lack of color definition in Baroque orchestration: instruments of
different kinds doubled on each part.

SCHOOLS AND COMPOSERS

In the following summary the most important composers are listed

according to nationality and, insofar as possible, identified with particular
forms of media.

Italy Composers of keyboard music were Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643)

in the first half of the seventeenth century and Bernardo Pasquini (1637—
1710) in the second half.
Principal names in instrumental ensemble music were Maurizio Cazzati
(ca. 1620-1677), Alessandro Stradella (1644-1682), Giovanni Vitali (1632-
1692), Giuseppe Torelli (1658-1709), Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762),
and Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), the most important composer of mid-
dle—Baroque ensemble music for strings. Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
dominated the field of solo concerto music in the late Baroque. The violin
music of Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) spans both the late—Baroque and
Preclassical periods.

Germany Two composers of lute music were Esaias Reusner (1636-1679) and
Leopold Weiss (1686-1750).
German composers of organ music, prominent throughout the Baroque,
include Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), the Dutch composer Jan Pieterszoon
Sweelinck (1562-1621), Franz Tunder (1614-1667), Jan Reinken (1623-—
114 History of Western Music
a ec acpi cco cE a ET

1722), Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), Johann Philipp Krieger (1649—

1725), Georg B6hm (1661-1733), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), and Jo-
hann Kuhnau (1660-1722).
Composers of harpsichord music were Johann Froberger (1616-1667),
Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer (ca. 1665-1746), whose Ariadne Musica
of 1715 is a collection of preludes and fugues predating J. S. Bach’s
Well-Tempered Clavier, and Johann Kuhnau, whose Frische Klavierfriichten
of 1696 were the first harpsichord sonatas.
Ensemble music was composed by Johann Schein (1586-1630), Johann
Rosenmiiller (ca. 1619-1684), noted for solo and trio sonatas, Heinrich von
Biber (1644-1704), whose fifteen solo violin sonatas employ unusual tuning
of the strings called scordatura, Georg Muffat (1653-1704), Johann Jacob
Walther (ca. 1650-1717), Johann Fux (1660-1741), and Evaristo dall’ Abaco
(1675-1742). Special mention should be made of Georg Philipp Telemann
(1681-1767), who was one of the most versatile and prolific composers of
the entire Baroque era, and who wrote instrumental music in all media and
forms.

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Johann Sebastian Bach’s organ chorale preludes in all forms, toccatas,
preludes, fantasias, and fugues are the culminating works of Baroque organ
music. His harpsichord music—suites, partitas, inventions, preludes, and
fugues—also represent pinnacles in the representative genres. Bach’s en-
semble music includes accompanied and unaccompanied solo sonatas, six
Brandenburg Concertos (concerti grossi), four orchestral suites, and concer-
tos for violin and one to four harpsichords. The Musical Offering and the
Art of the Fugue are unique masterpieces that, along with the Well-Tempered
Clavier, are the ultimate achievements in Baroque counterpoint.

France Denis Gaultier (1603-1672) was the principal French composer of lute
music in the Baroque.
French clavecin music, noted for its rococo ornamentation (called
agréments), delicacy, and refinement, consisted mostly of compositions in
dance forms with fanciful titles. Principal names in the clavecin school were
Jacques Champion de Chambonieéres (ca. 1601-1672), Jean—Henri
d’ Anglebert (1635-1691), and Frangois Couperin (1668-1733). The culmi-
nation of French harpsichord music in the late Baroque was Jean-Philippe
Rameau (1683-1764).
Organ music was composed by Jean Titelouze (1563-1633), Henry Du
Mont (1610-1684), Nicolas Lebégue (1631-1702), Nicolas Gigault (ca.
1627-1707), Guillaume Nivers (ca. 1632-1714), André Raison (ca. 1650—
1719), Frangois Couperin, Louis Marchand (1669-1732), and Louis—Claude
Daquin (1694-1772),
 Instrumental Music 115

Marin Marais (1656-1728), viola da gambist for Louis XIV, wrote five
books of pieces for that instrument. Jean—Marie Leclair (1697-1764) was
the principal French composer of violin sonatas, trio sonatas, and concertos.
French orchestral music from Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) to Rameau
was largely dance music from operas and ballets.

England The early seventeenth century in England was dominated by the last of
the Elizabethan virginalists and the continuing tradition of ensemble music
for viols. Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656) wrote keyboard pieces and string
fantasias. In the latter category is also the music of John Jenkins (1592-
1678), Henry Lawes (1596-1662), William Lawes (1602-1645), Matthew
Locke (ca. 1630-1677), and Henry Purcell (1659-1695), whose fantasies in
three, four, and five parts represent the last of the Renaissance—style consort
music. Purcell also composed keyboard works, sonatas for chamber ensem-
bles, and incidental-and entr’acte music for orchestra.
Geroge Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
George Frideric Handel, though more important in the fields of opera
and oratorio, composed seventeen harpsichord suites, solo sonatas for flute,
recorder, violin, and oboe, and trio sonatas. His orchestral music includes
twelve concerti grossi, twelve organ concertos, six woodwind (“‘oboe”’)
concertos, and the famous Water Music and Fireworks Music.

Spain The most important instrumental music in Spain in the Baroque was
composed for organ by Juan Cabanilles (1644-1712), Sebastfan Aguilera de
Heredia (ca. 1565-1627), and José Elfas (fl. 1715-1751).

Scores and Organ: NAWM 97-101

Recordings Keyboard music: NAWM 102-106; NSI 25 and 27
Sonatas: NAWM 92 and 93
Concertos: NAWM 94~96; NSI 20 and 24
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PART FIVE
THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
(1750-1820)
19
Introduction to the
Preclassical and
Classical Periods

1742 C.P.E. Bach: Prussian Sonatas

1752 Quantz: On Playing the Flute
1752 War of the Buffoons, Paris
1753-1762 C.P.E. Bach: Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments
1761 Haydn enters service of Esterhazy
1762 Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice, premiered in Vienna
1763 First major tour by Mozart (at age seven)
1768 Mozart: Bastien und Bastienne, his first singspiel
1770 Mozart’s first string quartets
1770 Concertos for the piano by J. C. Bach
1771 Haydn: Op. 17 string quartets
1774 Gluck: Orphée et Euridice, premiered in Paris
1774 Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther
1775-1783 American Revolution
1776 Charles Burney’s General History of Music
1776 John Hawkins’s General History of the Science and Practice of Music
1781 Leipzig Gewandhaus concerts begin
1784 Grétry: Richard the Lion—Hearted (first rescue opera)
1785 Mozart: Haydn Quartets
120 History of Western Music

1786 Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro

1787 Death of Gluck
1787 Mozart: Don Giovanni
1788 Mozart: Symphonies nos. 40 and 41
1789-1794 French Revolution
1791-1795 Haydn: London Symphonies
1791 Mozart: The Magic Flute
1791 Death of Mozart
1796 Beethoven: Op. 2, first piano sonatas
1798 Haydn: The Creation
1798 Beethoven begins composing Op. 18 string quartets
1799 Beethoven: Symphony no. 1
1800 Haydn: The Seasons
1802 Beethoven’s “Heiligenstadt Testament”; beginning of “Second Period”;
“Moonlight” Sonata (Op. 27, no. 2)
1803 Beethoven: Symphony no. 3 (“Eroica”); Fidelio
1804 Beethoven: ‘“Waldstein” Sonata (Op. 53)
1806 Beethoven: Op. 59, “Rasumovsky” string quartets
1808 Beethoven’s Symphony nos. 5 and 6 premiered on same program
1809 Death of Haydn
1812 Beethoven: Piano Concerto no. 5 (“Emperor”) premiered
1816 Beethoven’s “Third Period” begins
1823 Beethoven: Diabelli Variations
1824 Beethoven: Symphony no. 9
1826 Beethoven: String Quartet no. 14 in c# minor (Op. 131)
1827 Death of Beethoven
 Introduction to the Preclassical and Classical Periods 121

Nhisperiod was one of the most dynamic in the history of Europe. New ways
of thinking, generally referred to as the Enlightenment, led the individual to
assume an importance not held before. The era was therefore secular,
rational, egalitarian, cosmopolitan, humanitarian, and progressive, and all of
those tendencies found reflection in music. European art music became
largely secular, it sought for a “natural” order and balance, it was accessible
to large groups and classes of people as never before, it eventually achieved
a continental style, and it came to venerate new ideas and expressions.

THE PRECLASSICAL PERIOD

The early years of the Classical period present a confusing array of

Stylistic trends. One finds diverse concepts of musical style, form, and
medium at play, often simultaneously. These styles are collectively referred
to as Preclassical. Primary among these are the Rococo, the Empfindsamer
Stil, and, for lack of a more specific term, the Preclassical.

Rococo The Rococo style was developed in France and ran from about 1720 to
about 1775. It was a light, elaborate, and ornate style specifically opposed
to the ponderous and grandiose Baroque style. Characteristically, it was less
contrapuntal and relied more on ornamentation for its effect. Also called
style galant, it was first heard in the works of the French clavecin school
(especially Francois Couperin [1668—1733]) and other late-Baroque com-
posers (Jean—Philippe Rameau [1683-1764] and Georg Philipp Telemann
[1681—1767]).

Empfindsamer In Germany after 1750, the style galant came to be known as the
Stil Empfindsamer Stil, with an added element of heightened expressiveness.
The highly emotional quality of this style reached a peak in the 1760s and
1770s, and is sometimes described as Sturm und Drang (storm and stress),
a term applied to German literature of the period. Two of the sons of J. S.
Bach (1685-1750) were important exponents of the Empfindsamer Stil:
Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710-1784) and the highly—influential Carl
Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788).

Preclassical Music that more generally represents the transition from the Baroque to
the Classical is referred to as representative of the Preclassical style.
Changes in concepts of form, style, and medium took place roughly from
about 1740 to 1770. No clear line of distinction can be drawn between late
122 History of Western Music
a Ge ae RE ee

Baroque and Preclassical and early Classical style. Mixtures of styles often
appeared in the works of the same composers.
Basic Changes
The old forms of the Baroque were gradually replaced by new sectional
structures. Baroque counterpoint was generally abandoned in favor of
homophonic textures. The basso continuo disappeared. New instrumental
media emerged. These changes were the result of experimentation by
numerous composers in different geographical regions.
Composers
Another of J. S. Bach’s sons, Johann Christian Bach (1735-1792),
achieved great renown in London, where he was one of the first to write for
the piano. Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) was a prolific Preclassical com-
poser of violin concertos and sonatas. Johann Quantz (1697-1773) wrote an
important treatise on flute playing and composed flute sonatas and concertos
during this period. Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), the son of Alessandro
Scarlatti (1660-1725), spent most of his adult life in Spain, where, under
almost no influence, he composed some 555 highly inventive harpsichord
sonatas (which he called essercizi), generally in binary form and of homo-
phonic texture. Other Preclassical composers were Gottlieb Muffat (1690—
1770), Johann Gottlieb Graun (1703-1771), Carl Heinrich Graun
(1704-1759), Domenico Alberti (ca. 1710-1740), Franz Xaver Richter
(1709-1789), who composed early string quartets, and Leopold Mozart
(1719-1787), the father of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791).
The Preclassical period encompasses the developments of the symphony.
There were four centers of orchestral playing especially important in the rise
of the Preclassical symphony. Ignaz Holzbauer (1711-1783), Johann
Stamitz (1717-1757), and Christian Cannabich (1731-1798) were associ-
ated with the city of Mannheim, whose orchestra was highly regarded. The
so-called Mannheim School was one of the first to utilize the musical effects
called crescendo (a gradual increase in dynamic level) and decrescendo (a
gradual dynamic decrease), both clearly contrary to the fundamental Baroque
principle of terraced dynamics. The chief composer in Milan was Giovanni
Battista Sammartini (or San Martini, 1701-1775). In Vienna the important
names were Georg Matthias Monn (1717-1750), Georg Wagenseil (1715—
1777), and Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739-1799). Johann Schobert (ca.
1735-1767) composed symphonies and sonatas in Paris. The Belgian
Frangois—Joseph Gossec (1734-1829) came to Paris to conduct Rameau’s
orchestra and composed symphonies, string quartets, and other genres.
 Introduction to the Preclassical and Classical Periods 123

THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

The adjective “Classical” has several quite different musical connota-

tions: (1) the art and literature of ancient Greece, (2) the antonym of
“Romantic” —that is, music before the nineteenth century, (3) the synonym
of “art” music, and (4) in a more limited sense, the period from about the
_ middle of the eighteenth century to about 1820, sometimes referred to as the
“Viennese Classical period.” It is in the latter sense that “Classical” is used
in music history.
Classicism implies the ideals of the Apollonian cult of ancient Greece:
objectivity, ethos, emotional restraint, and balance and clarity of form.
Although these notions are to some extent reflected in certain other periods
of music history, they are most clearly evident in the Classical period, and
more so in instrumental music than in vocal music.

Characteristics In addition to these general traits, the music of the Classical period
of the Classical developed certain specific characteristics.
Style
Form
Principles of sectional structure, particularly in sonata form, were firmly
established in the late eighteenth century.
Texture
Classical textures were typically homophonic, with a single melodic line
accompanied by nonmelodic or less melodic materials. A much—favored
accompaniment pattern was the so-called Alberti bass (named for Domenico
Alberti [1710—ca. 1740]), a broken—chord figure illustrated in Example 19.1.

pS Et

yea cope
Example 19.1. Alberti Bass

Counterpoint did not entirely disappear, however, fugues and other

contrapuntal forms were occasionally composed. Another aspect of Classi-
cal texture was the predominance of thin, light sonorities as opposed to the
predominantly massive sonority of Baroque music.
124
epee
gt
History of Western Music
ci ee a a

Melodic Style
Replacing the long continuous, autonomous melodic lines of Baroque
music, Classical melody was composed of short (usually four measures)
interlocking phrases, set off by well-prepared cadences. Melodic material
was generally thematic—that is, capable of further development. Generally
it was more diatonic than Baroque music.
Harmony
On the whole, Classical harmony was less complex than that of the
Baroque. It made more use of principal triads (tonic, dominant, subdominant
chords), and diatonic harmony was more typical than chromatic. Chord
structure was predominantly triadic; seventh chords were used sparingly, and
ninth chords hardly at all.
Instrumentation
It was during the Classical period that the potential of the piano was first
realized. The harpsichord had been totally eclipsed by the turn into the
nineteenth century. The clarinet was developed during the period and Mozart
composed for it some of its best music. Other instruments that received
special attention were the flute and the bassoon, which, along with the
clarinet and oboe, came to constitute the woodwind section of the Classical
orchestra.
Improvisation
With the diminished importance of the basso continuo, improvisation
became less important. Harmony gradually became written out. Composers
more specifically and more consistently indicated ornamentation, phrasing,
dynamics, and other details formerly left to the discretion of the performer.
Absolute Music
The Classical period favored absolute music (as opposed to program
music)—that is, instrumental music that invited no association beyond itself.
Classical instrumental music generally bore only such abstract inscriptions
as “sonata,” “symphony,” and “quartet.”

Four Major The Classical period was graced by four composers of the highest
Composers accomplishment: Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

Gluck (1714-1787)
Christoph Willibald von Gluck, the least versatile of the four, was a
master of opera and opera reform.
Haydn (1732-1809)
Franz Joseph Haydn was the most prolific of the major composers. More
than any other single composer, he established the form and instrumentation
 Introduction to the Preclassical and Classical Periods 125

of the Classical symphony and developed the string quartet. His principal
fields were symphony, chamber music (especially string quartets and diver-
timenti), concerto, piano sonata, oratorio, church music, and opera, although
the latter are little-known today.
Mozart (1756-1791)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart surely possessed one of the most fertile
musical minds of all time. More than any composer of his generation he
fashioned a European style out of national and regional styles. Unlike
Haydn, Mozart rebelled against the system of patronage and attempted, with
only fair success, to fashion a living from commissions for and royalties from
his music. His principal fields were symphony, concerto, chamber music,
sonata, and mass. His operas represent perhaps the pinnacle of the genre.
Beethoven (1770-1827)
Ludwig van Beethoven, like Mozart and Haydn, is one of the most
important composers of Western art music. His position in music history is
especially significant in that he guided the transition from late Classical to a
Romantic style, and expressed so fiercely the individual’s right to artistic
freedom that aristocratic patronage waned as a means of composers’ liveli-
hoods. He expanded the concept of sonata form and made it a vehicle of
powerful expression. He was unsurpassed in the techniques of thematic
development and variation. His main areas of composition were symphony,
concerto, string quartet, and piano sonata. He wrote an oratorio, an opera,
and one festival mass.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The last half of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of the
nineteenth century was a period marked by the rise of democratic forces
manifested chiefly in the French Revolution. Other military conflicts of the
era were the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763); the French and Indian Wars in
North America; the conflict between England and the American colonies,
culminating in the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the American
Revolution, and continuing in the War of 1812; and the Napoleonic Wars in
Europe. The period known as the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment was
dominated by the rationalist philosophies of Kant, Diderot, and the French
Encyclopedists. Other eminent writers were Voltaire, Rousseau, Lessing,
Herder, and Adam Smith, whose The Wealth of Nations (1776) was a
126 History of Western Music

milestone in economic thinking. History, as we understand it today, was first

being written; Gibbons completed his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
and Boswell his Life of Johnson. Cultural history was also being written by
Winckelmann (History of Ancient Art), Burney (General History of Music),
and Hawkins (General History of the Science and Practice of Music). Artists
of the period were Watteau, Goya, David, Reynolds, Gainsborough, and
Copley. Scientific achievements included the development of the first vac-
cine, and the discoveries of oxygen, hydrogen, electricity, electromagnetic
induction, and ultraviolet rays. The invention of the steam engine, spinning
jenny, cotton gin, electric motors, and generators were factors in the Indus-
trial Revolution, which began in England around 1760.

Scores and Keyboard Sonata

Recordings D. Scarlatti: NSI 27; NAWM 107
C.P.E. Bach: NAWM 108
String Quartet
Richter: NAWM 111
Symphony
Sammartini: NAWM 113
Johann Stamitz: NAWM 114
Concerto
J.C. Bach: NAWM 119 —
 Instrumental Music

The most significant changes in form and genre during the Classical era
took place in instrumental music.

THE SONATA CYCLE

The term sonata cycle here means the basic plan of instrumental com-
positions in three or four movements. Sonata cycle is a concept that, with
certain modifications, applies to virtually all instrumental genres of the
Classical period: solo sonatas, symphonies, concertos, string quartets, and
others.

First Movement The Classical first movement is in a fast tempo, usually marked “alle-
gro.” Its sectional structure, perhaps the most significant one-movement
scheme to emerge in the eighteenth century, is called sonata form (variously,
sonata—allegro form, and first-movement form). Sonata form is an abstrac-
tion, first defined in 1787 long after it was in general use. In reality,
composers only occasionally follow exactly the formal conventions defined
here below. The process that led to this balanced form was so important to
the musical thinking in the period that it is sometimes referred to as the sonata
principle. Itmay be found in rondos, in theme and variations, even in operas.
Sonata form is almost always found in the first movement of Classical—
period instrumental pieces. It may also exist in other movements and in other
tempos. Sonata form is a dramatic play between theme and key. This is
worked out in a general three—part structure that consists of (1) the exposi-
tion, (2) the development, and (3) the recapitulation.

127
128 History of Western Music
a
ers
i i

Exposition
The exposition in sonata form presents the basic thematic and tonal
materials of the movement. The main theme (or main theme group) is
presented in the key of the movement (or the tonic key). This material is
followed by a transition called the bridge (or bridge passage) that modulates
to the dominant key (or relative major key if the movement is in a minor key).
The second theme (or subordinate theme) is then presented in the contrasting
dominant key. The exposition may conclude with still another theme, called
the closing theme, or codetta. The end of the exposition is marked by a
double—bar repeat sign, but in many modern performances the exposition is
not repeated.

Development
There is no standard practice regarding procedures followed in the
development section. It utilizes any or all of the material from the exposition,
which is “developed” in various ways. Themes or motives are treated in
different keys, registers, textures, and timbres. The development section
may also contain any number of nonthematic episodes. It concludes in the
tonic key and moves without pause into the recapitulation.
Recapitulation
The recapitulation is a general (not exact) restatement of the exposition,
but with all subsections remaining in the tonic key.
Optional Sections
The first movement sometimes begins with an introduction in slow
tempo. Introductions do not normally introduce the thematic material of the
movement. Sonata—form movements, especially those by Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770-1827), quite often conclude with a coda that follows the
closing theme of the recapitulation.

Second The Classical second movement has three characteristics: (1) itis in slow
Movement tempo (e.g., adagio, lento); (2) it is in a closely related key, usually the
subdominant or dominant key in relation to the key of the work as a whole;
and (3) it has a more melodic quality than the other movements. Forms
commonly used in second movements are ternary (ABA), rounded binary
(AABA), theme and variations, sonatine (sonata form without a development
section), and sonata form.

Third Movement The most common third movement form in a Classical four-movement
work is a menuetto (or minuet). It is in the tonic key, 3meter, and played in
a moderately fast tempo. It is a ternary form, called minuet and trio (or song
form and trio), in three main sections: minuet, trio, and minuet repeated.
 instrumental Music 129

Each section is itself in rounded binary form. Thus, the minuet movement
normally follows this plan:
Minuet Trio Minuet (“da capo”’)
a:ll:ba:I| cilkde:ll aba (played without repeats)
The trio is often in a contrasting or relative key to the minuet, and has a
lighter texture.
In a few Haydn works and in most Beethoven compositions in the sonata
cycle, the third movement is called scherzo. It follows the same sectional
Structure, tempo, and meter as the minuet but is characteristically less
dancelike and in a more playful or humorous style.
The order of the two middle movements was sometimes reversed so that
the minuet or scherzo came second and the slow movement third. The minuet
or scherzo was omitted in sonata—cycle compositions with only three move-
ments.

Fourth The last movement, the finale, in a Classical three— or four-movement

Movement sonata cycle work is in the tonic key, with a lively tempo, and usually in
sonata form, rondo structure (ABACA etc.), or a combination (ABACABA).
It was typically less intensive than the first movement, although Beethoven
gradually came to assign it weight equal to or greater than the first movement.

THE SYMPHONY

The development of the Classical symphony was one of the major

musical achievements of the eighteenth century.

Form The prototype of the Classical symphony was the Italian overture form
called sinfonia. In the early eighteenth century the sinfonia was a three—sec-
tion, fast-slow—fast structure. As an orchestral composition independent of
operas it emerged as three separate movements in the same order of tempos.
Among Preclassical composers, it gradually took on the shape of the sonata
cycle. Aminuet was added as the third movement in a four-movement work.

The Orchestra Two aspects of orchestral media are (1) instrumentation (the instruments
specified in an orchestral score) and (2) orchestration (the manner in which
those instruments are employed).
130 History of Western Music

Instrumentation
By the end of the eighteenth century the symphony orchestra consisted
of four woodwind instruments in pairs (flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bas-
soons), trumpets, horns, and timpani, also in pairs, and a string choir
consisting of first and second violins, violas, cellos, and string basses.
Orchestration
Strings were still the dominant color. First violins carried the thematic
material. Second violins and violas were most often assigned harmonic
material. Cellos and basses were consistently doubled, written as one part
on the same staff, but with the basses sounding an octave lower than the
cellos. Woodwinds became more important, as advances in instrument
building produced instruments better able to play in tune; they were generally
scored in harmonic passages. Brass instruments, without valves, were al-
most entirely confined to tutti passages and to harmonic rather than melodic
or thematic material.

Composers The enormous output of orchestral literature by Preclassical composers

provided the foundation on which the Classical symphonies of Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven were created.

Haydn (1732-1809)
Franz Joseph Haydn wrote more than a hundred symphonies, the earliest
of which are representative of Preclassical form and orchestration. He
favored slow introductions to his first movements.
Mozart (1756-1791)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart produced forty-one symphonies, among
which the most famous are the last four: the “Prague” Symphony (no. 38 in
D Major), no. 39 in E’ Major, no. 40 in g minor, and no. 41 in C Major
(nicknamed the “Jupiter” Symphony).
Beethoven (1770-1827)
As a body of music, Ludwig van Beethoven’s nine symphonies transcend
Classical form and style; only the first and the eighth follow the prevailing
conventions of form and structure. As he did in other media, Beethoven
expanded the sonata cycle and infused it with his dynamic personality. In
four of his symphonies (the third, fifth, sixth, and ninth) he added new
instruments to Classical instrumentation. His Sixth Symphony (the ‘“Pasto-
ral” Symphony), in five movements, was one of the first programmatic
symphonies, in which nonmusical concepts, ideas, or images were conveyed
by the music; in this case the images had to do with nature. The Ninth
Symphony, which departed still further from Classical tradition, was scored
for a number of additional instruments (piccolo, contrabassoon, four horns,
 Instrumental Music 131

three trombones, triangle, cymbals, and bass drum), and for solo voices and
chorus in the finale.

THE CONCERTO

The solo concerto carried over from the Baroque but it differed in style
and in structure of movements.

Form The Classical concerto, like the Baroque solo concerto, was in three
movements, and followed the fast-slow-fast plan. Unlike the Classical
symphony, it omitted the minuet movement.
First Movement
The first movement of the Classical concerto was in sonata form but
contained notable differences. There were two separate expositions, called
the double exposition. The first introduced the principal themes by the
orchestra alone, and all in the tonic key; in the second exposition the solo
instrument presented the thematic material in a more brilliant and ornamental
version. Generally, the development and recapitulation sections followed
sonata—form conventions. Near the end of the recapitulation, a cadenza was
presented by the solo instrument. This section was signaled by the orchestral
suspension of forward motion on an unresolved chord marked by a fermata
(@ ), a symbol for a pause. Cadenzas were freely improvised, virtuosic
development of thematic material. In the nineteenth century, cadenzas came
to be written out beforehand by the composer or the performer.
Second Movement
The second movement of the concerto, like that of the symphony, was
in a contrasting key and slow tempo. Its style was more lyrical and less
virtuosic than either the first or last movements.
Third Movement
The concerto finale was most commonly in rondo form, and in a lively
tempo. Its style was somewhat lighter than the other movements. Occasion-
ally a cadenza was included.

Composers The principal concerto literature of the Classical period was composed
by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Haydn wrote twenty concertos for piano,
nine for violin, six for cello, and others for flute, baryton, horn, clarino, and
trumpet. Mozart’s concerto output included twenty-five for piano, eight for
 132 History of Western Music
Aer oh NE IAS ne ORO ee

violin, and others for violin and viola, bassoon, flute, flute and harp, horn,
and clarinet. Beethoven composed five for piano, among which the last,
nicknamed the “Emperor,” is the most famous, the Violin Concerto in D
Major, and the Triple Concerto for violin, cello, and piano.

CHAMBER MUSIC

Unlike orchestral music, chamber music is composed for small ensem-

bles consisting of only a few players and usually only one instrument to a
part. It was an especially significant category of music literature in the
Classical period. |

Divertimento Compositions variously called divertimento, serenade, feldpartita, not-

turno (night piece), and cassation were written in great quantities during the
Preclassical and Classical eras. There was apparently no rigid distinction of
meaning among the terms. The genre might have derived from a form of
military band music. They were composed for various media ranging from
small chamber ensembles to small orchestras. The number of movements
ranged from three to ten, and included minuets, other dances, marches, and
standard sonata—form movements. Intended mostly for informal entertain-
ment and outdoor performance, they were lighter and less sophisticated than
symphonies. Haydn wrote over sixty and Mozart about thirty compositions
in this category.

String Quartet A most-favored chamber medium in the Classical period was the string
quartet, which consisted of two violins, viola, and cello. String quartets were
written in four-movement Classical sonata cycle. The principal composers
of Classical string quartets were Luigi Boccherini (1743-1805), Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven.

Other Chamber Instrumental combinations less extensively employed in the Classical

Media period were the mixed quartet (three string instruments and one other
instrument, usually piano, flute, clarinet, or oboe), string trio and mixed trio,
string quintet, and mixed quintet.
The sonata for violin and piano became important in the Classical period.
The piano more often assumed the dominant role, the violin functioning
almost as an obbligato (accompanying) instrument. Haydn wrote twelve
violin sonatas, Mozart thirty-five, and Beethoven ten.
 Instrumental Music 133

Keyboard Music Solo sonatas for harpsichord or piano constituted an important literature
in the Preclassical period, especially in the work of Carl Philipp Emanuel
Bach (1714-1788), Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710-1784), Johann
Christian Bach (1735-1782), and Domenico Paradies (or Paradisi, 1707—
1791). The fifty-two piano sonatas by Haydn and the seventeen by Mozart
are mostly three-movement works without a minuet. The piano sonatas of
Muzio Clementi (1752-1832) and the Bohemian—born Jan Ladislav Dussek
(1760-1812) influenced Beethoven, whose thirty-two piano sonatas repre-
sent the culmination of the genre. In addition to sonatas, Mozart wrote fifteen
sets of variations, and Beethoven twenty-one sets.

Scores and In several cases the following are examples drawn from larger works.
Recordings
Symphony .
Haydn: NSI 29; NAWM 115 and 116
Beethoven: NSI 35; NAWM 118
Concerto
Mozart: NSI 30; NAWM 120
Divertimento
Mozart: NSI 31
String Quartet
Beethoven: NSI 33
Piano Sonata
Clementi: NAWM 109
Dussek: NAWM 110
Beethoven: NSI 34
 Opera and Religious Music

The distinction between Baroque and Classical styles is less clearly

marked in large vocal forms than in instrumental music. While Classical
instrumental music holds a prominent place in today’s repertory, relatively
few operas, oratorios, and church compositions, among the prodigious quan-
tity composed, are heard today.

OPERA

Neapolitan opera, which dominated the first half of the eighteenth

century, began to merge with Preclassical developments around 1720, also
the beginning of opera reform.

Opera Seria Italian opera seria became a production in which musical formality and
vocal virtuosity took precedence over dramatic considerations. Character-
istics of this genre include 1) a three-act structure; 2) rigid alternation of
arias/duets and recitativo secco; 3) action developed in the recitatives and
musical commentary provided by the arias and duets; 4) plots drawn from
ancient Greek or Latin sources featuring passionate and heroic, “larger—
than—life” conflicts; 5) standard casting of two pairs of lovers and a few
subordinate roles; and 6) an orchestra whose role was solely to accompany
the singers. This rigid form is sometimes called Metastasian opera, after the
Italian poet Pietro Metastasio (1698-1782), who provided standardized
opera librettos for many eighteenth-century composers.
Reactions against this situation were evident well before the mid—eigh-
teenth century. The first treatise to acknowledge artificialities in Italian
opera was a Satire by Benedetto Marcello (1686-1739) published in 1720,

134
 Opera and Religious Music 135

entitled IJ Teatro alla moda (The Fashionable Theater). Reforms, however,

did not occur suddenly, nor were they universally adopted by eighteenth—
century composers.
Aspects of Reform
Departures from early eighteenth—century practice are found in some,
but by no means all, operas in the second half of the century. In the operas
of those composers sympathetic to reform, some characteristics were held in
common. (1) There was greater concern for the dramatic aspects of opera,
and less attention to formal musical aspects. (2) Structures became more
flexible and there was a trend away from stereotypical operas consisting
mainly of arias with intervening recitatives. (3) Rigid da capo arias appeared
less frequently, and gave way to more diversified forms. (4) Secco recita-
tives were less utilized; accompanied recitatives grew in favor. (5) Choral
ensembles were increasingly employed. (6) The orchestra, no longer rele-
gated to mere accompanying status, assumed a more expressive role. (7)
Ostentatious vocal virtuosity was less evident, and solo singers began to lose
some of their autocratic domination over opera performance.

Composers
The first composers to reflect limited reforms were Niccold Jommelli
(1714-1774) and Tommaso Traetta (1727-1779). The central figure in opera
reform, though, was Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787). After com-
posing some twenty Italian operas in the prevailing style, he put reform ideas
into practice with Orfeo ed Euridice in 1762. In the preface to his next opera,
Alceste, he summarized his objectives of reform. His reform operas heeded
the Classical ideals of simplicity and naturalness. Avoiding the absurd and
complex plots of the opera seria, Gluck set to music the simplified Classical
librettos of Raniero Calzabigi (1714-1795). The quality of Gluck’s music
raised opera to a new artistic level while at the same time it wholly served
the drama. His later reform operas, all produced in Paris, were [phigénie en
Aulide, Armide, and Iphigénie en Tauride.
Other composers, roughly contemporary with Gluck but not in the
current of reform, were Johann Adolph Hasse (1699-1783), who was prob-
ably the most popular and successful composer of his time, Niccold Piccini
(1728-1800), Giuseppe Sarti (1729-1802), Antonio Sacchini (1730-1786),
Johann Christian Bach (1735-1782), Etienne—Nicolas Méhul (1763-1817);
Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842), whose principal operas were Médée and Les
Deux journées; and Gasparo Spontini (1774-1851), who wrote La Vestal.

Comic Opera The forms of comic opera were established during the first half of the
eighteenth century: opera buffa in Italy, opéra comique in France, ballad
opera in England, singspiel in Germany, and zarzuela in Spain. These forms
136 History of Western Music

continued to flourish in the second half of the eighteenth century and were
given added impetus as a result of popular revolt against Italian opera seria.
Italy
In the Preclassical and Classical periods, opera buffa developed a rapid
style of nearly spoken recitative called parlando. Ensemble finales were
characteristic. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, elements of opera
seria appeared in buffa operas. Principal composers were Niccold Piccini
(La Buona figliuola), Giovanni Paisiello (1740-1816), who wrote Nina,
Domenico Cimarosa (1740-1801), whose IJ Matrimonio segreto was his
most popular work, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791).
France

Opéra comique used spoken dialogue instead of recitative. It began to

acquire romantic and sentimental qualities. Social and political themes were
frequently introduced. Principal composers were Egidio Duni (1709-1775),
Francois Andre Danican—Philidor (1726-1795), Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny
(1729-1817), and André Ermest Modeste Grétry (1741-1813), whose Richard
Coeur—de-Lion was a forerunner of romantic nineteenth—century “rescue”
operas.
England
After a heyday of ballad opera in the first half of the eighteenth century,
there was a decline of opera in England. Thomas Augustine Arne (1710—
1778) was important as a composer of popular operas.
Germany
An important composer of German singspiel operas was Johann Adam
Hiller (1728-1804). Fidelio by Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) is of
the rescue—opera type.
Spain
In Spain the tonadilla, comparable to Italian opera buffa, superseded the
older zarzuela of the early eighteenth century. Principal composers were
Luis Mis6n (d. 1766), Pablo Esteve y Grimau (ca. 1730-1794), and Blas
Laserna (1751-1816).

Mozart The pinnacle of eighteenth-century opera was achieved by Mozart. His

(1756-1791) immortality in this field rests not only on reform but on the consummate
greatness of his music and his phenomenal sense of theater. Among the
thousands of operas produced in the eighteenth century, Mozart’s are the only
ones in the standard repertory today. Idomeneo and La Clemenza di Tito (The
Mercy of Titus) are opera seria. His German operas are Die Entfiihrung aus
dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio) and Die Zauberflote (The
Magic Flute). His most famous buffa operas are Le Nozze di Figaro (The
 Opera and Religious Music 137

Marriage of Figaro) and Cosi fan tutte (So Do They All). Don Giovanni,
called a dramma giocoso, is a mixture of opera seria and opera buffa
elements.

RELIGIOUS MUSIC

From 1750 to 1820, religious music was much less important than
instrumental music and opera. As in the late Baroque, operatic styles and
forms were absorbed into the genre.

Oratorio With a few exceptions, oratorio was an empty tradition after George
Frideric Handel (1685-1759). Relatively few works of lasting value were
composed. After about 1780, oratorios were almost indistinguishable from
operas; some were even staged and acted in costume. The most important
works of the period were Der Tod Jesu by Kar] Heinrich Graun (1704-1759),
The Israelites in the Wilderness by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788),
and two oratorios by Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), The Return of Tobias
and The Creation, which was based on Genesis and an adaptation of Milton’s
Paradise Lost. Haydn’s The Seasons is a secular oratorio. His oratorios, like
those of most other composers in the second half of the eighteenth century,
reveal the strong influence of Handel. Beethoven’s Christ on the Mount of
Olives is a late—period oratorio.

Church Music The influence of opera on church music was even more strongly mani-
fested than it was in the late Baroque. Nearly all composers of Classical
church music were opera composers. Masses were operalike compositions
for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. Arias and duets were in no way
different from those in opera, except for the texts. Generally, there was a
strong secular element in the style. Some Baroque characteristics persisted
in church music: fugal choruses and basso continuo parts. Even orchestral
forms were occasionally employed in masses.
Composers
Principal composers of church music were Johann Adolph Hasse,
Giovanni Paisiello, with some 103 church compositions, Nicola Zingarelli
(1752-1837), with over five hundred works, Giuseppe Sarti (1729-1802),
and Luigi Cherubini. The three great Classical masters contributed to the
literature of Catholic masses. Haydn wrote some fourteen masses, among
which the Lord Nelson Mass is the best known. Mozart wrote fifteen masses,
138 History of Western Music

including the Mass in c minor, the Coronation Mass, and his last masterpiece,
the Requiem Mass. Beethoven’s most significant work in this category was
the monumental Missa Solemnis.

Scores and Most of these examples are excerpts from larger works.
Recordings Mass
Haydn: NSI 32
Requiem
Mozart: NSI 38
Opera
Gluck: NSI 29
Mozart: NSI 35; NAWM 124
PART SIX
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD
(1820-1900)
i
Introduction to the
Romantic Period

1808 Beethoven: Symphonies nos. 5 and 6

1808 Goethe’s Faust, Part 1
1815 English defeat Napoleon at Waterloo
1815 Schubert: “The Erlkdnig”
1816 Rossini:
The Barber of Seville
1821 Weber: Der Freischiitz
1824 Beethoven: Symphony no. 9
1827 Death of Beethoven
1827 Schubert: Winterreise
1827 Victor Hugo’s preface to Cromwell, a manifesto of Romanticism
1828 Death of Schubert
1829 Performance of Bach’s St. Matthew Passion by Mendelssohn
1829 Steam locomotive is perfected
1830 Revolutions in France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, and Brazil
1830 Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique
1832 Chopin: Etudes, Op. 10
1832 Robert Schumann: Carnaval, Op. 17
1839 New York Philharmonic Society established
1839 First daguerrotype
taken
1843 Berlioz’s Treatise on Instrumentation and Modern Orchestration
1848 Revolutions in Europe

141
142 History of Western Music

1848 Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels

1849 Wagner’s Art and Revolution
1849 Death of Chopin
1850 Bach Gesellschaft founded
1851 Verdi: Rigoletto
1856 Death of Robert Schumann
1859 Wagner: Tristan und Isolde
1859 Darwin publishes The Origin of Species
1861-1865 American Civil War
1869 Death of Berlioz
1870-1871 Franco—Prussian War
1873 Brahms: Op. 51 string quartets
1874 Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov
1875 John Knowles Paine appointed first American Professor of Music (Harvard)
1876 Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain
1876 First performance of The Ring of the Nibelungen at Bayreuth
1881 Death of Mussorgsky
1883 New York Metropolitan Opera opened
1883 Death of Wagner
1886 Death of Liszt
1887 Verdi: Otello
1888 Richard Strauss: Don Juan
1888 Franck: Symphony in d minor
1892-1895 Dvorak in the United States
1893 Tchaikovsky: Symphony no. 6 (‘‘Pathétique’’)
1897 Death of Brahms
1899 Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams
1899 Schoenberg: Verkldrte Nacht
1901 Death of Verdi
1905 Richard Strauss: Salome
1908 Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde
1911 Death of Mahler
 Introduction to the Romantic Period 143

1914-1918 World WarI

1949 Death of Richard Strauss
1957 Death of Sibelius

The nineteenth century is generally known as the Romantic period, but

aspects of Romanticism appeared before 1800 and continued well into the
twentieth century. There is so much overlap that some composers are con-
sidered Classical by one account and Romantic by another, with Beethoven
probably the most problematic. There is a current tendency among historians
to consider the Romantic period a natural result of the Classical era, evenpart
of the same movement. If we characterize the Romantic period as subjective,
emotional, intuitive, and Dionysian, and the Classical as objective, rational,
scientific, and Apollonian, the traits should be seen as complementary rather
than opposed. And in its veneration of individualism and nationalism, the
nineteenth century was clearly a child of the Enlightenment. Some important
cultural concepts did receive special attention in the nineteenth century,
though. Much more than the eighteenth century, it was an age that yearned
for transcendence, the unattainable, the boundless (a tendency sometimes
designated by the German word sehnsucht), and had a penchant for the
strange, the mysterious, the supernatural, and the remote. It also venerated
theunfettered imagination. These characteristics are manifest throughout
nineteenth—century philosophy, literature, drama, art, music, and popular
culture. Related to this is a dichotomony between man and nature that was
explored during this period.

MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
K
Features of nineteenth—century music set it apart from other periods. (1)
Composers became socially and economically more independent, and some
even prospered from the sale and performance of their music; they no longer
depended on the patronage of church and aristocracy, in fact most music was
written for the middle class, a truly immense audience. (2) Music was
generally composed for two kinds of venues: the public concert hall and
opera house on the one hand, and the private, intimate salon or parlor on the
other. (3) There were notable extremes of length in composition: large,
extensive, grandiose works (symphonies, concertos, oratorios, and, espe-
144
ee History ofSa
Western Music ae a a

cially, operas) and miniatures (solo songs, piano pieces). (4) Preferred
genres were the solo song with piano accompaniment, opera, piano works,
and orchestral works; chamber and choral media were less favored. (5)
Composers purposefully developed a greater individuality of style than ever
before. (6) They felt a fundamental affinity between music and words;
hence, there were important developments in song, opera, choral symphony,
and program music. (7) More than in any earlier period, composers placed
a special value on originality in their work. (8) Virtuosity was a familiar trait
in much instrumental music; the virtuoso performer was much admired as
the image of the Romantic hero. (9) Nationalism was a significant trend:
composers consciously fostered national styles by using folklore as subjects
for operas, songs, and program music, and by incorporating folk tunes and
folk styles in their compositions.
In addition to the above characteristics, there were significant develop-
ments in compositional styles and techniques.

Melody Romantic melody generally has qualities of warmth and expressiveness,

a more lyric style, and more flexible phrase structure. It often has a search-
ing, seeking, restless quality.

Harmony Harmony is an important vehicle for Romantic expression. The nine-

teenth century saw expansion of harmonic idiom in terms of chord structure
and progression, toward a richer harmonic language. Dissonance was more
extensive and more freely treated; seventh and ninth chords appeared more
frequently. Chromaticism and modulation played important roles.

Tonality Nineteenth—century music was still basically tonal, but key feeling, often
obscured by extended chromatic modulations and the use of remotely related
keys, became less distinct toward the end of the century, a trend that paved
the way for radically new concepts of tonality in the twentieth century.

Texture Romantic textures, as in Classical music, were basically homophonic.

Counterpoint, when used, was of secondary importance. In terms of sono-
rity, nineteenth—century music was notable for a marked increase in richness
and density of sound.

Dynamics Romantic composers discovered the inherent possibilities of dynamics

for expression. Wider range of dynamic levels and more extensive use of
crescendo and diminuendo were characteristic of the period.

Form Conventional musical form was generally less important than content
and subjective expression. Consequently, sectional structures were freer,
more variable, and often less distinct than in the Classical era. Although
 Introduction to the Romantic Period 145

sonata form and other Classical forms were Sill employed, they were much
more flexible.

MUSIC EDUCATION

The nineteenth century was the first in which much of the population
received a general music education. This was especially the case in the
United States. In 1837 Boston became the first American city to include
education in‘music as part of the public school curriculum. By midcentury
many American cities and towns had followed suit. Training of professional
musicians began in the 1860s when Oberlin College—Conservatory and the
Peabody Conservatory were opened. The study of music at the academic
level dates from 1875, when Harvard appointed John Knowles Paine (1839—
1906) professor of music, making him the first to hold that position in an
American college. By century’s end several colleges and universities had
established departments of music and schools of music.

Musicology The Romantic period had a deep fascination for the dark and distant past,
which in one form manifested a developing interest in musical history. The
music of Bach and Palestrina was rediscovered during this period and came
to be widely appreciated. The impulse to know more about music history
stimulated the rise of a scholarly discipline known as musicology, which
involves research into the musical past. Pioneers in establishing musicology
were Raphael Georg Kiesewetter (1773-1850), Karl Friedrich Chrysander
(1826-1901), Hermann Kretzschmar (1848-1924), Hugo Riemann (1849—
1919), Guido Adler (1855-1941), Peter Wagner (1865-1931), Johannes Wolf
(1869-1947), Friedrich Ludwig (1872-1930), and Oscar Sonneck (1873-
1928).

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The cultural, economic, political, and social orders of the nineteenth

century were affected by advances in science and engineering: photography,
food canning, the railway and steamboat, steel production, electricity, the
146 History of Western Music

telephone, telegraph, phonograph, and other innovations. The spread of

technology augmented the Industrial Revolution in Europe, which, in turn,
created new social, economic, and political conditions, such as the growth
of industrial capitalism and the advent of socialism. Nineteenth—century
conflicts were the Crimean War (1854-1856), the Civil War in the United
States (1861-1865), and the Franco—Prussian War (1870-1871). The most
important movement in art was French Impressionism, beginning in the
second half of the century and represented by Manet, Degas, Monet, Renoir,
Pissaro, and the sculptor Rodin. Allied with this movement were the French
symbolist poets Verlaine, Mallarmé, and Rimbaud. The principal philoso-
phers were the Germans Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche. An important
social historian and theorist was Karl Marx. It was a period of great
Romantic literature: in Great Britain, Byron, Wordsworth, Scott, Thackeray,
Dickens, Hardy, Carlyle, Coleridge, and Keats were prominent; in Germany,
Schiller, Goethe, Richter, Heine, Novalis, Tieck, and E.T.A. Hoffmann; in
France, Lamartine, Musset, Hugo, and Flaubert; in the United States, Emer-
son, Thoreau, Longfellow, Poe, Melville, Hawthorne, and Mark Twain.
Opera

Many aspects of Romanticism affected nineteenth—-century opera. Espe-

cially significant were the rise of nationalism, the use of romantic subjects,
and the highly emotional treatment of them. Important changes in structure
and style took place. The main centers of operatic activity were Italy, France,
and Germany.

ITALIAN OPERA

Since its inception at the beginning of the seventeenth century, opera had
been at the center of Italian musical interest and had become a tradition firmly
implanted in the life of the people. Opera was Italy’s most important
contribution to nineteenth—century music; other fields were almost totally
neglected.
Some generalizations can be made about nineteenth-century Italian
opera. (1) Because of its strong national tradition, Italian opera was more
conservative and less subject to Romantic innovations than in northern
countries. (2) The distinction between opera seria and opera buffa was
maintained well into the century, but the latter was unimportant in the second
half. (3) The reforms initiated by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787)
had little consequence on nineteenth—century Italian opera, but some French
influence was evident in the growing importance of the orchestra, orchestral
color, and more use of the chorus. (4) There was a better balance between
drama and music as dramatic integrity once again became an established
objective. (5) The rigid alternation of aria and recitative was replaced by
more complex forms like the scena, in which the dramatic character of the
text shaped the music. (6) Dramatic and musical continuity increased,

147
148 History of Western Music

though it was less evident in Italian opera than in Germany. (7) Italian
composers generally avoided plots based on supernatural and bizarre sub-
jects. (8) Serious operas were mostly melodramas with violent emotional
situations; escape, rescue, and redemption were typical themes. (9) Virtuos-
ity for its own sake was less prominent than in the eighteenth century. (10)
Melody was the all-important vehicle for dramatic and Romantic expression;
this regard for “beautiful singing” gave the genre its name, bel canto opera.

The founder of early Romantic serious Italian opera was Johann Simon
Mayr (1763-1845), a German who lived most of his life in Italy. Through
his efforts many of the aforementioned characteristics of nineteenth-century
Italian opera were effected. In general there were fewer important nine-
teenth—century Italian opera composers and they were far less prolific, but
more nineteenth— than eighteenth—-century operas remain in today’s reper-
tory.

Rossini Gioachino Rossini’s music retained traces of classical style: clarity and
(1792-1868) simplicity of texture and form. His greatest gift was in opera buffa. Principal
works were L’ Italiana in Algeri, La Cenerentola (Cinderella); Il Barbiere di
Siviglia (The Barber of Seville), a masterpiece of sparkling wit and comedy;
and La Gazza ladra (The Thieving Magpie). Guillaume Tell (William Tell),
produced in Paris, is a French grand opera.

Donizetti Gaetano Donizetti wrote some seventy operas, which include serious and
(1797-1848) comic operas, in Italian and in French. He is best known for the serious
operas Lucia di Lammermoor, Lucrezia Borgia, and Linda di Chamounix;
the comic operas Don Pasquale and L’Elisir d'amore (The Elixir of Love);
and La Fille du regiment (The Daughter of the Regiment), a French opéra
comique.

Bellini The least prolific among the triumvirate who dominated Italian opera
(1801-1835) before 1850, Vincenzo Bellini wrote eleven operas of generally high, serious
emotional content. His lyric style is said to have influenced Frédéric Chopin
(1810-1849). His best-known works are La Sonnambula (The Sleep-
walker), I Puritani (The Puritans), and Norma, which includes the famous
cavatina (a shorter, simpler aria) “Casta Diva.”

Verdi The most important Italian composer of the second half of the nineteenth
(1813-1901) century, Giuseppe Verdi was the culminating figure of Italian opera. Italian
nationalism was an important ingredient in his operas, and his popularity as
a national figure is attested to by the fact that his name became an acrostic
symbol (Victor Emanuelo Re D’ Italia) of the Risorgimento movement headed
by King Victor Emmanuel II. Verdi's operas in general exhibited great
continuity, a prominent and dramatic use of the orchestra, little stylistic
 Opera 149

distinction between recitative and aria, and certain characteristic structural

traits: they were composed in four acts with choral finales to the second and
third acts, and included a meditation or preghiera (prayer scene) opening the
last act.
Verdi’s six best-known operas are Rigoletto, Il Trovatore (The Trouba-
dour), La Traviata, Aida, which was commissioned for the celebration of the
opening of the Suez Canal, Orello (with a libretto by Arrigo Boito [1842-—
1918] based on Shakespeare’s Othello), and Falstaff, Verdi’s last work, an
opera buffa on a grand and profound scale. Still other Verdi operas are in
modern—day repertory.

Verismo At the end of the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth
century, there was a strong current of realism in Italian opera, called verismo
opera. These operas featured common people in familiar situations who
react with decisiveness and great passion. Composers and works in this
category were Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945), who composed Cavalleria
Rusticana (the Rustic Chivalry): Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1857-1919), who
composed I Pagliacci (The Clowns), and Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924),
among whose ever—popular operas are La Bohéme, Tosca, and Madam
Butterfly.

FRENCH OPERA

Three types of opera existed in nineteenth-century France; opéra com-

ique and grand opera in the first half of the century, and lyric opera in the
second half.

Opéra Comique The eighteenth—century distinction between serious and comic opera in
France was retained during the first half of the nineteenth century. Toward
the middle of the century, opéra comique began to develop in two directions:
toward a more lyric and serious style on the one hand, and toward light,
sentimental operettas on the other.
Composers
The principal composers and comic operas were Francis Boieldieu
(1775-1834), La Dame blanche (The White Lady), Daniel Frangois Esprit
Auber (1782-1871), Fra Diavolo; Louis Ferdinand Hérold (1791-1833), Le
Pré aux cleres (The Field of Honor); Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), Béatrice
et Bénédict; Victor Massé (1822-1884), Les Noces de Jeannette (The Mar-
150 History of Western Music
RS nae mR ae NUE eee re Pe aS

riage of Jeannette), and Charles Gounod (1818-93), Le Médecin malgré lui

(The Doctor Despite Himself).

Grand Opera In the second quarter of the nineteenth century, a new genre, distinct from
opéra comique, was called grand opera. It was built around grandiose plots
and made use of large ensemble scenes, expanded orchestral resources, and
colorful pageantry. After midcentury, these characteristics became some-
what less pronounced, and grand opera merged with comic opera.
Composers
The principal exponent of grand opera was Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791—
1864). His principal works were Robert le diable (Robert the Devil), Les
Huguenots, Le Prophete, and L' Africaine. Other composers and works in
the same category were Auber, La Muette de Portici (The Deaf Girl of
Portici); Rossini, Guillaume Tell, and Jacques Halevy (1799-1862), La Juive
(The Jewess). The pinnacle of grand opera was achieved by Berlioz in
Benvenuto Cellini. His masterful Les Troyens (The Trojans) is outwardly a
grand opera, but thoroughly transcends the genre in its dignity and serious-
ness of intention.

Lyric Opera A hybrid genre known as drame lyrique (lyric drama) emerged in the
second half of the nineteenth century. It combined the melodic appeal of
opéra comique with some of the large—scale aspects of grand opera.
Composers
Gounod’s Faust is a classic example of the lyric opera. Carmen, by
Georges Bizet (1838-1875), one of the most popular operas of all time, is
another drame lyrique, although it was originally classified as an opéra
comique because it contained spoken dialogue, though there is no comic
element in the work. Other important operas in the second half of the century
were Mignon by Ambroise Thomas (1811—1896), Manon, Werther, and Thais
by Jules Massenet (1842-1912), Le Roi d’Ys (The King of Ys) by Edouard
Lalo (1823-1892), Lakme by Léo Delibes (1836-1891), Les Contes
d’ Hoffmann (The Tales of Hoffman) by Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880),
Samson et Dalila by Camille Saint—Saéns (1835-1921), Louise by Gustave
Charpentier (1860-1956), and Fervaal by Vincent d’ Indy (1851-1931).
 Opera 151

GERMAN OPERA

Germany, of secondary importance in eighteenth-century opera, rose to

a position of eminence during the nineteenth century. The first half of the
century was dominated by German Romantic opera; the second half by the
music dramas of Richard Wagner (1813-1883).

Romantic Opera German operas borrowed much from French and Italian models, but they
differed in a number of ways. (1) Subject material was drawn from medieval
legends, folk tales, and fairy stories. (2) Plots leaned heavily on supernatural,
mystic, and occult elements, and on wild and mysterious aspects of nature.
(3) In addition to Italian-style arias, German composers employed folk tunes
and melodies in folk style. (4) German Romantic operas made much more
use of harmonic and orchestral colors to heighten dramatic interest.
Composers
The central figure in German Romantic opera was Carl Maria von Weber
(1786-1826), whose principal works were Der Freischiitz, Euryanthe, and
Oberon. Other German Romantic operas were Fidelio by Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770-1827), Faust and Jessonda by Ludwig Spohr (1784—
1859), Undine by E.T.A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), Hans Heiling and Der
Vampyr by Heinrich Marschner (1795-1861), Zar und Zimmermann (Czar
and Carpenter) by Albert Lortzing (1801-1851), Genoveva by Robert Schu-
mann (1810-1856), Martha by Friedrich von Flotow (1812-1883), Die
Lustigen Weiber von Windsor (The Merry Wives of Windsor) by Otto Nicolai
(1810-1849), and Der Fliegende Hollander (The Flying Dutchman) by
Richard Wagner. Hdnsel und Gretel by Englebert Humperdinck (1854—
1921) is a popular fairy-tale opera.

Music Drama German opera in the second half of the nineteenth century was thor-
oughly dominated by the creative genius of Richard Wagner, who conceived
of opera as the unification of the arts and called it music drama.
Wagner (1813-1883)
More than any other composer, Richard Wagner departed from operatic
tradition. (1) His concept of opera was that it should be a fusion of stagecraft,
the visual arts, literature, and music, which he called the Gesammtkunstwerk
(total artwork). He postulated that this approach would lead to dramatic truth
and unity surpassing anything in the operatic field. So great was his vision
that it required the construction of a special theater, Bayreuth, to realize it.
(2) Wagner wrote his own libretti, which, like earlier German Romantic
operas, employed national folklore and legend, medieval plots, supernatural
elements, and themes involving redemption, often with religious im-
152 History of Western Music

plications. (3) Dramatic and musical continuity were characteristic of music

dramas that abolished separate closed forms. (4) Specific distinctions be-
tween aria and recitative were abandoned. (5) Thematic recurrence in operas
had been introduced earlier, but it was Wagner who exploited the leitmotif,
a device to enhance the drama and unify the music. Leitmotifs (“leading
motives”) were musical themes that symbolized characters, objects, situa-
tions, emotions, or ideas. (6) Wagner greatly increased the size of the
orchestra, gave it a more prominent and dramatic function, and made it an
important factor in the characteristic continuity of music dramas. (7) Chro-
matic harmony, extended modulations, long, irregular phrases, contrapuntal
textures, and slight use of chorus are other characteristics of Wagner’s music
dramas.
Wagner set forth his ideas in several treatises on the subject of music and
drama: The Artwork of the Future and, most importantly, Opera and Drama.
His early Romantic operas were Die Feen (The Fairies), Das Liebesverbot
(Forbidden Love), Rienzi, Der Fliegende Hollander (The Flying Dutchman),
Tannhduser, and Lohengrin. The music dramas include an operatic tetralogy
titled Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelungen), containing the
four operas Das Rheingold, Die Walkiire, Siegfried, and Die
Gotterddmmerung (The Twilight of the Gods). Other music dramas were
Tristan und Isolde and Parsifal, his last opera. Die Meistersinger von
Nurnberg is based on the life of Hans Sachs, a famous meistersinger.

Late Romantic No German or Austrian composer found it possible to escape entirely the
Opera shadow of Wagner. Important late—century composers like Gustav Mahler
(1860-1911) and Anton Bruckner (1824—1896) chose not to write operas at
all. Richard Strauss (1864-1949) enjoyed success with his operas in the
early twentieth century, especially with Salome and Elektra, both of which
scandalized audiences, and the sensuous Der Rosenkavalier (The Cavalier
of the Rose). Hans Pfitzner (1869-1949) made a conscious effort to shed the
influence of Wagner in his Palestrina, based on the life of the composer.

OTHER NATIONAL OPERA

In addition to the most significant developments in nineteenth-century

opera in Italy, France, and Germany, there were some outstanding operas in
other countries.
 Opera 153

Russia Russian nationalistic opera began with A Life for the Czar and Russlan
and Ludmilla by Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857) . The principal Russian operas
were The Stone Guest by Alexander Dargomizsky (1813-1869), Boris Go-
dunov by Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881), Prince Igor by Alexander
Borodin (1833-1887), Eugen Onegin by Peter Illich Tchaikovsky (1840—
1893), and a number of operas by Nicolai Rimsky—Korsakov (1844-1908),
including Sadko, and Le Cog d’ or (The Golden Cockerel).

Czechoslovakia National Bohemian operas included the comic opera Prodana Nevesta
(The Bartered Bride) by Bedtich Smetana (1824-1884), King and Collier
and Rusalka by Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904), and Jenufa and From the
House of the Dead by Leos Janaéek (1854-1928).
England The most important development in English musical theater in the
nineteenth century were the operettas by William Gilbert (1836-1911) and
Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900), which, because of their wit, humor, clever
satire, and rollicking tunes, have remained popular. The best-known titles
are Trial by Jury, H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, Iolanthe, The
Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard, and The Gondoliers.

Scores and Italian opera

Recordings Rossini: NAWM 137
Bellini: NAWM 138
Verdi: NAWM 142; NSII 14
Puccini: NSII 22
French opera
Meyerbeer: NAWM 139
Bizet: NSII 20
German opera
Weber: NAWM 140
Wagner: NAWM 141; NSII 13
 Vocal Music

The Romantic era produced some estimable vocal literature in addition

to opera. The art song was the most important type; oratorio and choral music
were relatively less important.

ART SONG

The art song is a category of vocal literature distinct from popular song,
folk song, and operatic aria. Its appeal to nineteenth—century musicians is a
clear manifestation of the Romantic affinity for lyric and intimate expression
in concise forms.

Musical Nineteenth-century song composers took great pains with musical ex- |
Characteristics pression of the poetic text, and in no other field was there a closer tie between
word and music.
Melody
As a vehicle for the expression of intimate poetic sentiment, vocal
melody in the art song was characteristically lyric rather than dramatic. It
enhanced the general mood of the poetry, and frequently “painted” nonmu-
sical images as shown in the excerpt from “Alinde” (Example 24.1) by Franz
Schubert (1797—1828), in which the phrase “The sun sank into the depths of
the sea” is set to a descending melodic line, “sun” being the high point and
“sea” the low point.

154
 Vocal Music 155

Die Son - ne sinkt____in’s tie : fe Meer

Example 24.1. Musical Tone—Painting

Accompaniment
The piano, which came into general use in the early nineteenth century,
provided additional resources for romantic expression in the art song. The *
accompaniment functioned in four ways: (1) it provided harmonic and
sometimes melodic support to the voice; (2) it punctuated the poetic form
with interludes between stanzas and lines of the poem; (3) it further enhanced

material independent of the voice part: and (4) itdid tort of the tone—paint-
ing.
Form

The musical form of a song is partly determined by poetic structure. Two

N basic forms are strophic form, in which each stanza of the poem is set to the
| same music, and through—composed form, in which the music, more closely
following changing ideas and moods of the poem, is different for each stanza.
Modified strophic form is a compromise in which the successive stanzas are
sung to modified versions of the same music. A few songs are only partly
strophic; some stanzas have the same music and others are set to different
music. For example, a four—stanza poem might correspond to a musical form
such as AABA, ABAB, ABCA, or some other configuration.
Song Cycle
The nineteenth century produced a new genre in the song cycle, a group
of poems by one poet, set to music by one composer. Song cycles have a
|. central idea or mood, and usually a loosely narrative sequence of songs.

Poets The art song was nourished by flourishing Romantic poetry. The poets
whose names appear most frequently in nineteenth—century solo song liter-
ature are Johann Schiller, Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
Wilhelm Miiller, Eduard Moricke, Joseph von Eichendorff, Lord George
Byron (whose English poems were often translated into German), and the
French symbolist poets Paul Verlaine, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Charles
Baudelaire.

Composers German poets and composers dominated nineteenth-century song liter-

ature. German lieder (songs) far outnumbered songs in other lauguages.
Early development of the lied occurred in the ballads of Johann Rudolf
156 History of Western Music

Zumsteeg (1760-1802), which he modeled after the popular ballads of

England and Scotland. Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770-1827), and others also wrote and arranged ballads for
English publishers and audiences. Franz Schubert is primarily responsible
for the maturity of the lied. After him, the foremost lieder composers were
Robert Schumann (1810-1856), Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), and Hugo
Wolf (1860-1903).
Schubert (1797-1828)
During his short life Franz Schubert produced some six hundred songs.
A master of melodic invention, he elevated the lied to a position of supreme
artistry. His songs combined classical serenity and simplicity with romantic
harmony and lyric, “‘sehnsucht” melody. Generally he favored strophic and
modified strophic forms, as in “Das Wandern” (“The Wanderer”) and “Du_
Bist die Ruh” (“Thou Art Repose”), respectively. His two song cycles, Die (
Schone Miullerin (The Maid of the Mill) and Winterreise (Winter Journey) |
are masterpieces of the genre and contain some of Schubert’s most beautiful ;
songs.
Schumann (1810-1856)
Robert Schumann’s songs are Romantic in every sense’ An outstanding
characteristic is the prominence of the piano, which at times outweighs the
voice part: Piano introductions, interludes, and postludes are frequently
long. Two of his song cycles are Frauenliebe und Leben (Woman's Love and
Life) and Dichterliebe (Poet's Love).
Brahms (1833-1897)
Like Schubert, Johannes Brahms preferred strophic form, and his songs
lean toward a’folk style, less highly charged with emotion than those of
Robert Schumann. He composed more than 260 songs, the Magelone song
cycle, and Vier Ernste Gesange (Four Serious Songs) composed on biblical
texts.

Wolf (1860-1903)
Hugo Wolf was a specialist in lieder. His flexible and irregular phrases
and frequent chromaticism reflect the influence of Wagner, whom he vener-
ated. His 250 lieder were mostly in through-composed form. He is noted
for subtlety of musical expression. Though he composed no song cycles, he
concentrated on one poet at a time (Eichendorff, Goethe, Morike). In
addition are the collections of songs on texts translated from Spanish poems
(Spanisches Liederbuch) and Italian poems (Italienisches Liederbuch).
Other Lieder Composers
Other German composers who contributed to nineteenth—-century song
literature were Beethoven, whose song cycle was titled
An die Ferne Geliebte
 Vocal Music 157

(To the Distant Beloved), Karl Loewe (1796-1869), who was a master of the
strophic ballad form, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Robert Franz (1815-—
1892), Peter Cornelius (1824-1874), Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), and
Richard Strauss (1864-1949).
French Art Song
The poems of Baudelaire, Mallarmé, and Verlaine were the chief inspi-
ration for an excellent but limited French song literature that flourished
mainly in the second half of the century. The principal composers were
Charles Gounod (1818-1893), Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924) (La Bonne chan-
son, a song cycle), Ernest Chausson (1855-1899), and Henri Duparc (1848- /
1933). Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) preceded them all with his song cycles
Les Nuits d’ été and Irlande. ri
ome
SN

Russian Art Song

Late nineteenth-century Russian composers, better known for their
contributions to other categories of music, produced some notable song _
literature. The most important of these were Peter Illich Tchaikovsky (1840— /
1893), Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943), Alexander Gretchaninov (1864— |
1956), Reinhold Gliére (1875—1956), and Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881), |
who composed two fine song cycles: Sunless and Songs and Dances of |
Death. aK

ORATORIO AND CANTATA

Oratorios and cantatas did not attract Romantic composers to the extent
that opera and solo song did. To the Handelian concept, which continued to
dominate oratorio in the nineteenth century, were added Romantic subjectiv-
ity and expanded orchestral resources.

Composers Felix Mendelssohn was the most eminent composer of nineteenth—cen-

tury oratorios and cantatas, chiefly because of his mastery of choral tech-
nique. His fame in this field rests on two oratorios, St. Paul and Elijah, and
the cantata Erste Walpurgisnacht. Other notable oratorios or cantatas of the
century were Beethoven’s Christ on the Mount of Olives, The Last Judgement
by Ludwig Spohr (1784-1859), Robert Schumann’s Paradise and the Peri,
Berlioz’s L’Enfance du Christ (The Childhood of Christ), Legend of St.
Elizabeth and Christus by Franz Liszt (1811-1886), The Beatitudes by César
Franck (1822-1890), Johannes Brahms’s German Requiem, which employs
158 History of Western Music
Wisaah Sn 9Tens te ate fe gees ot Se eo ae eo ee

a biblical rather than liturgical text, The Crucifixion by John Stainer (1840—
1901), Judith, Job, and King Saul by Hubert Parry (1848-1918), The Dream
of Gerontius by Edward Elgar (1857-1934), and Hora Novissima by the
American, Horatio Parker (1863-1919).

OTHER RELIGIOUS CHORAL MUSIC

The Romantic era was not one of the great periods in church music. The
distinction between choral genres rested mainly on textual rather than formal
and stylistic considerations. Psalms and other liturgical texts were set to
music more often as festival works for concert performance than as func-
tional church music. Like oratorio, Romantic church music made use of
large choruses, solo voices, and orchestra, but unlike oratorio it did not
employ narrator and recitative.

Composers The principal composers of masses and other music on Catholic liturgical
texts were Beethoven (Missa Solemnis), Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842), Franz
Schubert, Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868; Stabat Mater), Felix Mendelssohn
(Psalms and Lauda Sion), Johannes Brahms (Motets for female chorus, Opp.
29, 74, and 110), Hector Berlioz (Grande Messe des Morts [Requiem] and
Te Deum), Franz Liszt (Graner Mass and Hungarian Coronation Mass),
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1902; Requiem), Charles Gounod (St. Cecelia Mass),
César Franck (Psalms), John Knowles Paine (1839-1906; Mass in D),
Gabriel Fauré (Requiem), and Anton Bruckner (1824-1896). Mention
should also be made of the Russian Dimitri Bortniansky, who composed
religious choral works for the Greek Orthodox Church.

SECULAR CHORAL MUSIC

The rise of nationalism and interest in folk song provided impetus for
secular choral music as did also the formation of numerous choral groups
and societies. Choral media ranged from unaccompanied part songs to
cantata—like works with solo voices and orchestra.
 Vocal Music 159

Composers Felix Mendelssohn, one of the foremost composers of Romantic choral

music of all kinds, wrote some fifty unaccompanied part songs and Erste
Walpurgisnacht, a secular cantata. Matching Mendelssohn’s excellence in
choral media, Johannes Brahms wrote numerous works for men’s, women’s,
and mixed choruses, unaccompanied and with various accompanying media.
Among his principal works are the Rhapsody for contralto, male chorus, and
orchestra, Song of Destiny, Song of Triumph, Nanie, and the Liebeslieder
Waltzes for mixed chorus (or four solo voices) with four—hand piano accom-
paniment. Other secular choral works are Hector Berlioz’s La Damnation
de Faust (The Damnation of Faust) and Robert Schumann’s Scenes from
Goethe’s “Faust”. Choral media were also employed in a number of orches-
tral works by Beethoven, Liszt, Mahler, and others.

Scores and Some of these examples are excerpts from larger works.
Recordings Art Song
Schubert: NAWM 133; NSII 1
Robert Schumann: NAWM 134; NSII 10
Wolf: NAWM 135
Brahms: NSII 18
Mahler: NAWM 136
Fauré: NAWM 157
Mussorgsky: NAWM 158
Sacred Choral Music
Brahms: NSII 17
Bruckner: NAWM 143
 Instrumental Music

Individualism, nationalism, program music, and virtuosity were espe-

cially prominent traits in instrumental music. Short piano miniatures and
lengthy orchestral works were manifestations of Romantic extremes. The
piano and the orchestra were the principal media; chamber music was
relatively less important.

KEYBOARD MUSIC

The piano was to instrumental music what the art song was to vocal
music. Attracting composer and performer alike; it was one of the most
important media in all nineteenth-century music. The organ attracted little
attention from composers

The Piano Because of its capacity for sonority, dynamic range, and gradations
between loud and soft—characteristics that the harpsichord lacked—the
piano was the Romantic instrument par excellence:*Not only was it the
leading solo instrument but it was an important ingredient in chamber
ensembles. It provided composer and performer with possibilities of expres-
sion ranging from the intimate to the grandiose, and from delicate lyricism
to bombastic showiness.* The damper pedal enabled composers to experi-
ment with new harmonic effects, and the improved keyboard mechanism was
a stimulus toward new idioms, techniques, and virtuosity.

Genres As in other media, nineteenth-century piano composers were gener-

ally less concerned with musical form than with content and subjective
expression.

160
 Instrumental Music 161

Sonatas

After Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) and Franz Schubert (1797-—

1828), the piano sonata attracted relatively few composers, and the Classical
sonata cycle was largely abandoned in favor of single-movement pieces.
rr Soe’

[4)
.”’ Dances
Stylized dances constituted a large portion of Romantic piano literature.
The most common were the waltz, Ldndler (an Austrian waltz, in a slow
tempo), mazurka, polonaise, ecossaise, polka, galop, and other national
~ dances.
2, Etudes
The etude, basically a study piece featuring some technical aspect of
performance (e.g., scales, arpeggios, figurations, octaves, chords), was com-
posed as a virtuoso piece for concert audiences.
( 4 Character Pieces
Short pieces conveying a general mood and those specifically program-
matic with descriptive titles are classified as character pieces. These are the
instrumental equivalents of the song. They include compositions with such
titles as arabesque, ballade, intermezzo, nocturne, romanza, lament, moment
musicale, rhapsody, impromptu, bagatelle, songs without words, and de-
scriptive titles such as “Butterflies,” “Colored Leaves,” and many more.
_—

Variations
fo ye
uy,

After Beethoven, piano variations were largely extended virtuoso show

pieces.

Performers The nineteenth-century nurtured the rise of the concert pianist, of which
there were many. Some of the more important were Franz Liszt (1811—
1886), Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), Henri Herz (1803-1888),
Clara Wieck Schumann (1819-1896), Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894), Hans
von Biilow (1830-1894), Carl Tausig (1841-1871), Ignace Jan Paderewski
(1860-1941), and Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943).

Composers
Beethoven (1770-1827)
Nineteenth—century piano literature began with Beethoven’s monumen-
tal sonatas and variations.

Schubert (1797-1828)
Franz Schubert’s piano style fused Classical form and reserve with
Romantic lyricism and expression. His piano music includes eleven sonatas,
162 History of Western Music
en

six impromptus, eight moments musicales, and some piano duets, but no
concertos or programmatic works.

Mendelssohn (1809-1847)
In addition to two piano concertos and some preludes and fugues reflect-
ing his admiration for J. S. Bach (1685-1750), Felix Mendelssohn’s principal
piano works were some fifty Romantic pieces called Lieder ohne Worte
(Songs without Words), many of which were published with descriptive titles
added by the publishers, such as the famous “Spinning Song.”

Schumann (1810-1856)
Until about 1840, Robert Schumann devoted himself almost exclusively
to piano composition. His works consist mainly of short character pieces
with descriptive titles, grouped in collections entitled Papillons (Butterflies),
Kinderscenen (Scenes of Childhood), Carnaval, Fantasiestticke (Fantasy
Pieces), and others. ;

Chopin (1810-1849)
+The most illustrious composer of piano music in the century, Frédéric
Chopin was a specialist in that medium and composed little else. His music
is eminently idiomatic, revealing his keen sense of the properties and capac-
ities of the piano. He used no descriptive titles, and wrote mostly single—
_-Movement works. Outstanding characteristics are a homophonic texture,
“ extensive.chromaticism and-modulation, Superb melodic and harmonic in-
genuity, timited virtuosity, and general refinement and delicacy of style. His
compositions include nocturnes, scherzi, twenty-four preludes in all major
and minor keys, waltzes, stylized Polish dances (polonaises and mazurkas),
twenty-seven etudes, impromptus, three sonatas, and two piano concertos.

Liszt (1811-1886)
Franz Liszt was the foremost pianist-composer of the nineteenth century.
His piano compositions generally fall in three categories: brilliant virtuoso
compositions, pieces with quiet Romantic lyricism, and transcriptions of
opera arias, lieder, symphonies, and Bach’s organ fugues. His principal
works are the Hungarian Rhapsodies, three piano concertos, twelve brilliant
etudes entitled Etudes d’ exécution transcendante (Transcendental Etudes),
three sets of short poetic pieces titled Années de pélerinage (Years of
Pilgrimage), and the Petrarch Sonnets.

Brahms (1833-1897)

Johannes Brahms’s music, though Romantic in melody, harmony, texture

and sonority, is nevertheless classically inclined in its formal details, avoid-
ance of programmatic or literary allusions, and absence of showy virtuosity.
Character pieces include ballades, rhapsodies, capriccios, and intermezzi.
 Instrumental Music 163

He wrote three piano sonatas and several sets of variations, including

Variations on a Theme of Haydn for two pianos.
Other Composers
Enormous quantities of piano music were composed during the nine-
teenth century. Although vastly popular at the time, the composers are less
well known now. Among them are Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837),
Carl Czerny (1791-1857), Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785-1849), Sigismond
Thalberg (1812-1871), and Adolf von Henselt (1814-1889). The sonatas
and etudes, such as Gradus ad Parnassum by Muzio Clementi (1752-1832),
and the music of John Field (1782-1837) were noteworthy contributions to
piano literature. Other composers were the German Max Reger (1873-
1916), the Norwegian Edvard Grieg (1843-1907), the American Edward
MacDowell (1860-1908), the Frenchmen Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924) and
César Franck (1822-1890), the Spaniards Isaac Albéniz (1860-1909) and
Enrique Granados (1867-1916), the Italian Ferruccio Busoni (1866-1924),
and the Russians Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881), Anton Rubinstein
(1829-1894), and Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943), who was the last of
the great Romantic pianist-composers.

Organ Music After J. S. Bach, few composers wrote for the organ during the Classical
and most of the Romantic periods. The most important developments took
place in the late nineteenth century and mainly in France. Principal compos-
ers were Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Liszt, César Franck, Max Reger, and
Charles Widor (1844-1937).

ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The orchestra, one of the great media of the Romantic era, expanded in
size, resources for color, and range of sonorities.

Instrumentation Each of the four choirs added instruments beyond those of the Classical
orchestra.
Woodwinds
More than two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons were used.
‘\~Additional woodwinds were piccolo, bass clarinet, English horn, and con-
trabassoon.
164 History of Western Music

Brass
The brass section (or, as it is called, choir) usually included four horns
that, along with trumpets, trombones, and tubas, gave tremendous power and
sonority to the orchestra. *The advent of valves gave more versatility and
melodic potential to brass instruments.
Percussion
To the Classical timpani were added many nee sek instruments: bass
and side drums and a large assortment of “color”’’instruments such as the
harp, triangle, castanets, gongs, cymbals, chimes, bells, xylophones, and
celestas. .
Strings
*No new instruments were added to the string choir, but it expanded in
number to balance the larger woodwind and brass choirs. Unlike in Classical
period scores, the string parts were written on five staves.

Orchestration Composers sought new effects for expressive purposes. There was more
use of solo passages, especially for individual woodwind instruments and
horn. Special string effects were used: pizzicato, double—stopping, mutes,
tremolo, harmonies, and others. The composers who contributed most
notably to the technique of orchestration were\Hector Berlioz (1803-1869),
Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner (1813-1883), Gustav Mahler (1860-1911),
Richard Strauss (1864-1949), and Nicholas Rimsky—Korsakov (1844~—
1908).

Genres New concepts in orchestral form were added to the Classical symphony
and concerto forms.
Symphony
Works entitled “symphony” were composed by most of the major Ro-
mantic composers? Only in the broadest outlipes did they follow the sonata
cycle of the Classical symphony. Commer the number of move-
ments, used more contrasting keys in the inner movements,,ised freer forms
for internal structure of movements, and generally made the symphony a
\\vehicle for expression rather than a formal design. In a number of instances
composers added chorus and solo voices to the orchestra (Beethoven,
Berlioz, Liszt, Mahler, and others). The programmatic symphony was an
important Romantic development.
Concerto
The piano and violin were the chief solo instruments employed in the
concerto. Generally it was a brilliant show piece for the virtuoso soloist.
The Romantic concerto retained the Classical three-movement plan.
 Instrumental Music 165

Tone Poem

A new orchestral form, called tone poem or symphonic poem, was

introduced by Franz Liszt around the middle of the century. It is a one—move-
ment programmatic work with descriptive title, based on a literary work or
legend. Some well-known tone poems are Les Preludes by Liszt, The
Moldau (the second of six tone poems collectively entitled Md Viast) by
Bedtfich Smetana (1824-1884), Night on Bald Mountain by Modest
Mussorgsky, The Sorcerer's Apprentice by Paul Dukas (1865-1935), Danse
macabre by Camille Saint-Saéns (1835-1921), On the Steppes of Central
Asia by Alexander Borodin (1833-1887), Finlandia by Jean Sibelius (1865—
1957), Isle of the Dead by Sergei Rachmaninoff, and Till Eulenspiegel by
Richard Strauss.

Concert Oveértures

Single-movement works, palled concert overtures, were usually in so-

nata form but were not orchestral introductions to operas. To some extent
they were programmatic and often had descriptive titles. Examples are
Mendelssohn’s Fingal’s Cave Overture, Brahms’s Academic Festival
Overture, and the 18/2 Overture by Peter Illich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893).

Orchestral Variations

Relatively few orchestral works were in variation form. Some notable

examples are Johannes Brahms’s Variations on a Theme of Haydn, César
Franck’s Symphonic Variations for piano solo and orchestra, star Variations
by Vincent d’ Indy (1851-1931), and the Enigma Variations by Edward Elgar
(1857-1934).

Symphonic Suites
+ Symphonic suites are programmatic works in several movements that do
not follow symphonic form. In this category are originally composed fanta-
sies, such as Nicholas Rimsky—Korsakov’s Scheherazade; arrangements of
ballet music such as Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite; and incidental music
to plays, such as Mendelssohn’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream and the Peer
Gynt Suite by Edvard Grieg.

Dances

Semipopular orchestral music in dance forms includes the Johann

Strauss (1825-1899) waltzes and other dances by a number of composers.

Composers Germans were most important in the development of orchestral literature

in the nineteenth century. As nationalism became a strong current after about
1850, more composers in other countries contributed to the literature.
166 History of Western Music

Beethoven (1 770-1 827)

Ludwig van Beethoven’s nine symphonies are the beginning of the
expansion of orchestral form and medium. His sixth symphony (the ““Pas-
toral” symphony) in five movements was an early program symphony. The
finale of his ninth symphony contains the first use of solo voices and chorus
in a symphony.

Schubert (1797-1828) | nyo sb

Franz Schubert wrote eight symphonies in Classical orchestral medium
and form. Romantic elements in his music are the lyrical, transcendent
melodies and ingenious harmonies. Best known are the “Unfinished” sym-
phony in b minor and the c minor symphony.
Mendelssohn (1809-1847)
The best of Felix, Mendelssohn’s five symphonies are the last three,
popularly known as thé*‘Scotch”, “Italian”, and “Reformation.” They are in
Classical four-movement form with refined romantic materials. Other or-
chestral works are the incidental music to Shakespeare’s A Midsummer
Night’s Dream, which contains the famous “Overture,” “Scherzo,” and
“Wedding March,” two piano concertos, the violin concerto in e minor, and
the concert overtures Fingal’s Cave (also called the Hebrides Overture),
Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage, and Melusine.
Schumann (1810-1856)
Robert Schumann’s orchestral music is less programmatic than
Mendelssohn’s. He composed four symphonies, a piano concerto, violin
concerto, and cello concerto.

Berlioz (1803-1869)
}fhe most programmatic orchestral music in the first half of the century
and the greatest advances im Romantic orchestration are attributed to Hector
Berlioz. He wrote the first treatise on orchestration. He employed cyclical
form (the recurrence of one or more themes in successive movements). His
best-known orchestral work is the five-movement programmatic Symphonie
fantastique, which contains an idée fixe (an orchestral motive that represents
a character). Other symphonies are Harold en Italie, commissioned by the
great virtuoso Niccolo Paganini (1782—1840), and Roméo et Juliette, after
Berlioz’s beloved Shakespeare, for orchestra, solo voices, and chorus.

Liszt (1811-1886)
Franz Liszt’s main contributions are thirteen tone poems, two program
symphonies (Faust Symphony in three movements, the finale of which
employs a male chorus, and the Dante Symphony in two movements), and
three brilliant virtuoso piano concertos.
 Instrumental Music 167

Brahms (1833-1 897)

Johannes Brahms’s four symphonies are thoroughly Romantic in style
but are not programmatic.* They follow expanded classical form. Other
orchestral works include two piano concertos, one violin concerto, a double
concerto for violin and cello, two serenades, Variations on a Theme of Haydn,
Academic Festival Overture, and Tragic Overture.
Bruckner (1824-1896)
Anton Bruckner’s nine symphonies (the last incomplete) are notable for
their great length and large orchestras. They are all in four movements with
no overt programmatic elements. He composed no concertos or other
orchestral works.
Mahler (1860-1911)
Gustav Mahler wrote ten symphonies, the last uncompleted. His second,
third, fourth, and eighth symphonies make use of voices. The eighth sym-
phony, appropriately known as the Symphony of a Thousand, represents the
ultimate in large—scale form and medium. It calls for an enormous orchestra,
a band, two mixed choruses, a boys’ choir, and seven solo voices. Mahler’s
symphony/song cycle Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) is for
two solo voices and orchestra.
Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
The last three of Peter Illich Tchaikovsky’s six symphonies are the best
known. Other orchestral works are the tone poems Romeo and Juliet (called
an “Overture Fantasy”) and Francesca da Rimini, the 1812 Overture, three
piano concertos, a violin concerto, and a Serenade in C for string orchestra.

Smetana (1824-1884)

Bedfich Smetana was a Czech nationalist known chiefly for his six
“musical landscapes” entitled Md Vlast (My Fatherland).

Dvorak (1841-1904)
One of the most prolific orchestral composers in the late nineteenth
century was Antonin Dvorék. The most famous of his nine symphonies is
the Symphony from the New World, written during a three-year stay in the
United States. He composed orchestral variations, six concert overtures, five
tone poems, three Slavonic Rhapsodies, a violin concerto, a piano concerto,
and two cello concertos.
Franck (1822-1890)
The French school of Romantic orchestral music began with César
Franck. He composed one symphony, in d minor, Symphonic Variations with
 168 History of Western Music
Bi Lp Fs ai ln ah eI a Elec Nee gl Le roe rrr OR tSee St

piano solo, and the tone poems Les Eolides, Le Chausseur maudit, Les Djinns
for piano and orchestra, and Psyché for chorus and orchestra.
Saint-Saéns (1835-1921)
Camille Saint-Saéns wrote symphonies (the third with organ and piano
four hands), concertos, and the ever—popular tone poem Danse macabre.
D’ Indy (1851-1931)
Vincent D’Indy wrote three symphonies, the best known of which is the
Symphony on a French Mountain Air for piano and orchestra, and the /star
Variations.
Strauss (1864-1949)
Richard Strauss composed most of his tone poems in the 1890s. His
orchestration and other aspects of style foreshadow modern techniques,
though his music remains essentially Romantic. His principal tone poems
are Aus Italian, Tod und Verkldrung (Death and Transfiguration), Till
Eulenspiegel, Also Sprach Zarathustra, Don Quixote, and Ein Heldenleben
(A Hero’s Life). Two program symphonies are Sinfonia Domestica, and An
Alpine Symphony.

Sibelius (1865-1957)
Though he lived past the middle of the twentieth century, Jean Sibelius
belongs mainly to the Romantic tradition. He was Finland’s greatest com-
poser. His field was principally orchestral music. He composed seven
symphonies and several tone poems, the best known of which are Finlandia,
En Saga, Swan of Tuonela, Tapiola, and Pohjola’s Daughter. His Karelia
Suite, like his tone poems, is based on Finnish legends.
Rachmaninoff (1893-1943)
Like Sibelius, Sergei Rachmaninoff belongs to the Romantic period,
though he lived until 1943. His orchestral works include two symphonies,
four piano concertos, the tone poem /sle of the Dead, and orchestral varations
for piano and orchestra entitled Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini.

CHAMBER MUSIC

Chamber music was one of the least favored media among nineteenth—
century composers, mainly because it lacks the intimacy of the piano on the
 Instrumental Music 169

one hand or the massive, colorful, and emotional qualities of the orchestra
on the other. Almost no program music was written for chamber ensembles.

Media The string quartet continued to be the most favored chamber medium.
There was an appreciable increase in the number of chamber works employ-
ing the piano in trios, quartets, and quintets. Solo sonatas for violin and other |
instruments were relatively few.

Composers After Beethoven and Schubert, among the foremost contributions to

chamber music were those of Johannes Brahms and Antonin Dvof4k. Com-
posers who contributed most to chamber music literature were mainly those
who had classical leanings.

Beethoven (1770-1827)
Nineteenth-century chamber music, like piano and orchestral music,
began with Beethoven. His output in chamber music included sixteen string
quartets, four string trios, six piano trios, ten violin sonatas, five cello
sonatas, a horn sonata, and a quintet for piano and wind instruments.

Schubert (1797-1828)
Among Schubert’s fifteen string quartets, the best known is the quartet
in d minor, called the Death and the Maiden Quartet because the andantino
movement is a set of variations on Schubert’s song “Der Tod und das
Madchen.” Another well-known work is the Trout Quintet, which includes
a set of variations for the slow movement on Schubert’s song “Die Forelle.”

Mendelssohn (1809-1 847)

Felix Mendelssohn’s chamber music includes six string quartets, two

quintets, an octet, a sextet for piano and strings, two piano trios, one violin
sonata, and two cello sonatas.

Schumann (1810-1856)

Robert Schumann composed three string quartets, three piano trios, a

piano quartet, a piano quintet, solo sonatas, and other works for various
combinations of instruments.

Brahms (1833-1897)

Brahms, the “Romantic classicist,” composed some twenty-four works

in this category, including string quartets, quintets, sextets, a clarinet quintet,
a piano quintet, piano quartets, piano trios, a trio for clarinet, cello, and piano,
the famous Horn Trio for violin, piano, and French hor, and sonatas for
piano and various solo instruments.
170 History of Western Music

Dvorak (1841-1904)
Antonin Dvorak was one of the most important chamber music compos-
ers at the end of the century. His works include thirteen string quartets, two
string quintets, one sextet, two piano quartets, four piano trios, one string
trio, and one piano quintet.
Franck (1822-1890)
César Franck wrote a string quartet, a piano quintet, four piano trios, and
the violin sonata in A Major, his most popular chamber work.
Fa uré (1845-1924)

Gabriel Fauré’s chamber music includes two piano quartets, two piano
quintets, a piano trio, a string quartet, two violin sonatas, and two cello
sonatas.

Scores and Some of these examples are excerpts from larger works.
Recordings Piano Music
Field: NAWM 125
Chopin: NAWM 126; NSII 7 and 8
Robert Schumann: NSII 9
Liszt: NAWM 127 and 128; NSII 12
Clara Schumann: NSII 15
Chamber Music
Brahms: NAWM 132
Orchestral Music.
Schubert: NSII 2
Mendelssohn: NAWM 130; NSII 5 and 6
Berlioz: NAWM 129; NSII 3 and 4
Robert Schumann: NSII 11
Smetana: NSII 16
Brahms: NSII 19
Tchaikovsky: NSII 21
Mahler: NSII 23
Richard Strauss: NSII 25
MacDowell: NAWM 131
2
Summary of Major
Nineteenth-Century
Composers

The following summary lists the foremost masters of nineteenth—century

music according to nationality, and points out the major fields of each
composer.

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA

Germany and Austria were dominant countries in nineteenth-century

Romantic music, with several important composers. Ludwig van Beethoven
(1770-1827): transition from Classical to Romantic styles; symphony, con-
certo, piano sonatas and variations, chamber music. Carl Maria von Weber
(1786-1826): German Romantic opera. Franz Schubert (1797-1828):
Viennese composer of songs, symphonies, piano sonatas, chamber music.
Felix Mendelssohn—Bartholdy (1809-1847), more commonly known as
Mendelssohn: composer, conductor; especially important in choral music
and oratorio; also song, symphony, symphonic suite, concert overture, cham-
ber music, piano and organ music. Robert Schumann (1810-1856): com-
poser, pianist, critic, author, and editor of the Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musik (New
Musical Journal); song, piano music, symphony, chamber music, and con-
certo. Franz Liszt (1811-1886): Hungarian—born, the most famous virtuoso
pianist-composer of the century; innovator of tone poem; piano music,
programmatic orchestral works; also song, concerto, choral and organ music.

171
172 History of Western Music

Richard Wagner (1813-1883): music drama (opera), author of treatises on

opera theory. Anton Bruckner (1824—1896): Austrian composer; symphony,
religious choral music. Johannes Brahms (1833-1897): leading Classicist
among Romantic composers; nonprogrammatic instrumental works; reli-
gious and secular choral music, song, symphony, chamber and piano music.
Hugo Wolf (1860-1903): solo song. Gustav Mahler (1860-1911): late—
Romantic Austrian composer of large orchestral works, symphonies, songs,
and song cycles. Richard Strauss (1864-1949): post-Romantic composer
of tone poems, operas, songs. Max Reger (1873-1916): organ, orchestral
music, chamber music, choral music, piano works.
Other composers: Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg (1760-1802): solo song.
E.T.A. Hoffmann (1776-1822): romantic opera. Johann Nepomuk Hummel
(1778-1837): piano music. Ludwig Spohr (1784-1859): German romantic
opera, oratorios. Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785-1849): piano. Carl Czerny
(1791-1857): piano. Heinrich Marschner (1795-1861): opera. Karl
Loewe (1796-1869): solo song. Albert Lortzing (1801-1851): opera. Otto
Nicolai (1810-1849): German romantic opera. Friedrich von Flotow
(1812-1883): opera. Sigismond Thalberg (1812-1871): piano music.
Adolf von Henselt (1814-1889): music for piano. Robert Franz (1815—
1892): song. Peter Cornelius (1824-1874): solo song. Johann Strauss
(1825-1899): orchestral dances. Englebert Humperdinck (1854-1921):
fairy tale opera. Hans Pfitzner (1869-1949): opera.

ITALY

Italian music was almost entirely confined to opera; instrumental music

and solo song outside of opera were virtually nonexistent. Important com-
posers and their contributions include the following: Gioacchino Rossini
(1792-1868): principally opera buffa. Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848):
Romantic serious operas. Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835): operas; noted for
elegance and lyric charm. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): the culminating
figure of nineteenth-century Italian Opera; Requiem mass.
Other composers: Johann Simon Mayr (1763-1845): operas. Ruggiero
Leoncavallo (1857-1919): verismo opera. Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924):
opera. Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945): verismo opera. Ferruccio Busoni
(1866-1924): a transition figure to the twentieth century; piano and orches-
tral works.
 Summary of Major Nineteenth-Century Composers 173

FRANCE

Musical activity in France was principally in opéra comique and lyric

opera. In the second half of the century there was a notable rise of interest
in solo song and orchestral composition. Giocomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864):
grand opera. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869): composer, critic, conductor, and
writer of a theory of orchestration; opera, symphony, oratorio, song, concert
overture. Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849): Polish—born composer of piano
music. Charles Gounod (1818-1893): lyric opera, church music, song.
César Franck (1822-1890): Belgian—born composer and organist; organ
music, orchestral works, chamber music, choral music. Camille Saint—Saéns
(1835-1921): symphony, opera, oratorio. Georges Bizet (1838-1875):
opera, orchestral music. Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924): solo song, piano
music, chamber music, requiem. Vincent d’Indy (1851-1931): teacher,
composer; operas, orchestral works.
Other composers: Francois Boieldieu (1775-1834): opéra comique.
Daniel Auber (1782-1871): opéra comique. Louis Ferdinand Hérold
(1791-1833): opéra comique. Jacques Halevy (1799-1862): grand opera.
Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896): lyric opera. Jacques Offenbach (1819-—
1880): lyric opera. Victor Massé (1822-1884): opéra comique. Edouard
Lalo (1823-1892): lyric opera. Léo Delibes (1836-1891): lyric opera.
Emmanuel Chabrier (1841—1894): orchestral works. Jules Massenet (1842—
1912): lyric opera. Charles—Marie Widor (1844-1937): organ, opera.
Henri Duparc (1848-1933): solo song. Ernest Chausson (1855-1899): solo
song. Gustave Charpentier (1860-1956): lyric opera. Paul Dukas (1865—
1935): concert overture, opera.

RUSSIA

Russia became one of the prominent musical nations in the second half
of the nineteenth century, with music of a strongly national flavor. The first
important composer was Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857), who wrote nationalist
opera.
“The Five,” an important group who championed Russian nationalism,
included the following five composers. Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881):
orchestral works, opera, song. Alexander Borodin (1833-1887): orchestral
works, string quartet, opera. Mily Balakirev (1837-1910): symphony, song,
174 History of Western Music

piano music. César Cui (1835-1918): French-born, the least known among
“The Five”; songs, piano music. Nicolas Rimsky—Korsakov (1844-1908):
master of orchestration; opera, orchestral music.
The late romantic style in Russia was represented by Peter Illich
Tchaikovsky (also, Chaikovsky, Tschaikowsky; 1840-1893): orchestral
music, symphonies, concert overtures, opera, song; and by Sergei
Rachmaninoff (1873-1943): the last of the great Romantic pianist-compos-
ers, who wrote orchestral works, concertos, piano music, songs.
Other composers: Dimitri Bortniansky (1751-1825): religious choral
works for the Greek Orthodox Church. Alexander Dargomizsky (1813-—
1869): opera. Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894): piano music. Alexander
Gretchaninov (1864-1956): songs. Reinhold Gliére (1875-1956): songs.

NORWAY

Edvard Grieg (1843-1907): Norwegian nationalist; orchestra, piano,

symphonic suite, and choral works.

FINLAND

Jean Sibelius (1865-1957): Finnish nationalist; symphonies and tone

poems.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Czech national music was represented by two major composers. Bedfich

Smetana (1824-1884): opera, orchestral and chamber works. Antonin
Dvorak (1841-1904): symphony, chamber music. Leo Janéek (1854—
1928): opera, choral works.
 Summary of Major Nineteenth-Century Composers 175

POLAND

Stanislaw Moniuszko (1819-1872): Polish nationalist; operas.

SPAIN

The principal characteristic of Romantic Spanish music is a strongly

national color. Isaac Albéniz (1860-1909): piano and orchestral music.
Enrique Granados (1867—1916): piano music, operas, orchestral works.

GREAT BRITAIN

From the time of Handel until the end of the nineteenth century, few British
composers exerted much influence on the Continent. Among the more import-
ant were the following. Muzio Clementi (1752-1832): Italian—born composer,
publisher, teacher; piano music. Samuel Wesley (1766-1837): organ and
church music. John Field (1782-1837): Irish-born composer of piano music
who emigrated to Russia; influence on Chopin. Samuel Sebastian Wesley
(1810-1876): son of Samuel Wesley; church music. William Sterndale Bennett
(1816-1875): piano and orchestral works. John Stainer (1840-1901): cantatas,
anthems. Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900): with poet—librettist William Gilbert,
creator of operettas. Charles Hubert Parry (1848-1918): oratorios, anthems.
Charles Stanford (1852-1924): Irish nationalist composer; church music, ora-
torio, opera, chamber music. Edward Elgar (1857-1934): first of the important
twentieth—-century English composers; orchestral works, oratorios, cantatas.
176 History of Western Music

UNITED STATES

The United States enjoyed an extraordinarily rich musical life in the

nineteenth-century. The greatest development occurred in popular music
(see Chapter 32). The influence of American art—-music composers was not
great in Europe, although many of them had been trained there and generally
wrote in the the German—Austrian style. Composers often worked in or near
Boston, especially toward the end of the period. Among the important
composers were the following: Anthony Philip Heinrich (1781-1861): ec-
centric Bohemian—born composer of piano and programmatic orchestral
music. Lowell Mason (1792-1872): composer, conductor, educator; sacred
choral music. William Henry Fry (1813-1864): critic and opera composer.
George Bristow (1825-1898): opera. Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-—
1869): virtuoso pianist-composer. John Knowles Paine (1839-1906): com-
poser and first American professor of music; symphonies, sacred music,
piano and organ music. Dudley Buck (1839-1909): opera, cantata, organ.
Arthur Foote (1853-1937): piano and chamber music. George Chadwick
(1854-1931): opera, orchestral music, choral music, and chamber music.
Edgar Stillman Kelley (1857-1944): chamber and orchestral music.
Edward MacDowell (1860-1908): piano and orchestral music. Charles
Loeffler (1861-1935): chamber and orchestral music. Horatio Parker
(1863-1919): teacher; cantata, oratorio, opera. Amy Cheney Beach (1867—
1944): orchestral and chamber music. Henry Gilbert (1868-1928): orches-
tral music, piano music. Henry Hadley (1871-1937): conductor; song,
chamber music, opera. Frederick Converse (1871-1940): opera, orchestral
and chamber music.
PART SEVEN
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
e/
Introduction to the
Twentieth Century

1902 Debussy: Pelléas et Mlisande

1903 First successful airplane flight
1905 Julliard Conservatory of Music founded
1907 Scriabin: Poem of Ecstasy
1908 Barték: String Quartet no. 1
1909 Vaughan William: Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis
1912 Schoenberg: Pierrot lunaire
1913 Stravinsky: Le Sacre du printemps
1913 Webern: Five Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 10
1914-1918 World War I
1915 Ives: Concord Sonata
1916 Einstein’s theory of-relativity
1917 Ravel: Le Tombeau de Couperin
1917 Satie: Parade
1918 Prokofiev: Classical Symphony
1923 Schoenberg: Five Piano Pieces, Op. 23
1924 Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue
1925 Berg: Wozzeck
1926 Puccini: Turandot
1928 Webern: Symphony, Op. 21
1929 Worldwide depression starts

179
180 History of Western Music
Se eee eS See

1931 Varése: Jonisation

1931 Crawford: String Quartet 1931
1933 Roosevelt becomes president of the United States
1933 Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany
1933 Schoenberg leaves Vienna for the United States
1934 American Musicological Society founded
1936 Bart6k: Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celeste
1937 Picasso’s Guernica
1937 Shostakovich: Symphony no. 5
1939-1945 World War II
1941 Messiaen: Quartet for the End of Time
1944 Copland: Appalachian Spring
1945 . Britten: Peter Grimes
1949 First piece of musique concrte
1951 Cage: Music of Changes
1953 Death of Stalin
1954 Brown vs. Topeka, Kansas outlaws racial discrimination in American edu-
cation
1955 Boulez: Le Marteau sans maitre
1956 Stockhausen: Gesang der Jiinlinge
1957 Bernstein: West Side Story
1958 Varése: Poém électronique
1959 Stravinsky: Movements
1959 Schuller: Seven Studies on Themes of Paul Klee
1960 Penderecki: Threnody: To the Victims of Hiroshima
1962 Cuban missile crisis
1964 Babbitt: Philomel
1964 Riley: InC
1965 First performance of Ives’s Symphony no. 4
1965-1973 American involvement in the Vietnam War
1967 Subotnick: Silver Apples of the Moon
1968 Berio: Sinfonia
1970 Sessions: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d
 Introduction to the Twentieth Century 181

1970 Crumb: Ancient Voices of Children

1974 Nixon resigns presidency
1975 Glass: Einstein on the Beach
1976 Reich: Music for 18 Musicians
1976 Del Tredici: Final Alice
1979 Lansky: Six Fantasies on a Poem of Thomas Campion
1979 Cage: Roaratorio, an Irish Circus on Finnegans Wake
1981 Zwilich: Passages
1983 Anderson: United States
1985 Babbitt: Concerto for Piano and Orchestra
1985 Dashow: /n Winter Shine
1986 Adams: Nixon in China
1989 Norton Lectures (Harvard) delivered by Cage

ikeetwentieth century has witnessed changes that in frequency and mag-

nitude are unmatched in any previous musical history. The diversity of trends,
styles, and techniques preclude the possibility of studying art music as one
coordinated whole, as historians have generally tried to do with it before this
century. Further, we lack the necessary distance from the events to analyze
fully our understanding of twentieth—century musical history. Composers of
art music out of the Western tradition are now to be found throughout the
world, making discussion of the music against a backdrop of merely European
history and society impossible.
A high regard for originality has accelerated rates of change in musical
style, as composers and audiences sought out the newest and most dynamic
form of expression. Some styles have emerged and expired within a single
decade. Whatever the difficulties of studying the music, the twentieth century
has been blessed with an extraordinary amount of music making Xin fact,
because of the quantity of music composed since 1900, it is difficult to be
familiar with more than a small fraction of the literature. Compounding the
problem is the much greater complexity of melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm,
texture, and form found in the music. These elements combine and virtually
preclude the kind of systematic analysis that can be applied to the music of
earlier periods.
At the risk of oversimplification there seem to beVive main currents that
make up the art music of the twentieth century. (1) Musical Styles that rely on
national or regional idioms. (2) The incorporation of new developments into
182 History of Western Music :

musical styles rooted in the past. (3) A reaction to the post-Wagnerian

romantic idiom that attempted to transform it. (4) A return to audience—pleas-
ing music fashioned from earlier styles. (5) A radical attempt at rejection of
the Romantic past and its aesthetic. None of these is a discrete school of
thought and expression, and there are countless cross—currents. Many com-
posers found two or more of these courses attractive and treated them in their
own personal, often highly idiosyncratic way. Cutting across all of them is a
tendency to twist conventional musical forms, structures, and values and turn
them toward new ends.

DISSEMINATION OF MUSIC

The means of musical dissemination have expanded enormously. In

addition to vast resources for live concert performance, music is also trans-
mitted to a large public by radio, television, videos, Muzak™, and, most
C importantly, compact discs, tapes, and LPs. Until the end of the nineteenth
WW / ) century, one would have heard only live music making, but for the occasional
‘7 | music box. The late twentieth century is fundamentally different in that we
‘. normally expect music not to be live. Today, we are constantly surrounded
by musical sounds of all types and qualities, which sometimes makes
attaining the distance necessary for critical judgment far more difficult.

SUPPORT OF ART MUSIC

Public performance and the recording industry provides support for

art—music performers, generally those who specialize in music of the eight-
eenth and nineteenth centuries: Universities have become the primary pa-
trons of contemporary composers. The university system’s regard for
application of the scientific method has led to widespread experimentation.
* Immunity from public disapproval has fostered the development of idiosyn-
cratic styles, often with only a small, but deeply engaged, audience.
 Introduction to the Twentieth Century 183

COMMERCIAL ASPECTS

*Music became an important business in the twentieth century. Public

concerts by professional artists and organizations (orchestras, opera compa-
nies, choruses, and chamber ensembles) are important commercial enter-
prises. Companies that manufacture musical instruments and high-fidelity
playback equipment are an integral part of the musical scene. Publication of
books, periodicals, musical scores, and the availability of video tapes has
disseminated music and musical information to an extent unknown in the
past:/The music—recording companies have become among the largest of big
businesses. They have made available a vast repertory of music of the past
as well as the:present, and produced an audience hungering for many types
of music.

KNOWLEDGE OF MUSIC

More Western people have educated themselves in music in the twentieth

century than in any other century. The twentieth century has seen the study
of music become part of all liberal curriculums, from elementary to higher
education. At the college level, many universities now have schools of
music, which offer professional training ranging from music performance,
composition, theory, history and literature, and musicology to teacher train-
ing, the business of music, and music technology. Furthermore, the study of
music has become a popular liberal arts subject for nonprofessionals.

Musicology Scholarly research in all aspects of music, but especially in music history,
has made tremendous strides since its inception in the nineteenth century.
Manifestations of the growing interest in this discipline are (1) the number
of scholarly periodicals and books on music; (2) the impressive number of
anthologies and complete works of individual composers now published in
modern score and available in libraries; (3) the fact that musicology is a
universally recognized discipline in higher education; and (4) the increasing
number of distinguished musicologists.

Ethnomusicology Ethnomusicology, concerned mainly with the study of non—Western art

music, has become more important. There are now many books, periodicals,
and commercial recordings that treat this music. Colleges and universities
184 History of Western Music

routinely offer courses in ethnomusicology. The work of ethnomusicologists

has enforced the understanding that the art music of Europe and the United
States is only one vibrant music system among many others. As a result of
their work, many composers have been influenced by non—Western music.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Events and developments in political, social, scientific, and cultural

history have inevitably and profoundly influenced the course of music
history since 1900.

Political Events Two global wars in the first half of the century, both resulting from
German attempts to attain European hegemony, had powerful impacts on
world history: World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945).
Each conflict was followed by an effort to establish world government: the
League of Nations (1920-1946) and the United Nations (established in
1946). The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 marked the emergence of Com-
munism and of the Soviet Union as a world power. After World War II Japan
and China also became major world powers. Notable conflicts since mid—
century were the Korean War (1950-1953), the Arab-Israeli conflicts, and
the Vietnamese wars involving first France and later the United States.
Political and ideological struggle between the Soviet Union and the United
States and their allies since World War II was known as the Cold War, a period
of nonmilitary activity, but one marked by a major armaments race. Revo-
lutions and changes of government throughout Eastern Europe in 1989
changed dramatically the political and ideological makeup of Europe.

Social and Of great significance has been the decline of colonialism and the rise of
Economic independent states, especially in Africa and India. Greater autonomy was
Developments granted to British Commonwealth countries, notably Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and South Africa. Mention should be made of the economic
depression in the 1930s and the development of European economic and
political ties since World War II. By century’s end, one can speak of a global
economy as a result of the interlocking of national and regional markets and
economies.
Since about midcentury acute social and economic problems have come
to concern the world: environmental pollution and its consequences; popu-
lation growth; racial, ethnic, and religious discrimation; severe poverty and
 Introduction to the Twentieth Century 185

food shortages in many parts of the world; energy shortages; increases in

crime and violence; urban decay.

Technology Tremendous advances in science and engineering and their application

to industry have affected social, economic, and cultural history. Far—reach-
ing developments have taken place in biology, chemistry, physics, astron-
omy, and computer science. Technology has made astounding progress in
the fields of information processing, communication, transportation, and
medicine.
Some specific innovations are radio, television, atomic energy in military
and industrial uses, transistors, the laser beam, jet propulsion, digital com-
puters, antibiotics, photo duplication, exploration of outer space, exploration
of suboceanic areas, and, especially relevant to music, high-fidelity sound
transmission.

The Arts As in the past, the concerns of the epoque are reflected in the arts.
General traits of the arts in the twentieth century are frequency and rapidity
of change, experimentation with new forms and media, and mixed media. In
the visual arts a general trend away from representationalism and toward
abstract and nonobjective expression may be noted. A distinctly new visual
media is the cinema. Art has taken so many new directions since 1900 that
it is impossible to list them all here; some of the important trends and artists
include expressionism (Kokoschka, Kandinsky, Klee), cubism (Picasso,
Braque), surrealism (Dali, Chagall), dadaism (Duchamp), abstract expres-
sionism (Pollock), geometric abstractionism (Stella), neoplasticism (Mon-
drian). Further developments are in mixed media, kinetic (moving) art,
temporal (or momentary) art, pop art (commonplace realism), op art (optical
illusion), minimal art, and conceptual art. Perhaps the most significant
developments in architecture stem from the establishment of the Bauhaus.
Literature, poetry, theater, and cinema have kept apace with the fine arts.
Social protest, existentialism, pessimism and despair, absurdity, intentional
“shock value,” and ironic humor are some of the more pronounced traits.
28
General Developments in
Twentieth-Century Music

A number of general stylistic trends are evident in art music since 1900.
They do not form a neat chronological sequence; rather, they are overlapping
developments, some of longer duration than others, some more prominent and
pervasive than others. Furthermore, they are neither distinctly nor consis-
tently separate developments. More than one trend is often synthesized in the
individual style of a single composer.

ROMANTICISM

While radical innovations were emerging in the early decades, romantic

currents remained dominant. Subjectivity, emotionalism, programmatic
bases, and large orchestras were some of the traits that persisted even in
compositions that employed new harmonies, rhythms, timbres, and tonali-
ties. Composers who belong to the post-Romantic tradition (most of whom
have already been mentioned in preceding chapters on the Romantic period)
are Charles Stanford (1852-1924) and Edward Elgar (1857-1934) in En-
gland; Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) and Richard Strauss (1864-1949) in
Germany; Jean Sibelius (1865-1957) in Finland; Edvard Grieg (1843-1907)
in Norway; Reinhold Gliére (1875-1956), Alexander Glazunov (1865—
1936), and Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943) in Russia; Pietro Mascagni
(1863-1945), Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1857-1919), and Giacomo Puccini
(1858-1924) in Italy; Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) in Spain; Camille
Saint-Saéns (1835-1921) and Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924) in France: Leox

186
 General Developments in Twentieth-Century Music 187

Jandéek (1854-1928) in Czechoslovakia; and Edward MacDowell (1860—

1908) in the United States.

Nationalism An alliance was forged in the nineteenth century between Romantic and
nationalist musics. True to the charter, many of the previously-named
Romantic composers incorporated nationalist elements in their music. In the
generations since, nationalism has waned somewhat, concurrently with
Romanticism. Composers of Romantic inclinations became more eclectic
and borrowed freely from the music of other nationalities and regions. Some
examples of “internationalism” during the midcentury period are El Salon
Mexico by Aaron Copland (1900-1990), Saudades do Brazil by Darius
Milhaud (1892-1974), Escales by Jacques Ibert (1890-1962), Tabuh—
tabuhan by Colin McPhee (1901-1964), Concerto in slendro by Lou Harri-
son (1917— ); and the eclectic music of Alan Hovhaness (1911- ).

The New This movement dates from the 1960s, when some composers turned
Romanticism away from the prevailing highly complex, esoteric language of the avant—
garde and embraced aspects of nineteenth—century music. The music of the
masters of earlier centuries (e.g., Gustav Mahler, Ludwig van Beethoven
[1770-1827], Johann Pachelbel [1653-1706], etc.) has served as a model,
while other composers have used the generalized language of the Romantics.
Quotation is a frequently used technique. Some composers are quite literal
in their borrowings, while others use only details of the Romantic style.
Important composers in this style, representing a range of styles and gener-
ations, include George Rochberg (1918— ), Gyérgy Ligeti (1923— ), George
Crumb (1929-— ), Luciano Berio (1925— ), Barbara Kolb (1939— ), Joan Tower
(1938 ), William Bolcom (1938— ), David del Tredici (1937— ), and John
Corigliano (1938- ).

IMPRESSIONISM

The first important trend toward twentieth-century modernism in music

was Impressionism. In the hands of Claude Debussy (1862-1918), it paral-
leled movements in French painting, sculpture, and poetry. Largely a reac-
tion against German Romanticism, it developed new styles and techniques.

Style Although impressionistic music was romantically subjective and pro-

grammatic, it departed from nineteenth—century practices in several ways.
It generally demonstrated a high degree of refinement, delicacy, subtlety of
188 History of Western Music

form, and a quality of luminosity. More specific characteristics are (1)

neomodality (a return to the use of church modes); (2) open chords (fifths
and octaves without thirds); (3) prominence of ninth chords and some new
chord structures; (4) parallelism, which results when the harmonic intervals
of succeeding chords remain constant, and other unconventional chord
progressions; (5) use of the whole—tone mode (six whole-—steps to the octave);
(6) free rhythms and less prominence of bar—line regularity; and (7) wide
spacing and extreme registers, especially in piano music.

Composers In addition to Claude Debussy, composers who employed impressionist

techniques were Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) in France, Frederick Delius
(1862-1934) in England, Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) in Spain, Ottorino
Respighi (1879-1936) in Italy, Alexander Scriabin (1872-1915) in Russia,
Selim Palmgren (1878-1951) in Finland, and Charles Loeffler (1861-1935)
and Charles Griffes (1884-1920) in the United States.

EXPRESSIONISM

Expressionism, another term borrowed from the visual arts, was as

significant a movement as Impressionism. Covering the period from about
1910 to 1930, it sought to express the innermost feelings of the subconscious,
the psychology of which was being studied at that time by Sigmund Freud.
Composers and artists were generally drawn to treat intense, often hysterical,
states of mind and being, which often resulted from social conditions. Being
emotionally oriented music, it retained a certain degree of Romanticism. The
style is harshly dissonant and often without a stable sense of a tonal center,
or atonal. Three names closely identified with Expressionism are Arnold
Schoenberg (1874-1951; Pierrot Lunaire), Alban Berg (1885-1937;
Wozzeck and Lulu), and Anton Webern (1883-1945; Five Pieces for Orches-
tra, Op. 10).
 General Developments in Twentieth-Century Music 189

NEOCLASSICISM

Neoclassicism was an extensive and pervasive trend lasting from about

1920 to 1950. In a general sense it implies a return to earlier ideals of
objectivity, balance, clarity of texture, and absolute music, but it was not
confined just to eighteenth—-century Classicism. Neoclassicism also in-
volved the revival of contrapuntal textures and forms (fugue, passacaglia,
toccata, madrigal) from the Renaissance and Baroque while employing
twentieth-century harmonies, rhythms, melodies, and timbres.

Composers Many composers, including all the important Expressionists, incorpo-

rated Neoclassical elements in their music. Undoubtedly the most important
neoclassical composer was Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971; Octet for Winds and
Pulcinella). Others were Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953; Classical Sym-
phony) and Paul Hindemith (1895-1963; Ludus Tonalis, and the fourth string
quartet).

Gebrauchsmusik Originating with Paul Hindemith in the 1920s, Gebrauchsmusik (freely

translated as “functional music” or “everyday music”) was an offshoot of
Neoclassicism. It was music intended primarily for amateur performance,
specified occasions, or informal gatherings. It avoided technical difficulties,
and although in a contemporary idiom, was less extreme than much music
of the time. Representative works in this category are Paul Hindemith’s
Pléner Musiktag, composed for an amateur music festival in Ploner, Wir
bauen eine Stadt (Let’s Build a City), and Trauermusik (Funeral Music),
composed on the occasion of the death of King George V of England in 1936.

THE AVANT-GARDE

The avant-garde is the most important new musical development of the

last half of the twentieth century. Important contributions toward the estab-
lishment of the avant-garde were made early in the century by Charles Ives
(1874-1954), Erik Satie (1866-1925), Henry Cowell (1897-1965), and
Edgard Varése (1885-1965). The avant-garde is less a unified style than any
of the trends mentioned above, and more a movement. At its most radical,
it rejects fundamental premises on which art music has traditionally been
based. It might (1) be without melody in any traditional sense; (2) not use
190 History of Western Music

harmonies in ways explainable by the tonal system; (3) have no readily

discernible meter; (4) eschew traditional forms and structures; and (5) be
performed by newly created instruments, or by historical ones played in new
ways. At the base of much of this music is experimentation with the materials
of sounds; in fact, the most revolutionary general segment of the avant-garde
is experimental music. That the avant-garde has a strong regard for the
process of making music (and not just the result) is manifest in important
subcategories: serialism, aleatory music, improvisation, minimalism.

Notation Notation devised for music of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nine-
teenth centuries (the common practice period) served, with only minor
inconvenience, art music before the time of the avant-garde. The revolu-
tionary nature of the avant-garde has affected notation as dramatically as it
has most other aspects of music making. Frequently, composers of the
avant-garde invent their own notations, which are often unique to the
composition. A piece’s “notation” may be nothing more (or less) than a set
of detailed, written instructions. Some composers have been drawn to
electronic music and improvisation because these types of music generally
do not need notation. These composers sometimes hold that musical intu-
ition is fundamentally restrained by the literacy requirements of notation.
 General Developments in Twentieth-Century Music 191

Scores and Impressionism

Recordings Debussy: NAWM 144; NSII 24
Ravel: NAWM 145
Scriabin: NAWM 151
New Romanticism
Bernstein: NSII 44
Crumb: NSII 48; NAWM 154
Picker: NSII 49
Expressionism
Schoenberg: NAWM 148 and 152; NSII 28
Webern: NAWM 149; NSII 33
Berg: NAWM 160; NSII 34
Neoclassicism
Hindemith: NAWM 161
Avant—Garde
Carter: NSII 40
Cage: NSII 41
Lutoslawski: NSII 42
Babbitt: NSII 43
Reich: NAWM 156
 Specific Styles and
Techniques

Masic of the twentieth century has undergone startling changes in compo-

sitional styles and techniques. The conventional materials of music (meter,
rhythm, melody, harmony, tonality, texture, and form) have continued to
receive the attention of composers, while others have developed new tech-
niques and styles that reflect a fundamentally different way of structuring
sounds.
It must be emphasized that not every piece of twentieth—century music is
a manifestation of radical change in all respects. Any single composition may
be “modern” in only one or two respects and not necessarily extreme even in
these. The literature rages from ultraconservative to experimental. Most
compositions lie somewhere between.

THE CONVENTIONAL MATERIALS OF MUSIC

In one way or another all of the twentieth-century techniques developed

for manipulating the conventional materials of art music follow from an
awareness of musical history. It may be that composers are embracing the
past, or attempting consciously to build upon it. And if they are denying it,
they generally do so by extension of the system they reject.

Meter and During the common practice period relatively few evolutionary changes
Rhythm took place in the concepts of meter and rhythm. In general, rhythm plays a
much more prominent role in twentieth-century music, where it has greater

192
 Specific Styles and Techniques 193

vitality, complexity, variety, and flexibility than in the common practice era.
Jazz and popular music have been primary influences in this development.
Composers, seeking new rhythmic and metric effects, have overthrown “the
tyranny of the bar line” by means of several devices.
New Time Signatures
Unusual time signatures, such as 2and deare commonly found in modern
scores.

Asymmetrical Grouping
New rhythmic effects are produced by asymmetrical grouping of beats
or notes within a measure. For example, in :meter such beat patterns as
3-2-2 (rumba) and 3-2-3 produce interesting rhythms. An example is the
scherzo movement of the Fifth String Quartet by Béla Bart6k’s (1881-1945),
which has a time signature indicated as 4 + 2+3 @ meter), and a trio section

in? ane +3 ay meter.

Nonmetric Music
Striving for nonmetric flexibility, a few composers have omitted the bar
line altogether. In conventional media this device is necessarily limited to
solo pieces (e.g., the Concord Sonata by Charles Ives [1874—1954]). Most
tape and electronic music is nonmetric.
Polymetric Music
Polymetric music is that in which two or more meters are used simulta-
neously. For example, in the Piano Trio by Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), ji

appears against Be In Petrouchka by Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) there are

passages of 2against A and :against a

Multimetric Music
This term applies to music with a fairly common characteristic: frequent
changes of time signature every measure or so. Examples of multimetric
writing are found in Igor Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du soldat (The Soldier's
Tale), the second movement of Jeremiah Symphony by Leonard Bernstein
(1918-1990), and Cantata, Op. 29 by Anton Webern (1883-1945).
Displaced Bar Line
Several devices used with conventional meters produce the effect of
shifting or displacing the bar line in the score. Accents may be placed in
recurring patterns in conflict with the normal accents of the measure (Exam-
194 History of Western Music
oh RS i ee ee Ss

ple 29.1a). Similar results can be produced by note grouping (Example

29.1b), by tying notes across the bar line in prolonged syncopations (Exam-
ple 29.1c), or by means of melodic or rhythmic ostinatos at variance with the
meter (Example 29.1d).

od ol Monge oodelay oliiln Whee dg|

BOSS
Example 29.1. Devices Producing Displaced Bar Lines

Polyrhythmic Music

In a sense all polyphonic music and even some homophonic music is

polyrhythmic because different rhythmic patterns occurs simultaneously.
But twentieth-century music often exaggerates conflicting rhythms (called
cross rhythms). An example of polyrhythmic writing is the movement
entitled “Dance” in Music for the Theatre by Aaron Copland (1900-1990),
in which as many as five different rhythmic patterns, all in meter, oppose
one another.
Combined Effects
It is apparent that all the above rhythmic and metric devices may be used
in various combinations to produce an infinite variety of rhythmic—metric
organization.

Melody Departures from common practice period melodic concepts involve

developments in three areas: (1) melodic style, (2) new mode bases, and (3)
the role of melody in the total musical context.

Style Although an appreciable portion of melodic material today is structured

along common practice lines, some new and distinctly twentieth-century
characteristics have emerged. More extreme melodic styles feature disjunct
progressions (wide leaps from one note to the next), angularity (alternating
 Specific Styles and Techniques 195

upward and downward direction), dissonant skips, and fragmentation (small

groups of notes separated by rests and widely separated registers).
Mode Bases
Adoption of non—common practice modes have contributed to new styles
in melody and harmony. Composers have borrowed from the old church
modes in neomodal settings. For example, Gymnopédie no. 2 by Erik Satie
(1866-1925) is based on the mixolydian mode. The whole—tone mode is
used in Voiles by Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and other impressionist
compositions. Examples of other new systems are Béla Bart6ék’s
Mikrokosmos no. 10, which is based on a mode derived from a scale starting
on D with an A}, and Mikrokosmos no. 25, based on a scale starting on B
with a C#. Modes using intervals less than a semitone (microtones) have
been borrowed from Oriental music. Some composers have experimented
with modes derived from non—equally tempered tunings. Composers who
have written microtonal music are Charles Ives, Julian Carrillo (1875-1965),
Hans Barth (1897-1956; Concerto for Quarter—tone Piano and Strings),
Harry Partch (1901-1974), Ben Johnston (1926— ; String Quartet no. 5),
Krzysztof Penderecki (1933-—), John Cage (1912—), and others. Composers
interested in experimenting with new modes, or none at all, have generally
ignored conventional instruments (which are usually designed for playing in
certain predetermined modes).
The Role of Melody
Until the twentieth century, melody was consistently a dominant element
in music. By midcentury its role was variable. It retains its supremacy in
contrapuntal textures, but it is usually subordinate in music in which rhythm,
harmony, and timbre are the prominent elements. In some of these cases,
pitch itself is not important, hence making melody, in any conventional sense,
impossible. Examples of melodic subordination are Pacific 231 by Arthur
Honegger (1892-1955), Jonisation by Edgard Varése (1885-1965), and
Toccata for Percussion by Carlos Chavez (1899-1978).

Harmony No element of music has been treated more radically by the twentieth
century than harmony. New harmonic concepts involve four aspects: (1)
chord construction; (2) chord progression; (3) dissonance; and, in extreme
instances, (4) elimination of harmony altogether.
Chord Construction
During the common practice period, chords were built on a tertial basis
(thirds stacked on top of one another). Chord vocabulary was expanded in
the twentieth century by the further addition of thirds (to make up eleventh
and thirteenth chords), quartal harmony (stacked fourths, as in Alexander
Scriabin’s [1872-1915] “mystic chord,” containing the tones C-F#—B,—E-
196 History of Western Music

A-D, as in Charles Ives’s “The Cage”), and other intervallic bases such as
fifths (again, “The Cage’), sevenths, seconds (tone clusters, first utilized
systematically by Henry Cowell), and others. Still further, all intervallic
systems were abandoned in favor of tone combinations of heterogeneous
intervals. Also, mixed chords (or polychords) of two or more different roots
have been used (for example, superimposing the triad C-E—G and F#-A#—
C#, as in Igor Stravinsky’s “Petroushka chord”).
Chord Progression
Conventional common practice root progressions have often been aban-
doned in favor of freely invented progressions, sometimes involving chords
with roots foreign to the key, such as E, or G# triads in the key of C Major.
New and original harmonic effects can be achieved solely by means of
unconventional progressions of even simple triadic chords, as in parallelism.
Two or more parallel progressions moving independently at the same time
are called chord streams.
Dissonance
A distinct characteristic of twentieth-century harmony is the extent and
degree to which dissonance is employed. Dissonance no longer requires
resolution to consonance, and a composition may consist only of varying
degrees of dissonance.
Nonharmonic Music
Much avant-garde music has struggled against the dominance of the
harmonic idiom in Western music. Some composers have tried to remove
all vertical arrangements of sound that connote harmonies and their function
within a harmonic system. The use of white noise, which is a sound that
contains all sounds (radio static is an example), has been employed precisely
because it avoids the issue of harmonic (or melodic) function altogether.

Tonality The system of tonality began to show signs of weakening during the
nineteenth century. Chromatic harmony and prolonged modulations increas-
ingly obscured the tonal center as composers stretched the bonds of the
system. The twentieth century has departed still further from conventional
tonal concepts, ultimately eliminating tonality altogether.
Harmonic Aspects
Some harmonic innovations that contributed to the lessened importance
of the tonal center were neomodality, microtonality, new modes, and more
intense and prolonged use of dissonance.
Polytonality
This simultaneous use of two or more keys is a twentieth—century
innovation. It was first used extensively in the 1920s and has since been
 Specific Styles and Techniques 197

absorbed into other techniques. Notable early proponents of polytonality

were Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) and Arthur Honegger. Examples are
Sergei Prokofiev’s (1891-1953) Sarcasms, Op. 17, no. 3 (b, minor in the left
hand, f# minor in the right hand), and the third of Milhaud’s Cing Sympho-
nies, which opens in the keys of E Major (clarinet), D Major (bassoon), and
E, Major (strings).
Atonality
Experimentation with the tonal system led, perhaps inevitably, to atonal-
ity, the absence of any key center or key feeling. Although twentieth-century
art music ranges from completely tonal to completely atonal, the larger
portion today probably eschews tonality.

Texture Although homophonic textures are not uncommon in twentieth-century

art music, contrapuntal textures dominate. An attribute of Neoclassicism is
the renewed interest in contrapuntal forms of the Baroque such as fugue,
canon, and passacaglia. Many composers are drawn to counterpoint because
of a perceived purity of sound abstraction. An important avant-garde con-
trapuntal texture that features abstract “moments” of isolated sounds is
pointillism. An example of pointillism may be found in Anton Webern’s
Concerto for Nine Instruments.

Form Although contrapuntal forms have played a significant role in Neoclas-

sicism, and Classical sectional structures (e.g., sonata cycle, variations,
rondos) have by no means been abandoned, twentieth-century composers
have generally avoided conventional forms or have greatly modified them.
Several traits of modern form may be mentioned. Nonperiodicity, defined
as the avoidance of conventional cadences and other indications of sectional
division, is a significant structural characteristic. Related to nonperiodic
structure is the concept of perpetual variation in which exact sectional
repetition is studiously avoided and the musical materials undergo continual
modification. Asymmetrical structures also are typical.

STYLES AND TECHNIQUES OF THE

AVANT-GARDE

Since 1920, and certainly the case since 1950, important groups of
composers have been interested in breaking with past traditions. Many new
techniques and methods have been devised to accomplish this end.
198 History of Western Music
Oe ee

Twelve—Tone The adjectives twelve—tone and dodecaphonic refer to music based on

Music serial manipulation of the twelve chromantic pitches. This system was
defined first by Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) in the 1920s. The basic
musical unit is a tone row. It contains all twelve tones of the chromatic octave
arranged in such an order that any implication of tonic or key center is
avoided. Melody, harmony, and themes are derived from the tone row, which
replaces the mode as the basis of composition. The original row (QO) of a
composition may be treated in any of the following ways: through transpo-
sition (T), through octave transposition (OT) of any tones in the row, through
retrogradation (R) of the row as a whole or in part, through inversion (/) of
the row, and through combinations of these such as retrograde inversion (R/).
The row and its basic manipulations are illustrated in Example 29.3.

2
SS
7 perth
ee ee
eeee
_
_————

Example 29.3. Manipulations of the Tone Row.

Multiple Twelve-tone music is a form of serialism, in which only the pitches of

Serialism the tone row and its derivations are treated recurrently in series. Anton
Webern added to pitch serialization the serialization of rhythm. Here a row
of rhythmic values is constructed and subjected to manipulations, much like
those of pitch. Composers have since expanded elements eligible for serial-
ization to include dynamics, timbre, densities, sonorities, forms, even seri-
 Specific Styles and Techniques 199

alism itself. In total serialization all elements are serialized. The most
complex serial music is that in which two or more series are not synchronized
within a given time span. Example 29.4 is a simple illustration of such serial
organization. Series 1 is a tone row; series 2 is a recurrent rhythmic pattern
of four beats (in fimeter); series 3 is a simple crescendo/decrescendo
dynamic pattern lasting seven beats; and series 4 is a cycle of three timbres
in a series approximately four bars long. Longer patterns, manipulations of
the rows, and the addition of harmonic series, density series, and so on could
be employed toward a more complex multiple serialism.

flute violin clarinet fl;

Example 29.4. Multiple Sertalization

Composers
Since 1950 a large number of composers have employed various serial
techniques. Among these are Olivier Messiaen (1908— ) and Pierre Boulez
(1925— ) in France; Henri Pousseur (1929— ) in Belgium; Karlheinz
Stockhausen (1928— ) and Wolfgang Fortner (1907— ) in Germany; Luigi
Dallapiccola (1904-1975), Luciano Berio (1925— ), Luigi Nono (1924— ),
and Bruno Maderna (1920-1974) in Italy; and Wallingford Riegger (1885-
1961), Ernst Krenek (1900— ), Adolph Weiss (1891-1971), Stefan Wolpe
(1902-1972), and Milton Babbitt (1916— ) in the United States.

Indeterminacy Indeterminacy (also chance music or aleatory music) is one of the most
radical trends of the century. It is to some extent a reaction against the rigid
determinism of serialism, but perhaps even more a philosophical challenge
to the whole notion of how the musical past shapes and controls the musical
present. This is a concept based on chance selection of musical materials by
the composer, the performer(s), or both. As it often happens, the composer
employs some method to ensure a chance selection of basic musical materials
or ideas: e.g., by throwing dice, employing the ancient Chinese book the /
Ching, or using a computer “random generator.” This music attempts to
escape the orthodoxy of Western art music practice by freeing sound to be
itself. It promises the listener an opportunity to make of a listening experi-
200 History of Western Music
en Se ee

ence what he or she will, unhindered by any prior expectations or experi-

ences.
Cage (1912-)
John Cage is the most important figure in the development of aleatory
music. His Music of Changes from 1951 is a forty-three—minute work for
piano in which every note and aspect of the music was determined by coin
tosses. The following year he conceived 4’ 33", which is the length of time
that a listener should concentrate on the aural environment, hearing what free
sounds there are to experience.
Other Composers
Other examples of chance music in the United States are the early works
of Morton Feldman (1926-1987), such as his Projection I for flute, trumpet,
violin, and cello (only registers of “high,” “middle,” and “low” as time
values and dynamics are indicated), and in pieces by composers Earle
Brown (1926— ), Christian Wolff (1934— ), Nam June Paik (1932- ),
Barney Childs (1926— ), Lukas Foss (1922— ), Larry Austin (1930-— ),
Philip Corner (1933— ), Robert Ashley (1930- ), and many others.
European composers have also been influenced by aleatory music, but
generally use chance techniques to provide a framework for improvisation.
Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Klavierstticke XI consists of nineteen fragments for
piano, which can be played in any order, at any of six tempos and dynamic
levels, and with various degrees of staccato or legato. His Zyklus for one
percussion player is a score in circular form that can be read clockwise,
counterclockwise, or upside down. ST/1O, 080262, and Strategie by Yannis
Xenakis (1922— ) are pieces based on mathematical laws of chance and
computer indeterminacy, an approach that he calls stochastic music. Other
European composers who use or used chance techniques include: Sylvano
Bussotti (1931— ), Roman Haubenstock—Ramati (1919— ), Mauricio Kagel
(1931— ), Folke Rabe (1935— ), Cornelius Cardew (1936-1981), and many
others.

Electronic Music __ At least as important as any development in art music since World War
II is electronic music. There have been three important stages in its devel-
opment: (1) tape music, (2) analog—synthesizer, and (3) digital-synthesizer.
Tape Music
Magnetic audio tape was developed by the Germans during the war. In
the late 1940s, composers and technicians in Paris began experimenting with
the medium, opening radically new vistas in music. The first step was the
recording of live (concréte) sounds: conventional music, natural or con-
trived sounds such as traffic noise, bird calls, breaking glass, and squeaky
doors. These sounds were then abstracted through four basic procedures:
 Specific Styles and Techniques 201

(1) changing the speed of the tape, (2) reversing its direction, (3) cutting and
splicing the tape into new combinations, and (4) combinations of these.
Separate sound tracks could then be mixed onto one track. The resulting
music was called musique concréte. By the early 1950s, centers for experi-
mentation in tape music had developed in other countries, especially the
United States.
Besides the purely aural experience, the greatest importance of this
music was that the role of the performer was greatly diminished or eliminated
altogether, for the music was created directly on magnetic tape by the
composer and heard through loudspeakers. It is a feature of much of this
music that conventional melody and harmony are absent. Rhythm, however,
was often important.
Composers of tape music are: Pierre Schaeffer (1910— ), Pierre Henry
(1927— ), and Pierre Boulez in France; Karlheinz Stockhausen (Gesang der
Jiinglinge) in Germany; Luciano Berio in Italy; Edgard Varese, Otto Luening
(1900— ), Mel Powell (1923— ), Vladimir Ussachevsky (1911—; A Piece for
Tape Recorder), John Cage (Imaginary Landscape no. 5), and Mario
Davidovsky (1934— , Study no. IT) in the United States.

Analog-Synthesizer
By the early 1950s experiments had led to the development of electronic
devices capable of generating and altering sounds. This technology could
produce and control the four properties of sounds: frequency (pitch), ampli-
tude (dynamics), duration (rhythm), and timbre (tone quality). Since sound
is composed of soundwaves and these waves could now be produced elec-
tronically, it was theoretically possible to manufacture any sound at all. This
could be achieved by activating an oscillator, which produced the simple,
basic electronic soundwave, modifying that wave (which at this stage is
merely electrical voltage) by combining (modulating) it with the output of
other oscillators, and polishing and shaping it by diverting that collective
result through various electronic filters. The soundwave might then be stored
directly on magnetic tape, perhaps to be manipulated further through cutting
and splicing. The complex electronic instrument that contained the oscilla-
tors and filters under a single control system was called an analog syn-
thesizer. The first of these was the RCA Electronic Music Synthesizer,
completed in 1955. The Columbia—Princeton Electronic Music Studio in
New York became home to some of the most sophisticated experimentation
with synthesizers. In the 1960s and 1970s the Moog, Buchla, and ARP
Synthesizers brought down the cost and size of these instruments, creating
opportunities for many composers to work with the medium.
Many composers active first in tape music moved naturally to synthe-
sized music. Among many others, these were Milton Babbitt (whose Com-
position for Synthesizer of 1961 was the first largescale synthesized work),
202 History of Western Music
ee ee a a Ee

Morton Subotnik (1933— ), Charles Wuorinen (1938— ), Wendy Carlos

(1939-_ ), and John Eaton (1935-— ).
Digital-Synthesizer
The digital computer has made possible the next evolutionary step in
electronic music. Sound can be converted to digital information through a
process called sampling. Here a soundwave is analyzed by an analog—to—
digital converter that, as the name implies, converts an analog sound into
discrete digits. This information can then be transfered to a computer’s
memory and manipulated (edited) by the composer. A digital-to—analog
converter can then turn the numbers back into a soundwave, to be played
through any playback system. Once the digital properties of sounds are
known they can be produced in digital form, bypassing the initial step.
There are three advantages that a sophisticated computer music instru-
ment (like the Synclavier II, the Fairlight, or the Yamaha DX-~7) has over
tape and synthesizer music. (1) Audio quality is extremely high. Practically
no noise (distortion) is introduced into the sound material—the “sound” is
but patterns of Os and 1s—allowing for many generations of sound editing
with no deterioration of quality. (2) The music is heard in real time. The
composer can store the piece digitally as it is made, and can play it back at
any instant. In tape music, once the materials were generated, the composer
then had to cut and splice and hope the result was satisfactory, a cumbersome
process at best. An analog—synthesizer could only generate the sound
sources for a composition, not the piece itself. (3) Editing is infinitely and
easily possible. This advantage follows from the digital nature of the
material, which can be manipulated as easily as issuing an instruction to the
computer to change the digital configuration. For example, a musical event
can be heard higher, lower, louder, softer, faster, slower, shortened, length-
ened, inverted, mirrored, sequenced, segmented, repeated, incremented,
compressed, and so on, by a simple line of computer code. The interface
often a traditional keyboard—between a user and a computer program is now
so “friendly” that the composer need not know any programming. Many
composers report that the ease and the immediacy of real-time editing allow
them to work more intimately with the actual sound material than in any other
medium, Composing tape music and synthesizer music was, on the other
hand, slow and awkward work.
Legions of composers have worked and are working with this technol-
ogy. Lejaren Hiller (1924— ) might have been the first when he used the
University of Illinois computer to produce his //liac Suite for String Quartet
in 1957. Other early experimenters were Max Matthews (1926— ), James
Tenney (1934— ), J. K. Randall (1929— ), John Chowning (1934— ), John
Cage, and Yannis Xenakis. The 1970s and 1980s heard important work by
Salvatore Martirano (1927— ), David Behrman (1937— ), James Dashow
 Specific Styles and Techniques 203

(1944— ), Charles Dodge (1942-— ), Jon Appleton (1939— ), Paul Lansky

(1944— ), and Jean—Claude Risset (1938- ).
Computer music technology has generated enormous interest among all
strata of the musical world: professional, amateur, popular music, art music,
commercial music, academic music. The computer might well be the dom-
inant musical instrument of the 1990s.

Performance of Electronic Music

Much of this music was composed for the traditional concert stage and
has been “performed” there with great success. Many, though, have found
sitting quietly and staring at loudspeakers a less than satisfactory experience.
Accordingly, even by the 1950s composers were “softening” tape music by
combining it with live performance, which used conventional performance
media andtraditional timbres. Rimes by Henri Pousseur combines common
practice instruments with electronic sounds. Kontakte IJ by Karlheinz
Stockhausen is entirely electronic, but it simulates some conventional tim-
bres. In his Synchronisms Mario Davidovsky uses solo instruments and all
prerecorded electronic sounds. Luciano Berio employed nontextual tape—
recorded vocal sounds combined with electronic sounds in Visage. Philomel
by Milton Babbitt is for a soprano and tape, on which the soprano’s voice is
heard among other more abstract sounds. Otto Luening’s Gargoyles was
composed for violin solo (undistorted) and synthesized sound. HPSCHD
(1968) by Lejaren Hiller and John Cage is for seven harpsichords, tapes,
dancers, and, in the LP version, listener/performer. Animus II by Jacob
Druckman (1928— ) is for female voice, two percussionists, and tape.

Improvisation Improvisation is more a force in the twentieth century than in any period
since the Middle Ages. This is largely because of the influence of jazz and
rock, and a general awareness of other non-Western musical cultures, many
of which feature improvisation. Beyond that, improvisation had been per-
ceived by some composers as a way to inject a fundamentally human aspect
into their music. It might also be a way for the composer to relinguish some
control over the product and free the performer for more natural, innately
creative expression, an ideal that follows from indeterminacy. Except for
music based on serialist concepts, improvisation is some part of all important
trends in the avant-garde movement.
Highly proficient improvisation ensembles arose in the 1960s and 1970s.
They included the New Music Ensemble, the Sonic Arts Group, the Musica
Elettronica Viva, and several ensembles at the University of Illinois.

Composers
Composers who wrote music with improvisation in mind were Robert
Ashley, Luciano Berio, John Cage, Stuart Dempster (1936— ), Robert Erick-
204 History of Western Music

son (1917— ), Lukas Foss, Pauline Oliveros (1932— ), Roger Reynolds

(1934— ), Gunther Schuller (1925— ), and Karlheinz Stockhausen.

Minimalism As the word implies, minimalism (also known as process music and
phase music) is created from limited materials. Melodies may be extremely
simple, harmonies uncomplicated and static, and ostinatos may be featured,
as might drones. The overriding characteristic is repetition. Typically the
music changes slowly, almost imperceptibly. When change does occur it is
often a greatly exciting moment, snapping the listener out of a hypnotic,
trancelike state.
The history of minimalism could be said to extend back to the Baroque.
Many of J. S. Bach’s works use extremely limited material and change only
slowly. The Prelude in C Major from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I is
sucha piece. Many minimalist composers point to Erik Satie as the germinal
figure of the movement. Much of his music used simple, almost clichéd
material that was repeated at length over ostinato patterns. His Vexations is
an exaggerated example of this characteristic. It is a one-minute composi-
tion in AA form that is repeated 840 times, affording the listener a chance to
hear the same music 1680 times over about fourteen hours! John Cage, who
has been strongly influenced by Satie, has contributed to this movement. His
4’ 33" is about as “minimal” as one can imagine. Morton Feldman wrote
music that was to be played so softly as to be almost inaudible, forcing the
listener to pay close attention.
La Monte Young (1935— ) has been involved in making music that uses
drones, one of which he maintained continuously from 1979 to 1985. A
listener would, given enough time, come to appreciate the subtleties of
Overtones and intonations. In 1964 Terry Riley (1935— ) wrote his Jn C,a
ninety—minute piece with fifty-two segments repeated in an overlapping
fashion. Philip Glass (1937— ), who performs with his own virtuoso ensem-
ble, has adapted idioms from rock music, such as repetitive, predictable
harmonies and a thundering bass line, for his music. He has written several
well-received full-length operas in this style. Steve Reich (1936—) has been
particularly interested in phasing, in which performers play the same pattern
but gradually fall out of phase with one another. John Adams (1947— ) has
used formal techniques of electronic music to give his music a driving,
pulsating harmonic quality. Meredith Monk (1943-—) has developed a strictly
vocal form of minimalism, which she combines with dance.

Performance Art _ This is a form of highly theatricized music making, generally solo, that
came about in the 1970s and 1980s. It had its foundation in the Dadaist
movement of the early century, with its theater—for—its-own-sake philoso-
phy. Also important to the formation of this style was Harry Partch, with his
theatrical instruments and manners of playing them.
 Specific Styles and Techniques 205

Performance art borrows freely from other avant—garde styles, such as

conceptual art (in which the concept is more important than the product),
nonnatrative theater, minimalism, and electronic music, and from rock
music. Certainly the best-known composer of this form is Laurie Anderson
(1947-— ), who is typically also a performer. Her performances feature a stage
full of electronic devices, invented instruments (such as her electronic
tape—bow which she draws across violin strings), lighting effects and visual
images, and her own arresting and theatrical persona. Like most perfor-
mance art, her music assumes an engaged and vitally interested audience,
not always the case in much other avant-garde music. Perhaps her most
impressive composition to date is the two-evening United States. Philip
Glass’s operas have also been important in the development of performance
art.

Scores and Stravinsky: NAWM 147; NSII 32

Recordings Ives: NSII 29
Twelve—tone
Schoenberg: NAWM 148
Minimalism
Reich: NAWM 156
 Musical Media

The distinctive sounds of twentieth—century music are due in large part to

developments in media, some of which represent radical innovations.
Generally, composers have chosen to use media traditional to the nineteenth
century, and performed in conventional ways, or invented or utilized new
media, or devised new performing techniques for old media. The period since
World War II has seen far more of the development of new media.

CONVENTIONAL MEDIA

The changes in conventional media have not been as revolutionary as

those in the forms and techniques they employ.

Orchestral The orchestra remains a most important medium. Orchestral composi-

Music tions are often scored for smaller orchestras than in the late nineteenth
century, in part because of the greater expense of rehearsing and performing
with a large ensemble. The piano and a few other instruments have been
added to the percussion section. Instruments in the woodwind, brass, and
string choirs have not changed.
The most prominent traits in modern orchestration are (1) more variety
of color combinations, (2) greater frequency of change in timbres, and (3)
thinner scoring.
A few works have explored the possibilities of vocal elements without
text: Sirenes by Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and the last movement of The
Planets by Gustav Holst (1874-1934). Several orchestral works have used
a speaking part for narrator: Lincoln Portrait by Aaron Copland (1900—
1990), Peter and the Wolf by Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953), Survivor from

206
 Musical Media 207

Warsaw by Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951), Testament of Freedom by

Virgil Thomson (1896-1989), and A Parable of Death by Lukas Foss
(1922- ).
Music for the cinema has not contributed substantially to orchestral
literature, but a few successful works derived from movie sound tracks are
Aaron Copland’s Our Town, Virgil Thomson’s The Plow that Broke the
Plains, Sergei Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kije Suite and Alexander Nevsky, and
Antarctic Symphony by Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958).

Chamber Music A revival of interest in chamber music is one manifestation of Neoclas-

sicism. As the medium best suited to conveying clear sonorities and contra-
puntal textures, it is compatible with classical objectivity. Although the
string quartet remains a favorite ensemble, various combinations of wind
instruments have also attracted composers. A combination of instruments
favored among performing groups and composers is the wind quintet con-
sisting of flute, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, and horn, examples of which are La
Cheminée du Roi René (The Hearth of King René) by Darius Milhaud
(1892-1974), Trois pieces bréves by Jacques Ibert (1890-1962), Zeitmesse
by Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928- ), and Quintet in the Form of a Choro by
Heitor Villa—Lobos (1887-1959).
Chamber orchestras and string orchestras also reflect the Neoclassical
trend in such works as Ralph Vaughan Williams’s Fantasy on a Theme of
Thomas Tallis, Apollon Musagete by Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Aaron
Copland’s Quiet City, and Adagio for Strings by Samuel Barber (1910—
1981). Other prominent composers of chamber music are Charles Ives
(1874-1954), Béla Barték (1881-1945), Paul Hindemith (1895-1963),
Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975), Walter Piston
(1894-1976), Quincy Porter (1897-1966), David Diamond (1915— ), Leon
Kirchner (1919— ), Donald Martino (1931— ), Elliott Carter (1908— ), and
Milton Babbitt (1916- ).
New Combinations
Chamber music instrumentation has always enjoyed some degree of
flexibility, and twentieth—century composers have explored this feature.. A
few examples are Concerto for Celesta and Harpsichord (without orchestra)
by Daniel Pinkham (1923— ); Arnold Schoenberg’s Serenade for baritone
voice, clarinet, bass clarinet, mandolin, guitar, violin, viola, and cello; Heitor
Villa Lobos’s Bachianas Brasilerias no. I for eight cellos; Béla Barték’s
Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta; Toccata for Percussion by Carlos
Chavez (1899-1978) ; and Quatuor pour la fin du temps (Quartet for the End
of Time) by Olivier Messiaen (1908- ).

Concert Band The concert band (also known as symphonic band and symphonic wind
ensemble), as distinct from military, marching, and jazz bands, began to
208 History of Western Music

receive attention from composers in the twentieth century. The nineteenth

century saw band music grow in importance to the point that it became a type
of popular music. Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829-1892) directed an Amer-
ican band during the Civil War period, and after that established new
standards of ensemble playing in this country. John Philip Sousa (1854—
1932), at the end of the century, first conducted his most famous of the
professional touring bands, which played for millions of American and
Europeans over several decades. He was also the composer of dozens of
rousing marches (e.g., “Stars and Stripes Forever,” “Washington Post”) that
are still featured at band concerts. Sousa’s band, which rarely marched, was
in instrumentation more—or—less equivalent to an orchestra, with woodwinds
taking the place of strings. Band programs, which earlier had consisted
almost entirely of marches, popular arrangements, and transcriptions of
orchestral music, began to program more complex music freshly written for
the sophisticated new medium.
Examples of more recent symphonic band music by major composers
are Paul Hindemith’s Symphony in B, , Darius Milhaud’s Suite Francaise
and West Point Suite, Samuel Barber’s Commando March, Chorale and
Alleluia by Howard Hanson (1896-1981), Ralph Vaughan Williams’s Toc-
cata filarziale, Divertimentofor Band by Vincent Persichetti (1915—), Virgil
Thomson’s A Solemn Music, Arnold Schoenberg’s Theme and Variations for
Band, Lincolnshire Posy by Percy Grainger (1882-1961), Fantasy on a
Theme by Haydn by Norman Dello Joio (1913—), Music for Prague by Karel
Husa (1921—), and Pittsburgh Overture by Krzysztof Penderecki (1933— ).

Choral Music Relatively fewer composers of the twentieth century have explored
large-scale choral forms than did those in the seventeenth or eighteenth
centuries. The ones who have include Igor Stravinsky (Symphony of Psalms,
Threni), Arthur Honegger (1892-1955; King David, Jeanne d’Arc au
Bucher), William Walton (1902-1983; Belshazzar’s Feast), Carl Orff (1895—
1982; Carmina Burana), Walter Piston (Carnival Song), Howard Hanson
(Lament for Beowulf), Luigi Dallapiccola (1904—1975; Job), Francis Poulenc
(1899-1963; Gloria, Mass), Benjamin Britten (1913-1976; Festival Te
Deum, War Requiem), Anton Webern (1883-1945; two cantatas), Krzysztof
Penderecki (St. Luke Passion), and Arvo Part (1935— ; Jubilio).
The twentieth-century has seen the development of an extraordinary
number of high—quality choirs, primarily in the United States and in connec-
tion with music programs at high schools, colleges, and universities. Many
composers have provided them with short works, generally in a conservative
style. Among the more important are Randall Thompson (1899-1984), Ernst
Toch (1887-1964), Jean Berger (1909— ), Paul Creston (1906- ), Samuel
Barber, Gian Carlo Menotti (1911— ), and Ned Rorem (1923- ). Composers
of the avant-garde have also written for choral ensembles. Among them are
 Musical Media 209

Earle Brown (1926— ), Salvatore Martirano (1927— ), Kenneth Gaburo

(1926-— ), Richard Felciano (1930— ), Roger Reynolds (1934~— ), Olly Wilson
(1937- ), William Brooks (1943- ), and Neely Bruce (1944~ ).

Piano Music Although the piano is important in ensemble media, music for piano solo
does not hold the prominent place it did in nineteenth-century music. Some
noteworthy examples of twentieth century piano literature are Sonatine and
Le Tombeau de Couperin by Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), Claude Debussy’s
Preludes and Etudes, Arnold Schoenberg’s Drei Klavierstiicke, Op. 11, Béla
Bart6k’s Mikrokosmos, Darius Milhaud’s Saudades do Brazil, Olivier
Messiaen’s Vingt regard sur l’enfant Jésus, Dmitri Shostakovich’s Twenty—
four Preludes and Fugues, Paul Hindemith’s Ludus Tonalis, Makrokosmos I
& II (for amplified piano) by George Crumb (1929— ), Karlheinz
Stockhausén’s set of Klavierstiicke, and The People United Will Never be
Defeated by Frederic Rzewski (1938— ), a set of driving variations on a
Chilean popular song.

Art Song Probably more art songs have been written in the twentieth century than
in any Other. Some important song cycles are Claude Debussy’s Chansons
de Bilitis, Paul Hindemith’s Marienleben, Gitanjali by John Alden Carpenter
(1876-1951), Samuel Barber’s Hermit Songs, Ned Rorem’s Poems of Love
and the Rain, and The Children by Theodore Chanler (1902-1961). Charles
Ives made particularly important contributions to the genre early in the
century without writing a song cycle. Composers in somewhat less conser-
vative styles have also been drawn to the art song. They include: Arnold
Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Milton Babbitt, Ruth Crawford (1901-1953),
Wallingford Riegger (1885-1961), Ernst Krenek (1900— ), George Rochberg
(1918—), George Perle (1915— ), Dominick Argento (1927-— ), and John Cage
(1912-).

Opera Although the repertory of major opera companies still draws predomi-
nantly from the nineteenth century, an impressive number of operas in
twentieth-century styles has been produced, among the first of which was
Claude Debussy’s impressionist opera Pelléas et Mélisande, written in 1902.
Notable operas from the first half of the century are Maurice Ravel’s
L’ Heure Espagnole; Paul Hindemith’s Mathis der Maler; Benjamin Britten’s
Peter Grimes, Alban Berg’s Wozzeck and Lulu, Gian Carlo Menotti’s The
Medium, The Consul, and The Telephone, Arnold Schoenberg’s Moses and
Aaron; Ernst Krenek’s Jonny Spielt Auf, Carl Orff’s Die Kluge; Virgil
Thomson’s Four Saints in Three Acts and The Mother of Us All; The Devil
and Daniel Webster by Douglas Moore (1893-1969); Dmitri Shostakovich’s
Lady Macbeth of Mtzensk and The Nose, Down in the Valley by Kurt Weill
(1900-1950); and Porgy and Bess by George Gershwin (1898-1937).
210 History of Western Music

The composition of operas has enjoyed something of a resurgence since

1950, often as a result of high-quality opera programs in conservatories and
schools of music, and these schools’ willingness to premiere new works.
With only a few important exceptions, these operas have not made their way
into the repertories of major opera houses. Some important operas produced
since 1950 are Gian Carlo Menotti’s The Saint of Bleeker Street, Amahl and
the Night Visitors (composed for television), and The Last Savage, Igor
Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress; Benjamin Britten’s Billy Budd, Don
Rodrigo and Bomarzo by Alberto Ginastera (1916-1983); Francis Poulenc’s
Les Dialogues des Carmélites and La Voix humaine (The Human Voice, a
tragic telephone monologue); Douglas Moore’s Giants in the Earth and The
Ballad of Baby Doe; Susannah and Of Mice and Men by Carlisle Floyd
(1927— ); Boulevard Solitude and The Stag King by Hans Werner Henze
(1926— ); Samuel Barber’s Vanessa and Anthony and Cleopatra; Krzysztof
Penderecki’s The Devils of Loudun; Trouble in Tahiti by Leonard Bernstein
(1918-1990); The Crucible by Robert Ward (1917— ); Dominick Argento’s
Casanova’s Homecoming; Atalanta by Robert Ashley (1930— ); Lukas Foss’s
The Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, the trilogy on historial figures by
Philip Glass (1937—): Einstein on the Beach, Satyagraha (on Gandhi's early
life), and Akhnaten, and 1000 Airplanes on the Roof, Mary, Queen of Scots
by Thea Musgrave (1928— ); The Postman Always Rings Twice by Stephen
Paulus (1949— ); The Cry of Clytaemnestra by John Eaton (1935— ); The
Visitation by Gunther Schuller (1925— ); Nixon in China by John Adams
(1947— ); and The Ghost of Versailles by John Corigliano (1938- ).
Operetta
The vogue of operettas and musical comedies, which began with the
Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, continued in the twentieth century with works
by many important composers. They came to be called musical comedies
and achieved the status of popular music. They are discussed further in
Chapter 33.

Ballet and Dance as a dramatic form independent of opera has enjoyed a popularity
Modern Dance unknown since seventeenth-century French court ballets. The revival began
in the late nineteenth century with Russian ballet and music by Peter Illich
Tchaikovsky (1840-1893; Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and The Nut-
cracker). Modern ballet, which contributes an important literature to orches-
tral concerts, began with the choreography of Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929)
and the music of Igor Stravinsky: The Firebird, Petrouchka, Le Sacre du
printemps (The Rite of Spring). Other important dance music includes
Stravinsky’s L’ Histoire du soldat (Soldier's Tale), Pulcinella, Jeu de cartes
(Card Game), Les Noces, Apollon Musagete, and Agon; Maurice Ravel’s
Daphnis et Chloe, Gayne by Aram Khatchaturian (1903-1978); Darius
Milhaud’s Le Boeuf sur le toit (Bull on the Roof), Paul Hindemith’s
 Musical Media 211

Nobilissima Visione from the ballet St. Francis; Aaron Copland’s

Appalachian Spring, Billy the Kid, and Rodeo; Thomson’s Filling Station;
Walter Piston’s Incredible Flutist, Judith and Undertow by William Schuman
(1910— ); and Fancy Free by Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990). Since the
1950s, composers and dancers have worked together perhaps more closely
than ever before. A list of composers who have written music for dance
might include most of those active. Two important composers, though, are
John Cage, who has worked with Merce Cunningham for five decades, and
Meredith Monk (1943— ) who has established herself as composer, choreog-
rapher, and vocalist.

MEDIA OF THE AVANT-GARDE

Experimentation in media is as significant a trait in music as it is in

painting or sculpture. Not only have composers sought new effects with
conventional instruments but they have invented, or contributed to the
development of, entirely new means of producing sounds.

Unusual Uses The urge to create new kinds of sounds led to exploring the possibilities
of Conventional of using conventional instruments in unusual ways. For example, Igor
Instruments Stravinsky opened his Le Sacre du printemps with a bassoon solo in the
extremely high register. Bart6k produced new string effects by combining
pizzicato, sul ponticello, col legno, glissando, and harmonics in his third,
fourth, and fifth string quartets. Krzysztof Penderecki composed Threnody
for the Victims of Hiroshima for string orchestra, making use of extremely
high registers and “bands” of adjacent tones played simultaneously.
The piano has received special unconventional treatment. Henry Cowell
(1897-1965) produced unusual sounds from a piano in Banshee and Aeolian
Harp by instructing the performer to pluck the strings or to run a fingernail
along the length of a piano string. Alan Hovhaness (1911— ) has used a
plectrum and tympani sticks on piano strings while simultaneously using the
keyboard in conventional manner (Pastorale, Orbit no. 2, Jhala). Conlon
Nancarrow (1912— ) composes for player pianos, sometimes more than one,
punching the notes into the piano rolls directly. This method of composing
and performance allows for rhythmic complexity far beyond the capabilities
of even the most facile pianist. John Cage developed the prepared piano in
the 1940s by systematically experimenting with materials (screws, rubber,
212 History of Western Music ;
tt a ai lee ee

glass, wood, metal, plastics, cellophane) on and between the piano strings.
His Sonatas and Interludes are among the best examples of this style.

Unconventional Unusual sound-producing objects have been introduced in amazing

Instruments profusion. An early example is Richard Strauss’s (1864-1949) use of a wind
machine in Don Quixote. Edgard Varése (1885-1965) calls for a siren in
Ionisation. Harry Partch (1901-1974) has invented a variety of instruments
largely out of a need to perform his music, which is based on a mode with
forty-three pitches per octave. Among them are bamboo marimbas, cloud
chamber bowls, surrogate kitharas, mazda marimbas, and the boo. Nearly
all his music, for example, Petals Fell in Petaluma and Delusion of the Fury,
was composed for his unique orchestra. Since mid-century composers have
been inspired by artists who incorporated objets trouvé (found objects) into
their artwork. Water—buffalo bells and brake drums, among other instru-
ments, are used in John Cage’s Double Music.

Electronic This category includes instruments that depend partly or entirely on

Instruments electricity for sound production, but it excludes more advanced electronic
media developed since 1950. (See the section on Electronic Music, Chapter
29.) Several instruments that generate tones electronically were invented
during the first half of the century. These include the Telharmonium,
Novachord, and Vibraharp. The Theremin was another and achieved some
success, with compositions for it by Edgard Varese, Percy Grainger, and
others. The Ondes Martinot was used by Darius Milhaud, André Jolivet
(1905-1974), Jacques Ibert, Arthur Honegger, and Olivier Messiaen. The
Hammond Organ, invented in 1933, has been a great commercial success,
but only a few composers, Karlheinz Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel
(1931— ) primary among them, have written concert music for it. Electronic
amplification has been applied to conventional instruments, especially the
guitar, and has had a tremendous impact, especially on popular music.

Multimedia Already in the 1950s composers were combining media into larger and
more theatrical events. Two early examples serve to define the genre. (1)
John Cage, pianist David Tudor, painter Robert Rauschenberg, and dancer
Merce Cunningham teamed to produce the first multimedia happening in
1952, with its collage of music, lectures, dances, and visual images. (2)
Edgard Varése’s Poéme électronique (1958) is a 480—second tape composi-
tion, with both synthesized and musique concréte elements, that was heard
in a pavilion designed by architect Le Corbusier, and accompanied by
multiple projected images.
Countless multimedia avant-garde performances have taken place since.
The ONCE group (which included composers Robert Ashley, Gordon
Mumma, and Roger Reynolds, among other actors, dancers, and artists) was
a primary focus for multimedia activities during the late 1950s and 1960s.
 Musical Media 213

Other important composers in the style were Morton Subotnick (1933- ),

Peter Maxwell Davies (1934—), Boguslaw Schaffer (1929- ), George Crumb,
Salvatore Martirano (L’s GA), and Nam June Paik (1932— ). Rock groups
(e.g., Pink Floyd and Kiss) have been influenced by multimedia techniques;
performers like Michael Jackson (1958— ; Thriller) have applied them to
video production.
Mixed Media
Mixed media is closely related. Where multimedia is generally eclectic
and disjunctive, mixed media is intended to be more unified and focused.
Barton McLean’s (1938—) Jdentity compositions serve as an example. These
pieces deal with an audience’s relationship with, perception of, and control
over the immediate environment. The audience, through its physical move-
ments, actually controls the sounds heard. Other composers include
Karlheinz Stockhausen, Mauricio Kagel, Salvatore Martirano, Robert Moran
(1937— ), and Stuart Dempster (1936-— ).
Intermedia
Intermedia attempts to erase distinctions between conventional catego-
ries of art. The Fluxus group was germinal in this movement, and was a loose
coalition of visual artists, poets, performers, and musicians. La Monte Young
(1935— ), George Brecht (1926— ), and Yoko Ono (1933— ) were important
figures.
214 History of Western Music

Scores and Orchestral Music

Recordings Debussy: NAWM 144: NSII 24
Ravel: NAWM 145; NSII 30
Richard Strauss: NAWM 146; NSII 25
Vaughan Williams: NSII 27
Ives: NSII 29
Stravinsky: NAWM 147; NSII 32
Schoenberg: NAWM 148
Webern: NAWM 149; NSII 33
Bartok: NSII 31
Copland: NAWM 150; NSII 38
Lutoslawski: NSII 42
Ligeti: NSII 46
Picker: NSII 49
Chamber Music
Schoenberg: NAWM 152
Bart6k: NAWM 153
Carter: NSII 40
Crumb: NAWM 154; NSII 48
Messiaen: NAWM 155: NSII 39
Cage: NSII 41
Babbitt: NSII 43
Reich: NAWM 156
Art Song
Ives: NAWM 159
Opera
Berg: NAWM 160; NSII 34
Prokofiev: NSII 35
Hindemith: NAWM 161
Britten: NAWM 162
Stravinsky: NAWM 163
Musgrave: NSII 47
 Summary of Principal
Twentieth—Century
Composers

This chapter names twenty-three countries especially prominent in twen-

tieth-century art music. Under each is a listing of composers who have
attained special eminence. In some cases the list is extensive, reflecting the
extraordinary level of musical activity in the twentieth century.

THE UNITED STATES

The United States has become the prominent musical nation, having
achieved excellence in music education, performance, technology, scholar-
ship, and composition. Its culture is heterogeneous and so is its music, with
many different styles being practiced. In the nineteenth century and early
decades of the twentieth century, the American art music culture was largely
indebted to Europe for the training of its musicians and composers. From
this predominantly European heritage, though, American composers
emerged as individualists with strongly eclectic tastes. Since World War II,
the United States has assumed leadership among the avant-garde, largely
because of university support. Public concert stages and opera houses have
generally supported more conservative styles.

The Several turn—of—the—century American composers who belong mainly

Traditionalists to romantic European traditions were treated in Chapter 26. Among them

215
216 History of Western Music

were Arthur Foote, George Chadwick, Edgar Stillman Kelley, Edward

MacDowell, Charles Loeffler, Horatio Parker, Amy Cheney Beach, Henry
Gilbert, Henry Hadley, Frederick Converse. Members of the next, related
generation are Edward Burlingame Hill (1872-1960), Daniel Gregory
Mason (1873-1953), John Alden Carpenter (1876-1951), and Charles T.
Griffes (1884-1920). Arthur Farwell (1872-1952) was one of the first to
incorporate references to American Indian music into many of his composi-
tions.

Ives (1874-1954)
Charles Ives is generally considered to be the United States’s first great
art music composer. His pioneering experiments led to early developments
in polytonality, atonality, nontertial harmonies, nonmetric music, and chance
music. Still his musical reference is almost always to conventional forms,
genres, and media. He made significant contributions to the literature of the
art song, string quartet, symphony, and piano sonata. He was also a lively
critic and aesthetician.

Cowell (1897-1965)
Henry Cowell was a Californian who studied the traditional music of the
western Pacific and incorporated elements of that music into his eclectic
style. He experimented with alternative sound sources and with unconven-
tional manners of playing conventional instruments.

Thomson (1896-1989)
Although he usually employed conventional media and frequently tradi-
tional genres (operas, especially), Virgil Thomson was thoroughly
anti-Romantic in his music. He strove for a plain, repetitive style that
disarmed and charmed through its simplicity.
Gershwin (1898-1 937)

George Gershwin’s music was animated by the rhythms of popular music

and jazz. He wrote in conventional genres such as song, concerto, rhapsody,
tone poem, and opera.

Copland (1900-1990)
Aaron Copland’s ballets have been his most successful compositions,
being rhythmically animated and frequently based in American folk idioms.
He wrote in a conventional vein for many genres and idioms.

Carter (1908-)
Many of Elliott Carter’s major works are large in scale and highly
inventive. In an important way, his musical language is traditional, in that it
relies on conventions of rhythm and harmony. The result, in his wide range
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 217

of compositions, is a dissonant style that does not fit easily into the categories
usually assigned to art music in the twentieth century.
Bernstein (1918-1990)
Leonard Bernstein composed, lectured, wrote, and conducted widely.
He composed for conventional media in a generally traditional manner. His
musical comedies, West Side Story and Our Town, have been especially
popular.
Other Composers
Other important American composers who have developed or explored
conventional styles, techniques, or media include Dominick Argento
(1927-), Samuel Barber (1910-1981), John Becker (1880-1961), Arthur
Berger (1912— ), Jean Berger (1909- ), William Bergsma (1921- ), Marc
Blitzstein (1905—1964), Ernest Bloch (1880-1959), William Bolcom (1938- ),
Theodore Chanler (1902—1961), Chou Wen-chung (1923—), John Corigliano
(1938— ), Ruth Crawford (1901-1953), Paul Creston (1906— ), Ingolf Dahl
(1912-1970), Norman Dello Joio (1913— ), David Del Tredici (1937- ),
David Diamond (1915— ), Halim El—Dabh (1921-— ), Irving Fine (1914—
1962), Ross Lee Finney (1906— ), Carlisle Floyd (1927- ), Peggy Glanville—
Hicks (1912-— ), Percy Grainger (1882-1961), Ferde Grofé (1892-1972),
Howard Hanson (1896-1981), Roy Harris (1898-1979), Alan Hovhaness
(1911— ), Andrew Imbrie (1921— ), Ulysses Kay (1917— ), Leon Kirchner
(1919— ), Barbara Kolb (1939— ), Peter Mennin (1923-1983), Gian Carlo
Menotti (1911— ), Douglas Moore (1893-1969), Stephen Paulus (1949-— ),
Vincent Persichetti (1915— ), Tobias Picker (1954~ ), Daniel Pinkham (1923- ),
Walter Piston (1894-1976), Quincy Porter (1897—1966), George Rochberg
(1918—), Ned Rotem (1923—), Carl Ruggles (1876-1971), William Schuman
(1910— ), Harold Shapero (1920— ), Seymour Shifrin (1926-1979), Elie
Siegmeister (1909— ), John Philip Sousa (1854-1932), William Grant Still
(1895-1978), Randall Thompson (1899-1984), Ernst Toch (1887-1964),
Joan Tower (1938— ), Robert Ward (1917— ), Hugo Weisgall (1912— ), and
Adolph Weiss (1891-1971).

The Varese (1885-1965)

Avant-Garde From the 1910s Edgard Varése was experimenting with new musical
resources. His Ionisation of 1931 for forty-three percussion instruments was
a landmark. He had been interested in electronic instruments since working
with a Theremin in the 1930s. His Poéme electronique (1958) is one of the
early masterpieces of electronic music and multimedia.
Sessions (1896-1985)
Roger Sessions’s music is intensive, concentrated, usually highly disso-
nant, and, after about 1950, twelve-tone. He wrote nine symphonies and
four operas, among other pieces in traditional forms.
218 History of Western Music

Partch (1901-1974)
Harry Partch is one of the most inventive and eccentric composers of the
century. He reasoned a new modality that led him to compose music for
instruments that he had to invent and build. To perform this rich, exotic—
sounding, ritualistic music, he had to train his own group of performers.
Cage (1912-)
No composer has been more influential since mid-century than John
Cage. He is the acknowledged leader of the avant-garde. He is primarily
responsible for the concept of indeterminacy, which he named. Fundamental
to that development is a philosophy, influenced by. Zen and other forms of
Eastern thought, contending that sound should be liberated from the rigid
control typical of conventional compositional techniques. His works have
spanned available media and genres.
Other Composers
Important American composers involved in the avant-garde movement
include John Adams (1947— ), Laurie Anderson (1947— ), George Antheil
(1900-1959), Jon Appleton (1939— ), Robert Ashley (1930— ), Larry Austin
(1930— ), Milton Babbitt (1916— ), Hans Barth (1897-1956), David Behrman
(1937— ), Henry Brant (1913— ), George Brecht (1926— ), William Brooks
(1943— ), Earle Brown (1926— ), Neely Bruce (1944— ), Wendy Carlos
(1939— ), Barney Childs (1926— ), John Chowning (1934— ), Philip Corner
(1933— ), George Crumb (1929— ), James Dashow (1944— ), Mario
Davidovsky (1934— ), Stuart Dempster (1936— ), Charles Dodge (1942- ),
Jacob Druckman (1928— ), William Duckworth (1943-— ), John Eaton
(1935— ), Donald Erb (1927— ), Robert Erickson (1917— ), Richard
Felciano (1930— ), Morton Feldman (1926-1987), Lukas Foss (1922- ),
Kenneth Gaburo (1926-— ), Philip Glass (1937— ), Lou Harrison (1917- ),
Lejaren Hiller (1924— ), Karel Husa (1921— ), Ben Johnston (1926— ),
Alison Knowles (1933- ), Ernst Krenek (1900— ), Ezra Laderman (1924-),
Paul Lansky (1944— ), Daniel Lentz (1942— ), Alvin Lucier (1931— ), Otto
Luening (1900— ), Stanley Lunetta (1937— ), Barton McLean (1938— ‘a
Donald Martino (1931— ), Salvatore Martirano (1927— ), Max Matthews
(1926—), Meredith Monk (1943— ), Robert Moran (1937— ), Gordon Mumma
(1935— ), Conlon Nancarrow (1912— ), Pauline Oliveros (1932— ), Yoko
Ono (1933—), Nam June Paik (1932~), George Perle (1915— ), Mel Powell
(1923— ), J. K. Randall (1929— ), Steve Reich (1936— ), Roger Reynolds
(1934— ), Wallingford Riegger (1885-1961), Terry Riley (1935-— ), Frederic
Rzewski (1938— ), Gunther Schuller (1925- ), Ralph Shapey (1921 ),
Morton Subotnik (1933— ), James Tenney (1934— ), Vladimir Ussachevsky
(1911—), Adolph Weiss (1891-1971), Olly Wilson (1937— ), Christian Wolff
(1934— ), Stefan Wolpe (1902-1972), Charles Wuorinen (1938— ), and La
Monte Young (1935-— ).
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 219

SOVIET UNION

Russia came significantly into the European musical scene in the nine-
teenth century. In the twentieth century the Soviet Union has been mostly
outside the mainstream avant-garde developments because of government
pressure to avoid alienating the people by formalist (1.e., avant-garde)
techniques. Nevertheless, it has produced great musicians, performing art-
ists, conductors, and composers during the period.

Stravinsky Despite its general conservatism it was Russia that produced probably
(1882-1971) the most eminent composer of the twentieth century. Igor Stravinsky, who
emigrated to Paris in 1910 and to the United States in 1939, can justly be
called an international composer. Although he was a versatile composer in
all media, it was in ballet music that his fame was first established. Although
his style changed repeatedly, there are certain traits that have remained
constant: strong and often complex rhythm, ostinato, brilliant orchestration,
and pungent harmonies. Stylistic trends can be noted: (1) the Russian
period, in which he was strongly influenced by Rimsky—Korsakov
(Firebird); (2) the so—called dynamistic (or, alternately, primitivist) period
of Le Sacre du printemps and Petrouchka; (3) the Neoclassical period of the
Octet for Winds, L’ Histoire du soldat, Pulcinella, Symphony of Psalms, and
Apollon Musagete; (4) the jazz—influenced music of Ragtime, Ebony
Concerto, and Dumbarton Oaks, and (5) the use of serial technique in such
works as Agon and Threni.

Prokofiev Like Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev emigrated and lived in the United
(1891-1953) States and Paris between 1918 and 1934, but he returned to the Soviet Union
to become one of its most distinguished composers. Among his most popular
compositions are Lieutenant Kijé, Peter and the Wolf, the “Classical” Sym-
phony, and the opera The Love for Three Oranges.

Shostakovich Dmitri Shostakovich’s music has had a varied reception in the Soviet
(1906-1975) Union, ranging from enthusiastic acclaim to denouncement and back again.
On the whole, he was able to infuse his music with moderately progressive
styles while retaining popular appeal.

Other Among other important Soviet composers are Mikhail Ippolitov—Ivanov

Composers (1859-1935), Alexander Gretchaninov (1864-1956), Alexander Glazunov
(1865-1936), Alexander Scriabin (1872-1915), Sergei Vasilenko (1872—
1956), Nicholas Tcherepnin (1873-1945), Reinhold Gliére (1875-1956),
Nicolai Miaskovsky (1881-1950), Aram Khatchaturian (1903-1978), and
Dmitri Kabalevsky (1904-1987). More recent Soviet composers, some of
220 History of Western Music
Le a ae an re mae is TREAT TRIMERS TIT TI, Pe a

whom employ electronic and aleatory techniques, are Tikhon Khrennikov

(1913— ), Edison Denisov (1929— ), Sergei Slonimsky (1932— ), Andrei
Volkonsky (1933—), Alfred Chnitke (1934— ), Arvo Part (1935—) an import-
ant young Estonian composer, Leonid Grabovsky (1935— ), and Valentin
Silvestrov (1937- ).

FRANCE

France has been in the front ranks of music making in the twentieth
century. French composers were the first to turn from the dominance of
German Romanticism to new modes of musical thought, and they have been
in the forefront of important developments in electronic music.

The As in the United States, there is a generally clear division between

Traditionalists composers of the period before World War II and those since.

Debussy (1862-1918)
Claude Debussy, the foremost Impressionist composer, stood on the
threshold of modernism much in the same way that Beethoven represented
the transition from Classical to Romantic music. His innovations, revolu-
tionary in their day, opened the door to many twentieth-century develop-
ments. Debussy’s principal media for composition were the piano and the
orchestra, in which he introduced new harmonies and sonorities. His best—
known orchestral works are the tone poem Prélude al’ aprés—midi d’ un faune
(Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun) and the orchestral suites La Mer and
Nocturnes.
Satie (1866-1925)
Erik Satie purposefully wrote music in an anti-Romantic vein. He
turned often toward popular music idioms to accomplish this. His influence
on the avant—garde has been considerable.
Ravel (1875-1937)
Maurice Ravel’s style transcends Impressionism, to which he added
Neoclassical clarity, colorful orchestration, and considerable use of Spanish
elements.
Les Six

In the 1920s a group of six composers initiated an anti-Impressionist

movement of a neoclassical nature. ‘““The Six” were Darius Milhaud, Arthur
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 221

Honeg ger (1892-1955), Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), Germaine Tailleferre

(1892-1983), Georges Auric (1899-1983), and Louis Durey (1888-1979).
Milhaud (1892-1974)
Darius Milhaud was the most eminent, versatile, and prolific composer
among Les Six. He composed music in all media and in many twentieth—
century styles. He was a proponent of polytonality in the 1920s. Though
consistently Gallic in spirit, he was an eclectic cosmopolite who absorbed
idioms from Brazil, jazz, and other indigenous elements, including those of
his native Provence.
Other Composers
Composers whose creative lives belong mostly to the twentieth century
but who stylistically belong more to the nineteenth century were Gustave
Charpentier (1860-1956), Joseph Guy Ropartz (1864-1955), Paul Dukas
(1865-1935), Charles Koechlin (1867-1950), Henri Rabaud (1873-1949),
Jean Roger—Ducasse (1873-1954), Jacques Ibert (1890-1962), and Henri
Duparc (1848-1943). Special mention should be made of Albert Roussel
(1860-1937), Florent Schmitt (1870-1958), Henri Sauguet (1901- ),
Maurice Duruflé (1902— ), André Jolivet (1905-1974), and Jean Frangaix
(1912— ). Nadia Boulanger (1887-1979), also a composer, was one of the
most influential teachers of composition in the twentieth century.

The Messiaen (1908- )

Avant-Garde Olivier Messiaen embraced modern idioms early in his career. His
music is thoroughly eclectic, borrowing from Catholic church music, Indian
music, birdsongs, and serialist techniques. He has been an important teacher
of composition.
Boulez (1925- )
A student of Messiaen, Pierre Boulez continued his teacher’s develop-
ment of the concept of total serialism. Boulez’s works are rigorously
structured but feature delicate sonorities.
Composers of Electronic Music
Pierre Schaeffer (1910— ) and Pierre Henry (1927— ) were the first to
experiment with musique concréte. The French have continued to be in-
volved in important developments in electronic music, lately resulting from
outstanding facilities at the Institut de Recherche et de Coordination
Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM). Among the important composers in the
medium are Luc Ferrari (1929— ) and Jean—Claude Risset (1938-— ).
222 History of Western Music

AUSTRIA

Austria maintained its position as one of the leading musical countries

of Europe through the middle of the century.

Schoenberg One of the most influential composers of the century, Arnold Schoenberg
(1874-1951) began with post-Wagnerian music (Verklarte Nacht), moved toward atonal-
ity and into Expressionism in the second decade, and established the twelve—
tone system in the early 1920s. He initiated a vocal style called sprechstimme
or sprechgesang (half—spoken, half—sung text), which he employed first in
Pierrot lunaire, and later in Survivor from Warsaw, for narrator, chorus, and
orchestra. He moved to the United States in 1933.

Berg A pupil of Schoenberg, Alban Berg employed the tone-row system

(1885-1935) loosely, and his music is generally more Romantic and more tonal than
Schoenberg’s. His most famous works are the two operas Wozzeck and Lulu.

Webern Also a pupil of Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern composed in a more

(1883-1945) stringent style, employed dissonant counterpoint, disjunct melodic lines,
severely economical means, and pointillistic texture. He was not a prolific
composer, but his music has had a profound influence on composers since
1945.

Other Other important composers are Alexander von Zemlinsky (1871-1942),

Composers Franz Schreker (1878-1934), Josef Hauer (1883-1959), and Gottfried von
Einem (1918— ). Ernst Toch and Emst Krenek moved to the United States
in the 1930s.
Leaders in the new music movement in Austria include Friedrich Cerha
(1926), the Hungarian Gyorgy Ligeti, and the Polish Roman Haubenstock—
Ramati.

GERMANY

The musical importance of German-speaking nations, including Austria,

has been noted from the time of the minnesingers to the present.
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 223

Hindemith Following the domination of Richard Strauss in the early decades, Paul
(1895-1963) Hindemith stood as the most eminent representative of German music in the
first half of the century.

Stockhausen Since midcentury Karlheinz, Stockhausen has been the most influential
(1928- ) German composer. His thought and music were fundamentally altered as a
result of a meeting with John Cage in 1950. Since then, his ideas have been
central to many of the important developments of the European avant-garde.

Other Among important German composers of the first half of the century are
Composers Paul Dessau (1894-1979), Carl Orff (1895-1982), Hanns Eisler (1898—
1962), Kurt Weill (1900-1950), Werner Egk (1901-1983), Boris Blacher
(1903-1975), Karl Hartman (1905-1963), and Wolfgang Fortner (1907-— ).
Composers who have been prominent since World War II include:
Giselher Klebe (1925— ), Hans Werner Henze (1926-— ), and Dieter Schnebel
(1930- ).

ITALY

For the most part, Italy was musically conservative in the first decades
of the twentieth century. Toward midcentury, Italian composers moved into
the main current of contemporary developments.

The
Traditionalists
Busoni (1866-1924)
Ferruccio Busoni was one of the few early twentieth—century Italians
interested in new musical idioms, generally those being developed in
Germany and Austria. Influential as composer, pianist, editor, critic, and
teacher, he pointed the way to new musical thought in Italy.

Respighi (1879-1 936)

Ottorino Respighi was Italy's first important instrumental composer in
the twentieth century, although he was conservative even in terms of then
current practices. His best-known works are the two tone poems (each in
four continuous movements) The Pines of Rome and The Fountains of Rome.
224 History of Western Music

Malipiero (1882-1973)
Francesco Malipiero was an eminent musicologist who made scholarly
studies and editions of Italian Baroque composers (Monteverdi, Vivaldi, and
others). The studies influenced the Neoclassicism of his own compositions,
which include operas, symphonies, large choral works, and chamber music.
Other Composers
Other significant Italian composers are Ermanno Wolf—Ferrari (1876—
1948), Ildebrando Pizzetti (1880-1968), Alfredo Casella (1883-1947), and
Goffredo Petrassi (1904— ). Gian Carlo Menotti has studied, resided, and
produced most of his operas in the United States.

The Berio (1925- )

Avant-Garde Luciano Berio was interested early in electronic music. With Maderna
he set up the first electronic music studio in Italy. His music since has drawn
on a wide range of contemporary and conventional idioms, but is always
structured with great care and is inherently dramatic.
Other Composers
Among important Italian avant-garde composers, mainly of serial or
electronic compositions, are Luigi Dallapiccola (1904-1975), Bruno
Maderna (1920-1974), Luigi Nono (1924— ), Franco Donatoni (1927- ),
Sylvano Bussotti (1931— ), Niccolo Castiglioni (1932— ), and Salvatore
Sciarrino (1947- ).

GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain’s high position in music, which had declined after the
Renaissance, has been restored in the twentieth century.

Vaughan Generally considered the most eminent English composer in the first half
Williams of the century, Ralph Vaughan Williams composed moderately conservative,
(1872-1958) Romantic, and consistently tonal music. English folk-song idioms are
evident in much of his music. He excelled in symphonic and choral media.

Walton William Walton assimilated a number of modern techniques in his

(1902-1983) generally conservative, highly personal style. Among his many successful
works are Facade for chamber orchestra, with recited poems by Edith
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 225

Sitwell, the oratorio Belshazzar’s Feast, the opera Troilus and Cressida, and
music for the films Henry V and Romeo and Juliet.

Britten Benjamin Britten is widely recognized as a major composer who has

(1913-1976) produced a number of excellent large-scale works. His operas have become
part of the standard repertory.

Other The Traditionalists

Composers Important composers mentioned in Chapter 26 who represented the
transition from the nineteenth to the twentieth centuries were Charles Parry,
Charles Stanford, and Edward Elgar. British composers who worked in a
more-or-less conventional vein include Frederick Delius (1862-1934),
Granville Bantock (1868-1946), Gustav Holst (1874-1934), Amold Bax
(1883-1953), Lord Berners (1883-1950), Arthur Bliss (1891-1975), Philip
Heseltine (1894-1930; known as Peter Warlock), Alan Bush (1900— ),
Edmund Rubbra (1901-— ), Lennox Berkeley (1903— ), Michael Tippett
(1905— ), Matyas Seiber (1905-1960), Alan Rawsthorne (1905-1971), Elis-
abeth Lutyens (1906-1983), Humphrey Searle (1915-1982), Richard Arnell
(1917—), Peter Racine Fricker (1920— ), Malcolm Arnold (1921— ), Anthony
Milner (1925— ), Malcolm Williamson (1931— ), and Richard Rodney Ben-
nett (1936~ ).
The Avant-Garde
Important among the avant-garde movement in England are Andrzej
Panufnik (1914— ), Iain Hamilton (1922— ), Alexander Goehr (1932- ), Peter
Maxwell Davies (1934— ), Cornelius Cardew (1936-1981), and John Tilbury
(1936—). Thea Musgrave (1928— ) is Scottish, and a composer of dramatic works.

HUNGARY

Hungary has produced some distinguished composers in the twentieth

century.

Bartok A top-rank pianist, scholar of Balkan folk music, teacher, and composer,
(1881-1945) Béla Bartok is one of the giants of modern music. He was never a “systems”
composer, conforming rigidly to styles or techniques. His music taken as a
whole encompasses many modern developments in melody, harmony,
rhythm, tonality, and textures. Among his works are Mikrokosmos (153
graded pieces for piano), six string quartets, and the Music for Strings,
Percussion, and Celesta.
226 History of Western Music

Kodaly Zoltén Koddly followed in Barték’s footsteps as a modern Hungarian

(1882-1967) nationalist, though somewhat more conservative. He formulated a peda-
gogic method for teaching music to children that is still in wide use. His
principal works are the opera Hdry Janos, Psalmus Hun garicus, and Dances
of Galanta.

Other Other Hungarian composers are Ernst von Dohnanyi (1877-1960), Leo
Composers Weiner (1885-1960), Tibor Serly (1901-1978), and Pal Kadosa (1903-
1983). Among the active avant-garde, one must include Gyérgy Ligeti
(1923— ), who left Hungary in 1956, Gyorgy Kurtég (1926— ), Istvaan Lang
(1933— ), Zsolt Durk6 (1934~ ), Attila Bozay (1939— ), Laszl6 Sary (1940—
), and Zoltan Jeney (1943- ).

SPAIN

Spanish music of the twentieth century is generally conservative and

nationalist in style.

De Falla The most outstanding Spanish composer in the first half of the century
(1876-1946) was Manuel de Falla. His principal works are the opera La Vida breve (Life
Is Short), the ballets El Sombrero de tres picos (The Three—Cornered Hat)
and Noches en los jardines de Espatia (Nights in the Gardens of Spain).

Surinach Carlos Surinach, who emigrated to the United States in 1951, is probably
(1915-) the Spanish composer best known since midcentury. His music combines a
nationalist approach with progressive but not extreme techniques.

Other Among other important Spanish composers are Joaquin Turina (1882-
Composers 1949), Oscar Espla (1886-1976), Roberto Gerhard (1896-1970), Rodolfo
Halffter (1900— ), Julian Bautista (1901-1961), Joaquin Rodrigo (1901- ),
and Ernesto Halffter (1905-— ).
Among the avant-garde include Joaquin Homs (1906— ), Luis de Pablo
(1930— ), and Critébal Halffter (1930~ ).
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 227

ARGENTINA

An abundance of folksong material, mostly of Gaucho origin, provides

a rich source of native materials used by many Argentine composers.

The Composers active in the early part of the century include Alberto
Traditionalists Williams (1862-1952), Juan Castro (1895-1968), Juan Carlos Paz (1897—
1972), Roberto Morillo (1911— ), and Carlos Guastavino (1912- ).

The Argentina enjoys a particularly active avant-garde.

Avant-Garde

Ginastera (1916-1983)
Alberto Ginastera blended native color with moderately dissonant but
tonal harmonies in his early works. His operas, Don Rodrigo and Bomarzo
utilized avant—garde techniques.
Kagel (1931- )
Mauricio Kagel, who left Argentina for Germany in 1957, has been at
the fore of developments in European experimental music. His complex,
highly theatrical creations draw upon aleatory techniques, multiple—serial-
ism, and multimedia.
Other Composers
Other composers include Alcides Lanza (1929-— ), Antonio Tauriello
(1931- ), Gerardo Gandini (1932— ), and Armando Krieger (1940— ). Mario
Davidovsky left Argentina for the United States in 1958.

BELGIUM

Prominent composers active in the first half of the century were Paul
Gilson (1865-1942), Joseph Jongen (1873-1953), Paul de Maleingreau
(1887-1956), Jean Absil (1893-1974), and Marcel Poot (1901— ). Among
the avant-garde, Henri Pousseur’s (1929— ) work with electronics and with
the applications of aleatory technniques places him at the forefront. Other
figures important in new music include Karl Goeyvaerts (1923— ), Lucien
Goethals (1931— ), Philippe Boesmans (1936— ), and Pierre Bartholomée
(1937—).
228 History of Western Music

BRAZIL

Brazilian music is a mixture of African, native Indian, Portuguese, and

cosmopolitan European cultures.

Villa-Lobos The most illustrious among Brazilian composers, Heitor Villa-Lobos

(1887-1959) was a conservative nationalist, drawing from the various ethnic sources of
his country. Among his highly individualistic works were fourteen compo-
sitions called Choros, and nine compositions entitled Bachianas Brasileiras,
loosely based on forms or techniques used by Bach.

Other Other composers are Francisco Mignone (1897— ), Camargo Guarnieri

Composers (1907 ), Claudio Santoro (1919— ), Gilberto Mendes (1922— ), and Marlos
Nobre (1939- ).

CANADA

The leading names among Canadian composers are Healey Willan

(1880-1968), Claude Champagne (1891-1965), Colin McPhee (1901-
1964), Barbara Pentland (1912— ), John Weinzweig (1913— ), Alexander
Brott (1915—), and Jean Papineau—Couture (1916— ). Pierre Mercure (1927—
1966) was a leader of the Canadian avant-garde before his early death.
Others of that school include Udo Kasemets (1919— ), Istvan Anhalt
(1919— ), Harry Freedman (1922— ), John Beckwith (1927— ), and R.
Murray Schafer (1933- ).

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Czech music has remained predominantly conservative, romantic, and

strongly nationalistic in the twentieth century. Leo’ Janaéek is the important
transitional figure to the twentieth century.
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 229

Martina Influenced by Impressionism and somewhat by Igor Stravinsky,

(1890-1959) Bohuslav Martini made use of native folk idioms in his operas (Comedy on
a Bridge), symphonies, ballets, and chamber works.

Other Other composers include Josef Suk (1874-1935), Alois Haba (1893-
Composers 1973), who was a microtonalist, Jaromir Weinberger (1896-1967), who is
known for his opera Schwanda the Bagpiper, Miloslav Kabelé¢é (1908-
1979), Eugen Suchon (1908— ), Karel Reiner (1910-1979), and Jan Cikker
(1911-).
Among the younger generation of composers are Ladislav Burlas (1927-— ),
Roman Berger (1930— ), Ilja Zeljenka (1932— ), Dusan Martin¢éek (1936— ),
Ladislav Kupkovi¢ (1936— ), Petr Kolman (1937— ), and Juraj Hatrfk (1941- ).
Karel Husa has lived in the United States since 1954.

DENMARK

Nielsen Carl Nielsen was touched by the neoclassical style, especially toward the
(1865-1931) end of his career. He is often mentioned with Sibelius, but unlike the Finnish
master he skillfully explored new idioms while still working in conventional
forms and genres. An example of this trait is his use of the snare drum as a
solo instrument in his Symphony no. 5. His symphonies have come to enjoy
special attention in the twentieth century.

FINLAND

Palmgren Selim Palmgren was the most important Finnish master of the early
(1878-1951) twentieth century after the long—lived but basically Romantic Sibelius.
Paimgren employed Finnish folk idioms in an Impressionist style. Following
him were Yrj6 Kilpinen (1892-1959) and Aarre Merikanto (1893-1958).

Other Other composers include Erik Bergman (1911-— ), Einar Englund

Composers (1916— ), Bengt Johansson (1914— ), and Joonas Kokkonen (1921- ), the
last two of whom are aligned with the avant—garde.
230 History of Western Music

GREECE

Some names in early twentieth-century Greek art music are George

Lambelet (1875-1945), Manolis Kalomiris (1883-1962), Mario Varvoglis
(1885-1967), Nikos Skalkottas (1904-1949), and Manos Hadzidakis
(1925- ).

Xenakis (1922- ) Yannis Xenakis is the leading Greek composer of the avant-garde. His
music, which is usually for conventional media, is derived from mathemat-
ical and philosophical principles he developed. His rigorous structures,
based on probability theory, however, include an element of indeterminacy.

Other Others of the avant-garde include: Anestis Logothetis (1921— ), Nikos

Composers Mamangakis (1929— ), Yannis Ioannidis (1930— ), George Psouyopoulos
(1930— ), and Stephanos Gazouleas (1931-— ).

HOLLAND

Important names in the twentieth century, are Henrik Andriessen (1892—

1981), Willem Pijper (1894-1947), and Jurriaan Andriessen (1925- ).
Composers of the avant-garde in Holland include Kees van Baaren
(1906-1970), Henk Badings (1907— ), Rudolf Escher (1912-1980), Ton de
Leeuw (1926—), Jan Vriend (1938— ), and Louis Andriessen (1939- ),

JAPAN

Since World War II, Japan has shown an affinity for all kinds of Western
music, including art music. Japan has produced important performing artists,
conductors, and composers. Among the latter are Yoritsune Matsudaira
(1907— ), Shin—-elchi Matsushita (1922— ), Toshiro Mayuzumi (1929-— ), Joji
Yuasa (1929— ), Toru Takemitsu (1930— ), Yori-Aki Matsudaira (1931-— ),
 Summary of Principal Twentieth-Century Composers 231

Toshi Ichiyangi (1933—), and Yuji Takahashi (1938—). Except for Yoritsune
Matsudaira, all are involved in some aspect of the avant-garde.

MEXICO

Mexican music, like that of other Latin American countries, manifests a

strong nationalist strain that blends indigenous elements with Spanish and
conservatively modern styles.

Chavez Carlos Ch4vez was Mexico’s foremost musician, educator, organizer,

(1899-1978) conductor, and composer. His music was nationalistic and neoclassical and
in a variety of media.

Revueltas Mexican folklore and idiom are essential ingredients in Silvestre

(1899-1940) Revueltas’s music. His most famous works are Cuauhnahuac and
Sensemaya, both for orchestra.

Other Other important Mexican composers include Julidn Carrillo (1875-

Composers 1965), known for his microtonal music, Manuel Ponce (1882-1948), Daniel
Ayala (1906-1975), Miguel Jimenez (1910-1956), Blas Galindo (1910— ),
and Pablo Moncayo (1912-1958). Leaders among the avant-garde are
Manuel Enrfquez (1926— ), Mario Kuri—Aldana (1931— ), and Hector
Quintanar (1936— ). Conlon Nancarrow immigrated to Mexico from the
United States in 1940, eventually to become a Mexican citizen.

POLAND

Important names in early twentieth-century Polish music are Karol

Szymanowski (1882-1937), Karol Rathaus (1895-1954), and Alexander
Tansman (1897— ). Poland has enjoyed a particularly vital avant-garde
movement. An early leader was Witold Lutosawski (1913— ), followed by
Roman Haubenstock—Ramati (1919— ), who emigrated to Austria in 1957,
Tadeusz Baird (1928-1981), Boguslaw Schaffer (1929—), and H. M. Gorecki
(1933— ). Krzysztof Penderecki (1933— ) has gained wide attention with his
232 History of Western Music

music featuring large banks of dissonant tone clusters. Andrzej Panufnik

emigrated to England in 1954.

SWEDEN

Composers who worked within an early twentieth-century idiom include

Natanaél Berg (1879-1957), Kurt Atterberg (1887-1974), Oskar Lindberg
(1887-1955), and Lars—Erik Larsson (1908- ).
Composers active since the 1940s include Karl—Birger Blomdahl (19 16—
1968), Hans Holewa (1905— ), Sven—Eric Johanson (1919— ), Bengt
Hambraeus (1928— ), Folke Rabe (1935— ), and Bo Nilsson (1937- ).

SWITZERLAND

Martin Frank Martin was the most important Swiss composer of the century
(1890-1974) (excluding expatriots such as Honegger, Bloch, and others). He employed a
modified twelve—tone technique in a personalized manner.

Liebermann Rolf Liebermann’s style is based mainly on a twelve—tone technique

(1910-) combined with Classic and Romantic elements and a strong rhythmic sense.
His most famous work is the Concerto for Jazz Band and Symphony
Orchestra.

Other Other important Swiss composers are Wladimir Vogel (1896-1984), a

Composers Russian—born serialist composer living in Switzerland, Willy Burkhard
(1900-1955), Conrad Beck (1901— ), and Heinrich Sutermeister (1910— ).
Active members of the avant-garde include Jacques Wildberger (1922- ),
Klaus Huber (1924— ), Rudolf Kelterborn (1931— ), and Jacques Guyonnet
(1933-— ).
PART EIGHT
POPULAR MUSIC,
JAZZ, AND ROCK
 aay ie
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32
Introduction to Popular
Music, Jazz, and Rock

1728 Gay: The Beggar's Opera

1768 James Hook: A Collection of Songs Sung at Vauxhall and Marylebone
Gardens
1808 First issue of Thomas Moore’s /rish Melodies
1823 “Home, Sweet Home” (Bishop—Paine) premiered
1840 Henry Russell: “The Old Arm Chair”
1843 First minstrel show
1843 Hutchinson Family Singers meet success in New York City
1843 First song by Stephen Foster
1851 Foster: “Old Folks at Home”
1857 “Jingle Bells” by J. S. Pierpont
1859 Dan Emmett: “Dixie”
1864 Death of Foster
1866 The Black Crook premiered
1873 Harrigan—Hart: The Mulligan Guard
1875 James Bland: “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny”
1876 Henry Clay Work: “Grandfather’s Clock”
1885 Gilbert-Sullivan: The Mikado
1892 Charles K. Harris: “After the Ball”
1896 Maud Nugent: “Sweet Rosie O’Grady”
1897 Paul Dresser: “On the Banks of the Wabash”

235
236 HistoryofWestern Music

1899 Scott Joplin: “Maple Leaf Rag”

1905 “In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree” (Williams—Van Alstyne)
1906 George M. Cohan: Forty-Five Minutes from Broadway
1911 Irving Berlin: “Alexander’s Ragtime Band”
1912 Publication of first country blues
1917 First recording of jazz by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band
1917 Storyville, in New Orleans, closed
1923 Bessie Smith makes her first blues recordings
1925 Louis Armstrong makes first recordings with his Hot Five
1927 Jerome Kern’s Showboat
1927 The Jazz Singer (movie)
1930 Gershwin: “Embraceable You”
1933 Kern: “Smoke Gets in Your Eyes”
1934 Cole Porter: Anything Goes
1934 Benny Goodman’s Band formed on model of Fletcher Henderson’s Band
1939 Harold Arlen: music to The Wizard of Oz
1940 Duke Ellington and His Orchestra make string of extraordinary recordings
1942 Irving Berlin: “White Christmas”
1943 Oklahoma! by Rodgers and Hammerstein
1945 Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie make classic bebop recordings
1953 Death of Hank Williams
1954 Newport Jazz Festival founded
1954 Elvis Presley cuts his first recording
1955 Death of Charlie Parker
1955 “Rock Around the Clock” rises to number one
1955 Chuck Berry: ‘“Maybellene”
1956 Presley’s “Heartbreak Hotel”
1956 Presley on The Ed Sullivan Show
1956 Charlie Mingus: Pithecanthropus erectus
1957 West Side Story
1958 Presley drafted into the Army
1959 Buddy Holly killed in plane crash
 Introduction to Popular Music, Jazz, and Rock 237

1959 Dave Brubeck: “Take Five”

1960 Ornette Coleman: Free Jazz
1963 Bob Dylan: “Blowin’ in the Wind”
1964 The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show
1965 The Beatles: Help! (film)
1966 Last public appearance by the Beatles
1966 Summer of Love (San Francisco)
1967 Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band
1968 Rolling Stones: “Sympathy for the Devil”
1969 Miles Davis: Bitches Brew
1969 Woodstock rock festival
1970 The Beatles disband
1970 Deaths of Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix
1971 Carole King: Tapestry
1973 Stephen Sondheim’s A Little Night Music
1977 Death of Elvis Presley
1978 The Bee Gees: Saturday Night Fever
1980 The Clash: London Calling
1981 Laurie Anderson: “O Superman”
1982 Michael Jackson: Thriller
1984 Bruce Springsteen: Born in the USA
1985 Live Aid concerts
1986 Paul Simon: Graceland
1987 U2: Joshua Tree

Western music other than art music has existed during all periods.
Generally this music is referrred to as the music of the vernacular, or the
common culture. Often this has been music that exists in oral tradition,
performed from memory and passed on orally. Such music is often called folk
music. Many different types offolk music have coexisted in any given frame.
Some have been developed in urban situations, but the genre flourished most
inarural, agrarian society. By its very nature it is difficult to document these
traditions; hence folk music does not typically figure significantly in any
238 History of Western Music

comprehensive written history of music. Implicit in a musical system that

embraces both notated music and an oral tradition is social standing and class.
Before and during the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church was generally
the only social institution that had a place for literacy. That today we know
most about church music from that period is not surprising since the Church
kept the records. Music of those outside the written tradition, usually the
working people, was of little interest to church clerics and remained undocu-
mented except in incidental ways.
Popular music, rock, and jazz have in common the facts that they all grew
out of music for the common people, that the vernacular tradition was at least
initially important, and that the music was conceived in reaction to the
prevailing musical idiom. Thus, the histories of these musics are bound to the
histories of other musics, perhaps primarily art music. Many of the concepts
needed to understand popular music, rock, and jazz are ones already intro-
duced.
The definition of popular music is elusive. There is about it a quality of
entertainment, of lightness in opposition to the serious intent of art music or
even folk music, which often has a rather obvious didactic intention. Popular
music is literally music for the people (“populus” in Latin means “the
people”). From early it has meant the music preferred by the masses rather
than by the elites, whether defined by wealth, power, or intellect. By the
nineteenth century it was music that was quantifiably popular. That is, printed
popular music sold more units (e.g., Sheet music) of music than did nonpopular
music (generally art music). This distinction holds well into the twentieth
century. Rock is also a form of popular music, but it is stylistically so disinct
from popular music before its development that convention calls popular
music and rock by different names. Jazz has never been a form of truly popular
music. Even if one were to limit the audience to African—Americans, blues,
gospel, or rhythm and blues would be more popular ata given time. Although
it has features characteristic of music for the elite, jazz has much more in
common with forms of popular music than not. In addition, it has exerted
considerable influence on both popular music and rock, and has been in-
fluenced in turn. In the twentieth century, popular music, jazz, and rock are
bound by their common treatment of rhythm. All share a rhythmic quality that
is historically new and different in the West. The essence of this dynamic new
regard for rhythm is syncopation.
Popular Music

Popular:music is usually in the form of a song with accompaniment (often

piano). Its primary intention is to provide entertainment and diversion.
Composed and published to make a profit, it is only secondarily a form of
self—expression. Only after the Industrial Revolution generated a large mid-
dle class with disposable income did popular music become a powerful force.
The most important developments in this music took place in England in the
eighteenth century and in the United States in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. By the mid-nineteenth century there was much greater involvement
with popular music by people in English-speaking nations than with art music.
The twentieth century has seen this trend accelerate. Since the mid-1950s
rock has become the most important form of popular music. Rock (see
Chapter 35) is different from the subject of this chapter in several important
ways and is not a part of this discussion.

EARLY HISTORY

Folk—-Songs, musical works of a narrative nature that exist in oral

tradition, are the sources for early popular music. Hundreds of these were
known to working-class people in England, Scotland, and Ireland before the
eighteenth century, and were brought to America by immigrants. Some
folk—songs go back at least to the time of the Middle Ages. Others were
more—or—less contemporary songs published and sold in the form of the
penny ballad or broadside (a single—sheet printed impression that uses only
one side of the paper). Favorite songs of this sort often became part of the
oral tradition. Broadside ballads (a ballad is, in this context, a narrative song)
had a text that commented on some current event (i.e., it was topical) and

239
240 History of Western Music

was set musically to a well-known tune. If there was an accompaniment to

the solo voice or a harmonic setting of the melody, it was improvised.
The broadside ballad already meets the basic requirements for a popular
song: (1) that it be simple and attractive to its intended audience; (2) that its
melody be the primary musical feature, (3) that the text be immediately
meaningful to its intended audience; (4) that it be capable of performance by
an amateur; and (5) that profit be a motive behind its creation and dissemi-
nation.
Composers in eighteenth—century England first started writing songs
somewhat like the broadside ballads, but with a notated accompaniment and
a text that was less politics—oriented and more entertainment—oriented.
These songs were featured at pleasure gardens, large private parklike set-
tings outside major cities where one might enjoy nature while eating, drink-
ing, talking, flirting, or listening to music. Middle—class amateur musicians
bought these songs, took them home, and performed them for friends and
family in the home. The songs were published in the form of sheet music,
on large, heavy, sheets of paper that, unlike the broadsides, might be printed
on both sides. By the end of the century there were thousands of these songs
and dozens of composers. Two representative composers are Thomas Arne
(1710-1778) and James Hook (1746-1827).
Americans of the eighteenth century also had pleasures gardens to attend,
but almost all of the popular music heard there was imported from England.
The few popular songs composed in the colonies were of the same general
style as those in England. They were generally written by immigrant musi-
cians from England.
The period at the turn of the nineteenth century found the English and
the Americans fascinated with Scottish and Irish songs, both of which
featured exotic—sounding melodies (often because they were pentatonic) and
romantic texts. The songs of Robert Burns (1759-1796; “Auld Lang Syne,”
“Comin’ Thro the Rye,” “John Anderson My Jo”) and of Thomas Moore
(1779-1852; “Believe Me if all Those Endearing Young Charms,” “Oft, in
the Stilly Night,” “Tis the Last Rose of Summer”) were especially import-
ant. The latter issued his songs in an eight—volume collection called the Irish
Melodies. It was also at this time that art music became increasingly esoteric,
and therefore less capable of meeting the musical needs of a burgeoning
European and American middle-class population. Popular music benefited
significantly from this trend.
 Popular Music 241

NINETEENTH-CENTURY POPULAR MUSIC

The first great success by an American songwriter was “The Minstrel’s

Return’d from the War” (1825) by John Hill Hewitt (1801-1890). This song
referred to an experience shared by many Americans (death on the battlefield
in defense of one’s country), and reinforced the notion that home, family,
and love of country are essential values. Musically, it is exemplary among
nineteenth—century American popular song. (1) It is a simple song, easy to
play and sing, designed to appeal to modest talents. (2) The eight—-measure
piano introduction sets the mood of the piece, and is followed by the principal
melody in the voice. (3) The melody is diatonic and conjunct, of graceful
contour with climactic high notes toward the end; the phrases are of the same
length. (4) There is enough repetition to make the melody memorable, but
not so much that it becomes tedious. (5) Harmonies are limited to the tonic,
subdominant, and dominant.

Russell Henry Russell was the dominant force in American popular music during
(1812-1900) the 1830s. He was one of the first to realize the didactic possibilities of
popular music. He used his songs to speak on topical social issues of the
day, like the ill treatment of Indians (‘The Indian Hunter”), insane asylums
(“The Maniac”), and temperance (“The ’Total Society”). Above all his music
reaffirmed American middle-class social values. Two characteristics distin-
guish his songs from earlier ones: an accompaniment that exhibits the
influence of Italian opera, then enjoying a vogue, and an implicit sense of
drama. Russell, an able performer as well as a composer, was also among
the first to make performance of popular music a profitable, public event.

The Singing The Hutchinson Family Singers, a quartet of three brothers and a sister,
Families the most notable of hundreds of such groups, extended Henry Russell’s
innovations through the 1840s and 1850s. They, too, used popular music to
comment on a wide range of social issues, including advocating the abolition
of slavery. Their songs were like glees, simple songs for three or four parts.
They performed them with (1) a chorus at the end of each verse, where
everyone sang together the most memorable and melodic music; (2) a close,
“sweet” blend of voices; (3) much attention to the “natural,” easy vocal
sound, with perfect intonation; (4) clearly articulated words; (5) a stage
manner that was casual, comfortable, and informal; and (6) song topics that
ranged over items of direct concern to their audience. Their enormous
popularity as performers established these characteristics as standards for
the next one hundred years of popular music.
242 History of Western Music

The Minstrel The first minstrel show took place in New York City in February 1843.
Shows Four white performers, who called themselves the Virginia Minstrels,
dressed themselves to portray African—Americans, applied blackface
makeup, and sang, danced, played instruments, made jokes, and mounted
skits and humorous speeches. This was racially based entertainment that
parodied and ridiculed southern slaves and northern freedmen, and appealed
to a white working-class American audience. Individual blackface enter-
tainers had been seen in theaters since the 1820s. Two songs from that early
period were “Jump Jim Crow” and “Zip Coon.” Like much early minstrel
show music, these songs were extremely simple melodically and harmoni-
cally, with spirited rhythms. The texts were disjunctive rather than narrative.
Minstrels arrayed themselves in a semicircle, with comics on either ends (the
endmen) who generally played the bones (Mr. Bones), a castanetlike clapper,
and the tambourine (Mr. Tambo), respectively. The entertainer in the middle
was Called the interlocutor and was the butt of the jokes. Other musicians
played banjos, fiddles, and concertinas. Early troupes include Christy’s
Minstrels, Buckley’s New Orleans Serenaders, White’s Minstrels, the
Harmoneons, and the Ethiopian Serenaders.
The structure of an early minstrel show was two-part. The first was a
parody of the northern, urban black, who was generally depicted as a tasteless
dandy. The second part was set on a southern plantation, and portrayed
slaves as grotesque, ridiculous, fun—loving, musical, and amorous. After the
1850s a middle section was often added, which consisted of a variety of songs
and gags, often having little or nothing to do with blacks. It was called the
olio. Soon the first section came to be dedicated to genteel (or parlor) songs,
and were sometimes even performed without blackface. The final section
then became the focus of racial stereotyping. It featured a rousing finale
called the walkabout or walkaround, with highly rhythmic music and extrav-
agant group dancing. The most famous of these songs was by Dan Emmett
(1815-1904), and entitled “I Wish I Was in Dixie’s Land,” or, today, just
‘Dixies
The minstrel shows became the period’s most popular form of musical
theater. They were especially popular in the north, where people wished to
cast those exploited by slavery as unworthy of their attention. Within six
months of the first minstrel show in the United States, London was enrap-
tured with the genre. From there it spread throughout the world, becoming
the first form of American popular culture to have a worldwide impact.
Although the shows changed and adapted somewhat, they lasted into the
mid-twentieth century.

Foster Stephen Collins Foster was the greatest composer for the minstrel show.
(1826-1864) Many of his songs for it are still known today: “Oh Susanna,” “Old Folks at
Home” (or “Swanee River’), “My Old Kentucky Home,” “Old Black Joe,”
 Popular Music 243

and “Camptown Races,” among others. His early minstrel show songs were
typical of the genre. Black speech patterns were represented in an exagger-
ated way and the caricatures were grotesque. Musically, the songs were
nicely crafted with symmetrical phrases, singable melodic contours of lim-
ited range, appropriate, simple harmonies, and a chorus that was the most
important part of the song. The rhythm is often the most original aspect, with
some syncopation. By 1854 Foster had considerably softened racial stereo-
typing in minstrel shows and was instead portraying his subjects as warm,
caring, loving, and more human. He did this by overlaying characteristic
themes of nonminstrel popular music, such as nostalgia for home, parental
love, and sadness at the death of a loved one.
Songs for the minstrel shows were not the whole of Stephen Foster’s
output; in fact, they number only about thirty of the total two hundred. Most
of the others: are of a general type called parlor songs, composed to be
performed in the middle-class home, and part of a general social movement
sometimes called the genteel tradition. An important influence here was the
body of Irish songs by Thomas Moore. Examples of the sort include
“Sweetly She Sleeps, my Alice Fair,” “Comrades, Fill No Glass for Me,”
“Gentle Annie,” and “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair.” The lyrics are
elegiac, melancholy, often bittersweet; nostalgia for a lost, past happy time
is frequent. The melodies are often pentatonic. Several of Foster’s songs
were influenced by the vogue for Italian opera. ‘Wilt Thou Be Gone,
Love?,” a setting of the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet, is one of these,
as are “Come Where My Love Lies Dreaming” and “Beautiful Dreamer.”
The best of Stephen Foster’s songs are synthesized from styles and
materials available to him, but more than that they have about them a
distinctly American sound. No one before, and perhaps no one since, has so
successfully merged disparate musical elements together to produce an
individual style. Commercially, Foster was also greatly successful. He
became the first American composer to support himself on royalties gener-
ated by the sale of his songs.

Songs of the Popular songs of unusually high quality expressed the tragedy of the
Civil War Civil War (1861-1865). Several song categories can be identified.

Soldiering Songs
Songs were sung by soldiers in great number. They sang of grief,
discomfort (bad food, primarily), and longings for home; they sang humor-
ous songs, folk—songs, and freshly composed popular songs. They sang to
themselves, with their comrades—in—arms, and, in a particularly strong image
that defined the peculiar nature of this war, with the enemy.
244 History of Western Music

Patriotic Songs
This category contains two of the best-known songs from the period:
“The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” which became an anthem for Unionists,
and “Dixie,” a rallying cry for Confederates. Julia Ward Howe’s famous
poem gave the song its title and much of its urgency. Like many songs of
the period, the text was set to a preexistent tune. “Dixie” was borrowed from
the minstrel show stage. There is no crusade in this song; rather it is all
celebration of the south and of being a southerner. Dozens of other patriotic
songs were published, but none matched these two for popularity.

Home Songs
Generally, songs of the Civil War were for parlor consumption, as the
family tried to understand and fix the emotions of victory, defeat, glory,
death, horror, and comic relief. A representative sample includes “Tramp!
Tramp! Tramp!, or the Prisoner’s Hope” by George F. Root (1820-1895),
“Tenting on the Old Camp Ground” by Walter Kittredge (1832-1905), “All
Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight” by John Hill Hewitt, “The Drummer Boy
of Shiloh” by Will S. Hays (1837-1907), “Weeping, Sad and Lonely, or When
This Cruel War is Over” by Henry Tucker (1826-1882), and finally, the
moment war—weary American dreamed of, “When Johnny Comes Marching
Home” by Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829-1892).

Popular Music American popular song was standardized after the war. Almost all songs
of the of this period (1) began with a piano introduction of regular length (four or
Post-Bellum eight measures), which usually introduced the song’s melody; (2) had a verse
Period for solo voice of sixteen measures, divided into four equal phrases, typically
in the melodic pattern AABC, ABAC, AABA, or ABCB, with two to four
verses, which built a narrative with a moral; (3) climaxed in the chorus, which
was often arranged for four voices and related musically to the verse; (4)
generally concluded with an instrumental postlude melodically related to the
A phrase of the verse.
Popular music in the period 1865-1880 was largely composed for three
institutions: the minstrel show, the home, and the musical stage.

The Minstrel Show

After the Civil War, racial stereotyping in the minstrel shows became
even more repugnant, suggesting that consciences had been cleared by
emancipation. Songs by Will S. Hays (“The Little Old Cabin in the Lane”)
and Bostonian C. A. White (1829-1892); (“The Old Home Ain’t What It
Used to Be’), among many others, tried to suggest that the black man in
America looked fondly backward to the days of slavery. The first great black
song composer James Bland (1854-1911) mouthed a similar message in his
“Carry Me Back to Old Virginny,” “In the Evening by the Moonlight,” and
 Popular Music 245

others. Black popular stage entertainers of that time were trapped by cir-
cumstances into reinforcing the stereotypes.
The Home
The American family continued to buy and perform songs that repre-
sented middle-class values. A master of the genre was Henry Clay Work
(1832-1884). During the war he wrote songs that drew hope, rejoicing, and
victory from tragedy. Afterward, his ‘““Grandfather’s Clock,” perhaps the
most popular song of the period, told of respect for a work ethic, of parents,
and of materialism. Other important parlor songs of the period fit into
comfortable and familiar categories. “I'll Take You Home Again, Kathleen”
by Thomas P. Westendorf (1848-1923) is a nostalgic regard for home and
romantic love. Henry Tucker’s “Sweet Genevieve” is an intensely sentimen-
tal ballad to a lost young love, while “Silver Threads Among the Gold” by
H. P. Danks (1834-1903) celebrates a mature romantic love.

TIN PAN ALLEY

Although many millions of copies of sheet music were sold before 1890,
it was not until this time that there developed a specialized industry to
produce, manage, disseminate, and profit from only popular song. Before,
a music publisher issued a full range of music, from oratorios and sympho-
nies to popular songs. The new industry was gathered around 28th Street in
New York City, an area that came to be called Tin Pan Alley after the incessant
racket produced by dozens of pianos sounding at once. The efficient pub-
lishers of Tin Pan Alley hired professional lyricists to work with their house
composers, who might rush their newest song down to the demonstration
room where company singers and pianists would perform it for potential
buyers.

Early Years: Popular music changed with the business. Most prominently, harmonies
1890-1920 became much more venturesome, embracing chromatic alterations and key
modulations. The use of secondary dominance was a favorite device. (Bar-
bershop quartets today keep the style alive; “Sweet Adeline” was composed
in 1903.) The chorus also became more important. Typically there were
only two verses and a long, thirty-two measure chorus. Stephen Foster, by
comparison, might have four verses and a sixteen—, or even eight—measure
chorus. The verses of a typical Tin Pan Alley song functioned much like
recitative in opera: they told the story in graphic, dramatic terms, but
246 History of Western Music

contained music of relatively little interest. The chorus was where one heard
the main, memorable melody. “After the Ball” by Charles K. Harris (1867—
1930), claimed to have sold five million copies, is such a song. Rhythmi-
cally, there was a decided preference for a waltzlike triple meter during the
period, perhaps more the case in 1890 than in 1920.
Socially, the songs of the period symbolized a break with the generation
formed by the Civil War. Slang became a part of the language of popular
music. “How’d you like to spoon with me?,” “She’s your tootsie—wootsie
in the good old summertime,” and other such lines suggest a loosening of
social mores that an older generation found regretable.

Composers
Among the many excellent composers of this music were: Paul Dresser
(1857-1906; “Banks of the Wabash,” “My Gal Sal”), Charles K. Harris,
Harry Von Tilzer (1872-1946; “A Bird in a Gilded Cage”), Ernest R. Ball
(1878-1927; “When Irish Eyes are Smiling,” “Will You Love Me in Decem-
ber As You Do in May?”), and Joseph E. Howard (1878-1961; “Good Bye,
My Lady Love’”’).

Years of Formally, the songs of Tin Pan Alley were virtually static. The chorus
Maturity, was so important that in some songs the verse was omitted altogether. Nearly
1920-1955 all had thirty-two choruses, lending the form a name: thirty-two—bar form.
Most choruses were in an AABA melodic structure, with each section eight
measures in length. The B section was called the re/ease, for its contrasting
quality. Another popular form was AA or AA’ (the prime stroke means that
it is a closely related variant). Occasionally songs were in unusual forms
such as ABCA, ABAC, or even ABCD.
The lyrics of these songs covered a range of subject matter. Family,
nostalgia, the exotic and foreign, novelty (i.e., fads and crazes), patriotism,
and, in the 1930s, the depression were all treated. Most were about romantic
love, though.

Composers
The composer who perhaps best defined the period was Irving Berlin
(1888-1990), who had hits in each decade; among his many popular songs
were “Alexander’s Ragtime Band,” “Oh How I Hate to Get Up in the
Morning,” “Always,” “Blue Skies,” “A Pretty Girl is Like a Melody,” “How
Deep is the Ocean,” “Easter Parade,” “Dancin’ Cheek to Cheek,” “God Bless
America,” “White Christmas,” “Anything You Can Do,” and “There’s No
Business Like Show Business.” Other important composers were Jerome
Kern (1885-1945), who brought a more complex harmonic language to
popular music, Cole Porter (1893-1964), with his sophisticated texts and
harmonies, George Gershwin (1898-1937), whose music revealed the influ-
 Popular Music 247

ence of jazz rhythms, Harold Arlen (1905—1986), Vincent Youmans (1898—

1946), Walter Donaldson (1893-1947), and Richard Rodgers (1902-1979).

Dissemination Until the 1920s, the pattern of dissemination of successful popular songs
had remained the same for nearly a century. (1) A composer wrote a song.
(2) A publisher published it. (3) A professional entertainer performed it
widely. (4) Members of the audience liked it, purchased a copy from their
music store, and played it at home. Sometimes points two and three would
be reversed; rarely was point three bypassed altogether. An important aspect
of this pattern was that music was being heard and enjoyed in live perfor-
mance. The technological revolution of the 1920s changed the way music
was first exposed to the public and, therefore, consumed.
Recordings
Commercial recordings of music had been available from before the turn
of the century. In the 1920s, though, sales of them achieved a level that was
not reached again until the 1950s. Popular songs fit conveniently the
three—to—five—minute limit of most disk recordings. As a result, composers
did not appreciably change their style of writing to accommodate the new
medium.
Radio
The first commercial radio station in the United States broadcast in 1919.
Programmers quickly realized the potential of music. By the end of the
1920s almost all American homes had radio receivers. The playing of one
new song could insure its commercial success. This was the first decade in
which songs were made or broken by radio audience response; such is still
the case today.
Many radio shows up until about 1945 featured big bands. Some of
these, like Guy Lombardo and His Orchestra, played straightforward (sweet)
arrangements of popular songs. Others, though, played in a style more
appropriate for the faster, livelier dancing then popular. These bands were
influenced by developments in jazz, particularly in their use of driving,
syncopated, “swinging” rhythms—hence the term swing band (see also
Chapter 34). Some of the most important white swing bands were led by
Benny Goodman (1909-1986), Tommy Dorsey (1905-1956), Glenn Miller
(1904-1944), and Artie Shaw (1910— ). They tended to play with more’
restraint than the black swing bands, some of whom were headed by Bennie
Moten (1894-1935), Count Basie (1904-1984), Fletcher Henderson (1897—
1952), Duke Ellington (1899-1974), among others, who transfused the genre
with the intensity of jazz and blues. Big bands generally played popular
songs, which encouraged composers to write songs suitable for swinging.
The vocalists with the bands often sang in a half—voiced, breathy, relaxed
style, called crooning, that took advantage of the increased sensitivity of
248 History of Western Music

radio microphones. Rudy Vallee (1901-1983), Bing Crosby (1904-1977),

and Frank Sinatra (1915— ) were some of the better-known crooners.
Film :
Popular song was first heard on the sound track to The Jazz Singer
(1927). Almost immediately composers began writing songs for the me-
dium. Irving Berlin’s “Puttin’ on the Ritz” was written for the movie of the
same title in 1929. The 1930s and 1940s made up a golden era for movie
musicals, with scores of them produced and filmed.

MUSICAL THEATER

The history of the musical theater is closely connected to that of popular

music. The minstrel shows were partly responsible for the relationship.
Many songs written for the popular stage worked their way into the home,
and parlor songs made their way onto the stage.
The Black Crook, staged in 1866, is an important production in the
development of popular musical theater. It combined an intriguing story with
dance, popular music, romance, and extraordinary special effects. The
Harrigan and Hart shows of the 1870s developed on the notion of the unified
stage production. These were basically whiteface minstrel shows, but with
an urban ethnic basis instead of a rural racial one. Set in New York City,
there were characterizations of Scottish, Irish, Italian, Chinese, African—
American, German, and Jewish, mixed in with urban conflicts, political
intrigues, ethnic humor, slapstick, special stage effects (waterfalls, fires,
storms), and songs. A Trip to Chinatown (1891) shared many qualities in
common with the Harrigan and Hart shows. It was the most successful
musical of its day, largely because of the music, which in later productions
included “After the Ball.”
The productions of George M. Cohan (1878-1942) of the 1900s, espe-
cially Little Johnny Jones (1904) and Forty-five Minutes from Broadway
(1906) were the breakthroughs to musical comedy. They had a tight plot,
were American in tone, spirit, and theme, and featured the infectious songs
of Cohan. Jerome Kern, in the 1910s, expanded upon the genres by tighten-
ing the plot further and writing more sophisticated music. He learned from
the cohesive structure of operetta, a tradition that had been kept alive in the
work of Victor Herbert (1859-1924), Reginald de Koven (1859-1920), and
Rudolf Friml (1879-1972). Kern’s Show Boat (1927) was a watershed for
its high—quality music, text, and production, and for the seriousness of its
 Popular Music 249

subject (racism). Other important musical comedies were Cole Porter’s

Anything Goes (1934), Richard Rodgers’s Oklahoma! (1943), Guys and
Dolls (1950) by Arthur Loesser (1894-1969), The Music Man (1957) by
Meredith Willson (1902-1984), and West Side Story (1957) by Leonard
Bernstein (1918-1990). The tradition has continued into the present, with
the work of Stephen Sondheim (1930— ), Andrew Lloyd Webber (1948— ),
and others.

Vaudeville and Vaudeville flourished in the last third of the nineteenth century. Derived
Revues in part from the minstrel show, it was a mix of a dozen or more individual
acts, featuring popular entertainers (singers, dancers, comics, animal train-
ers, jugglers, magicians, etc.). At its height in the early twentieth century,
more than ten thousand vaudeville theaters were open in the United States.
The revue was only slightly more organized, with its set of unrelated skits,
usually with music, an expensive production, and a chorus line of attractive,
scantily clad female dancers. The annual revues of Florenz Ziegfeld (1867—
1932), which he called his Follies, premiered some of the best-known
popular songs of the era.

Recordings Moore’s Irish Melodies (Nonesuch 79059)

An Evening with Henry Russell (Nonesuch H71338)
Popular Music in Jacksonian America (Musical Heritage Society MHS
834561)
Songs by Stephen Foster (Nonesuch H71268)
Songs by Henry Clay Work (Nonesuch H71317)
After the Ball: A Treasury of Turn—of—the—Century Popular Songs (None-
such H71304)
Vaudeville: Songs of the Great Ladies of the Musical Stage (Nonesuch
H71330)
The Great American Composers: Irving Berlin (CBS C21/2 7929); George
and Ira Gershwin (CBS C21/2 7925); Cole Porter (CBS C21/2 7926);
Rodgers and Hart (CBS C21/2 7971)
American Popular Song: Six Decades of Songwriters and Singers
(Smithsonian RO31 P7 17983)
Time—Life Music: Your Hit Parade [a series of recordings of hit songs of
the 1940s and 1950s]
The Smithsonian Collection of American Musical Theater: Shows, Songs,
and Stars (Smithsonian RD 036 A4 20483)
 Jazz

Jazz has no standard definition. It does, however, always involve lively,

syncopated rhythms and instrumental improvisation. The style was developed
around the turn of the twentieth century by African—Americans. An urban
music, it had a close connection to New Orleans. Several different kinds of
music came together to shape early jazz, including black spirituals, the
cakewalk, work songs, and white hymns, popular songs, band marches, and
popular piano pieces. Its development has since gone through fairly well
defined stylistic periods. Jazz has come to exert considerable influence on
other styles of music.

THE COMPONENTS OF JAZZ

Swing Swing is a rhythmic phenomenon. It may be the most important ingre-

dient in jazz, for it is found in all periods and styles. Jazz musicians will
always deliberately and in a highly controlled way deviate ever so slightly
from notated rhythmic values. A swing musician will never play straight
eighth notes or sixteenth notes, but will minutely add or subtract values in
such way as to enliven the phrase. Generally this is done so subtly that
conventional notation is unable to capture it.

Improvisation Improvisation is spontaneous composition. Far from unstructured,

though, improvisation happens generally within formal bounds understood
beforehand by the performers and, usually, the audience. The most frequent
structure is a kind of theme and variations. For example, when a performer
improvises on the chorus of a popular song (“I Got Rhythm” by George
Gershwin [1898-1937] is a particularly popular one) he or she usually

250
 Jazz 251

maintains the length of the original chorus, its form, and its harmonic
framework. This allows other performers and the audience to maintain a
point of reference. The shape of the melody may be followed loosely as
might the rhythm, but one or both will undergo substantial alteration. The
performer may also suspend the structure momentarily by adding an im-
provised interlude, called a break. When the performer is said to play another
chorus, further improvisation (or variation) on the main statement (the
“theme,” usually the chorus of a popular song) takes place. Often improvisa-
tion takes the form of call and response, in which soloist and ensemble
“speak” back and forth.

Preexistent New Orleans was a city where black and white, African and American,
Musical Styles urban and rural met. Musics associated with these and other groups became
part of the mixture that led to jazz.
Blues
Blues developed among rural southern blacks after their emancipation
from slavery. It gave expression to the hard lot of these impoverished,
exploited people. The blues might have originally been sung a capella, but
came generally to be accompanied by a guitar. The style, as well as the genre
itself, was deeply rooted in African traditions. The blues singer sang witha
variety of groans, scoops, “bent” notes, and other qualities not usually heard
in Western music. He (in the early years; “she” only later) sang notes that
did not fit into Western intonation systems. Three favorite ones, called blue
notes, were pitched slightly under Western tunings of the third, fifth, and
seventh of the major scale. Rhythms were gently syncopated. Accompani-
ments often featured riffs, short melodic ostinatos of two to four measures.
Form in this early style, which is called country blues, was variable. About
1910, a standardized form, known as twelve—bar blues, gained acceptance.
It consists of three four—-measure phrases that follow a uniform harmonic
progression and textual format.

measure: 1 2 3 4
harmony: I I I I
text: A (example: “Been down to New Orleans, had a look around”)

measure: 5 6 ih 8
harmony: IV IV I I
text: A (example: “Oh, been down to New Orleans, had a look—a—see”’)

measure: 9 10 (ia 12
harmony: V V (or IV) I I
text: B (example: “Found plenty women, I think it’s the place for me’’)
252 History of Western Music
Eee licen NO es Arc ODE UD eer ee Re eh SO ce MN eT SL eS Se

This framework then serves for additional choruses in which the narra-
tive is developed and new melodies are improvised. By the 1920s an urban
blues style had matured that featured star singers, small instrumental ensem-
bles, and the twelve—bar blues form. Some of the best-known blues singers
were female, such as “Ma” Rainey (1886-1939), Bessie Smith (1894-1937),
and Alberta Hunter (1895-1984). Among later blues singers, B. B. King
(1925— ) is probably the best known.
Ragtime
Ragtime developed in the St. Louis and Kansas City area in the early
1890s and enjoyed popularity through the first decade of the twentieth
century. It was originally piano music, although small bands eventually
played it as well. It required a degree of musical literacy. Ragtime pieces
(called rags) are not improvised, nor are performers expected to swing the
rhythms. In the left hand a strict rhythm, usually in 4meter and at a moderate
march tempo, is maintained while the right hand plays a syncopated melody.
The forms were derived from marches and dances; the standard form is
AABBACCDD. Ragtime’s biggest contribution to jazz was its heavily
stressed syncopated rhythmic style. Aclassic example is “Maple Leaf Rag”
(1899) by Scott Joplin (1868-1917).

Bands
The nineteenth century was a golden era for both the brass band and the
wind band. Many villages and towns had their own bands. In some parts of
the United States, blacks were encouraged to form their own bands, a
tradition that goes back at least to the 1820s and the famous band of Frank
Johnson (1792-1844). New Orleans had a vital black marching band tradi-
tion by the turn of the century. These groups provided the training for the
musicians who determined the early history ofjazz.

STYLISTIC PERIODS OF JAZZ

In New Orleans, a fusion of the above-mentioned styles and African

musical traditions led to jazz. West Africa had a vibrant musical life, and
parts of it came to the New World with the slaves. Especially significant to
West African music were the rhythms, which were much more complex than
those found in the West. Layers of rhythms (polyrhythms), repetitious but
with improvised changes over time, produced a rich sound of extraordinary
 Jazz 253

rhythmic subtlety and sophistication. Western musical culture provided the

harmonies, the instruments, and some of the forms for jazz; African music
breathed life into it through its rhythms and regard for spontaneity.

Dixieland Jazz Dixieland (also New Orleans style) was an instrumental music. A typical
New Orleans dixieland band had from five to eight performers, who played
clarinet, trumpet, trombone, drums, string bass, banjo, guitar, and piano. The
first three were the main melodic instruments (the front line), and the others
formed the rhythm section. The texture was contrapuntal, with several
instruments improvising a countermelody to the main one. Dixieland was
group—oriented; individuals were important, but only as they fit into the
group. Blues, rags, hymns, and band pieces all served as material for
improvisation. Important early figures were King Oliver (1885-1938), Jelly
Roll Morton (1890-1941), and Sidney Bechet (1897-1959).

Armstrong (1900-1971)
By the late 1910s jazz was being heard in New York, Chicago, Kansas
City, Memphis, and other cities, in addition to New Orleans. Chicago
became especially important in the 1920s as important musicians migrated
there from New Orleans. Louis Armstrong was one of these, and he was
responsible for important developments in the Chicago hot style, which came
to be called hot jazz. A virtuoso trumpeter and the developer of scat—singing
(nontexted vocalisations in a jazz idiom), Armstrong took the basic New
Orleans band and introduced the featured soloist—often himself. The soloist
was less bound by what the supporting players might do, and therefore freer
to let the improvisations range afield. The resulting brassy sound and jolting
rhythms gave the form its name. By the end of the decade, the bands had
grown in size to perhaps ten players. Bix Beiderbecke (1903-1931), one of
several white jazz musicians of this time, benefited from Louis Armstrong’s
innovations.

Piano Styles
The period also witnessed developments in piano style. Boogie—woogie
was a percussive kind of playing that favored a “walking,” eighth—note
ostinato pattern in the left hand over a blues harmonic progression. This style
enjoyed a vogue in the 1930s, but its greatest influence came later in rhythm
and blues (see Chapter 35). Stride piano emphasized (1) left-hand accents
on beats two and four ina 4measure; (2) melodic improvisation in the right
hand, much in the manner of a solo instrument; and (3) expansion of the
harmonic language to include complex chords, dissonances, and ninth and
eleventh chords. The primary developer of this style was Fats Waller
(1904-1943).
254 History of Western Music
1 AUER Bae RN Ser ae es a a ee OS on

Swing Big bands that could play swing rhythms combined ensemble playing
and the new solo improvisatory style around 1930, signaling the beginning
of the swing period. The size of a typical swing band was twice that of a
dixieland band. There were usually four reeds (saxophones and clarinets),
and five brass (three trumpets and two trombones), plus the rhythm section.
Increased numbers forced the notation of nonimprovisatory sections of a
piece. These were called charts. One person, the arranger, took responsi-
bility for laying out the charts, and came to function much like a composer
does in art music traditions. Continuing a trend, the harmonic vocabulary
became fuller during the period. Music available for “swinging” came to
include popular songs.

Ellington (1899-1974)
Swing bands were identified by race. The white bands, such as those led
by Benny Goodman (1909-1986), the Dorsey Brothers, and Artie Shaw
(1910— ), were more closely associated with popular music than the black
swing bands, led by Bennie Moten (1894-1935), Fletcher Henderson (1897—
1952), Count Basie (1904—1984), and others. Duke Ellington clearly stood
apart. He was jazz history’s greatest composer, and wrote standards like
“Mood Indigo,” “Sophisticated Lady,” and “In a Sentimental Mood.”
Ellington was the first to write charts not based on preexistent songs, but
freshly composed for the occasion. Among his many innovations was the
recognition that timbre could be thematic in the way that melody and
harmony had been traditionally—an idea he might have developed from his
study of the French Impressionists. He also siretched the time frame of jazz
composition. Some of his works were multimovement and took ten or more
minutes to perform. Examples of this sort are Diminuendo and Crescendo
in Blue and Black, Brown and Beige, virtually a tone poem intended to
portray the history of African—Americans through their music.

Bebop Bebop, also called rebop or, simply, bop, was a major stylistic develop-
ment of the 1940s. It was characterized by a rebellious return to smaller
ensembles (called combos) that allowed for more individualistic playing.
Instead of a chart, pieces were learned by rote, as in the Dixieland style, then
improvised around during performance. Unlike most swing band music,
bebop is fast and driving, even aggressive or snarling at times. It was music
for listening—not for dancing, as had generally been the case with swing.
The musical characteristics of bebop include a much more complex
harmonic language. Performers often used the harmonies of a song as the
foundation for improvisation, instead of the melodies, as before. Since
performers changed the names of their pieces from the original song titles,
most members of the audience were unaware of the source of improvisation.
Most innovative, though, were the rhythms, which were woven into a dense
 Jazz 255

polyrhythmic fabric by the drummer. The ending of a phrase was often

signaled by two punched fast notes, the vocalisation of which gave the style
its name. Important in the development of this music were Dizzy Gillespie
(1917—), Max Roach (1924~— ), Thelonious Monk (1917-1982), Miles Davis
(1926— ), and Art Tatum (1909-1956).
Parker (1920-55)
Charlie Parker may well be the greatest improviser produced by jazz.
His musical invention was always fresh, original, and appropriate. Parker’s
idiomatic manner of playing—angular, intense, and nervous—influenced
several subsequent generations. The alto saxophone was established as one
of jazz’s most characteristic timbres as a result of Parker’s virtuosic control
of it.

Cool Jazz Also a reaction to the swing band style, cool jazz came about in the late
1940s. There is a quiet, but highly intense intellectualism about this music.
Cool jazz is related to bebop but has none of the aggression. Many of the
cool jazz musicians were conventionally trained, and their music demon-
strated sophisticated harmonic language, counterpoint, and formal structures
borrowed from art music. Drummers in this idiom used a brush on the
cymbal instead of the fast hard stick characteristic of bebop. The Modern
Jazz Quartet epitomizes the style. Other important musicians are Lester
Young (1909-1959), Stan Getz (1927—), Lennie Tristano (1919-1978), Dave
Brubeck (1920— ), Gerry Mulligan (1927- ), and, again, Miles Davis.

Jazz Since 1960 Jazz has splintered into several subgroups but, in the composite, enjoys
great popularity. A style related to bebop (sometimes called neo—bop or hard
bop) has remained arguably the most popular form of jazz at a professional
level. It maintains the traditional idioms of jazz. The highly inventive
Charles Mingus (1922-1979) was influential in this development. It is
possible, however, to hear any historical style of jazz one wants. Among
amateur players, especially at the high school and college level, the swing
band style is probably most practiced. There are developments that are new,
though, and that continue the dynamic development of jazz.
Free Jazz
Also called new thing, and avant-garde jazz, this style grew out of
experimentation with harmonies in the 1950s by performers like Cecil Taylor
(1933— ), Ornette Coleman (1930— ), John Coltrane (1926-1967), and Miles
Davis. The former two stretched harmonies to the point that tonal centers
were obscured or lost. The latter explored complex harmonies based in the
church modes. By the 1960s certain principles could be applied to this music.
(1) Improvisation is of paramount importance. The improvisor has complete
freedom apart from the expectation that reference will be maintained loosely
256 History of Western Music

to some theme, harmonic progression, or idea. (2) The materials available

to free jazz include shouts, cries, outbursts, and other nonconventional
sounds. (3) Improvisation avoids predictable order; surprise is critical to the
aesthetic.
Third Stream
This was named by Gunther Schuller (1925— ) in the late 1950s for a
music in which jazz styles and traditions are consciously merged with styles
and techniques associated with art music, to form a new current. Schuller
himself and composer Ran Blake (1935— ), both of whom have strong roots
in both traditions, have been most successful at it. Beyond them, composers
of art music have been influenced by the whole notion of synthesis to include
jazz elements in their work. Third stream is part of a general post World War
II tendency toward eclecticism and synthesis.
Fusion
Fusion (also, jazz rock) melded the rhythms and sounds of rock with the
skilled improvisation of jazz. In fusion, traditional acoustic instruments are
heard in combination with synthesizers and electric pianos, guitars, and
basses. The rhythm section is enlarged and of greater importance. Miles
Davis was an important early influence with his recording Bitches Brew
(1969). Others include Larry Coryell (1943— ), Herbie Hancock (1940~ ),
Chick Corea (1941— ), John McLaughlin (1942— ), Pat Metheny (1954~ ),
and the group Weather Report. This style achieved a popularity not reached
in jazz since the swing band period. Groups closer to the rock end of the
spectrum include Chicago, and Blood, Sweat, and Tears.

Recordings The Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz (Smithsonian RD 033 A5 19477)

Rock

Rock is a form of popular vocal music that has an energetic, syncopated

rhythm and features electric guitar accompaniment and other amplified
instruments. Its function as dance music was initially paramount and has
continued to be important. In the years since its birth, substyles have come
about that encourage close listening, utility as background music, or other
purposes.
Rock comes closest to being a worldwide form, appreciated in almost all
countries and played in countless local, regional, and national idioms. Yet
rock was developed in the United States, and this country has always been at
the forefront of the music's evolution.
Rock is the first music to be shaped hy recording technology and to be
disseminated mainly in recorded form. As aresult, it had little need to develop
any formal literacy and has continued essentially as an oral tradition. Per-
formers learned their songs by rote or composed them themselves aurally.
This music, which has extraordinary vibrancy, has thus produced the most
passive of audiences, who expect others to produce the music for them. They
are nonetheless passionately involved in listening to it and are deeply im-
mersed in the culture that surrounds it.

THE EARLY YEARS OF ROCK

It is not clear who invented rock. The proper answer, as often happens
in music with wide impact, is that many different musics and elements of
music were synthesized to fashion a new style. In the case of rock, the two
major ones were rhythm and blues and country music, both of which had

257
258 History of Western Music

more in common with each other than with the prevailing white popular
music styles.

Rhythm and Rhythm and blues (or R & B) was popular music for many African—
Blues Americans during the period when most white Americans were listening to
Tin Pan Alley. (Jazz had become an elite form of black music—making by
the 1930s.) As the name implies, one basis of this music was the blues. Like
the blues, R & B has lyrics of an earthy nature, generally about relations
between men and women, which were sung in an almost speechlike talking
style, direct and straight at the audience. Also like the blues, this music is
generally in the form of the twelve—bar blues. Heavily stressed rhythms are
also important to the style. Characteristically, there is a heavy backbeat in
which, in 4 meter, beats two and four are punctuated; beat one receives less
emphasis and beat three hardly any at all. A riff is often integral to the
background texture. Instrumentation is typically a piano, drums, and guitars
(one or two), and frequently a saxophone; the guitars are generally amplified
to be heard over the noise of a dance hall. Some of the most important R &
B performers were Chuck Willis (1928-1958; “C. C. Rider”), Joe Turner
(1911-1985; “Shake, Rattle and Roll”), and Muddy Waters (1915-1983;
“Hoochie Coochie Man”). While white popular music was sophisticated and
urbane, rhythm and blues was guileless, direct, and spirited. These elements
were critical to the acceptance of rhythm and blues by young white audiences
in the 1950s, who were seeking an alternative to what they considered to be
a stilted and overly self-conscious white popular music style.

Country Music Some white audiences were not listening to Tin Pan Alley performed by
swing bands. They were generally of the working classes, often from rural
areas, and frequently from the south, which had not been integrated into the
American mainstream after the Civil War. This social group practiced and
enjoyed a music we now called country music; they called it hillbilly music
and, later, country and western. Among the important sources for country
music are (1) the folk ballad tradition, which had been preserved intact in
many parts of the south, (2) instrumental dance pieces, often called fiddle
tunes, also a vernacular tradition in the south, and (3) white gospel music,
with its passion and fervor. Merging these styles produced an up tempo
dance music, often dominated by the fiddle and guitar, with lyrics that dealt
with real-life issues (death, loneliness, family). It was sung with a traditional
nasal quality and no attempt was made to camouflage the “southernness” of
the accent or the music. Further, many of the early stars, such as Jimmie
Rodgers (1897-1933; “Blue Yodel No. 11") and Hank Williams (1923-1953:
“Lovesick Blues") were familiar with black music and were influenced by
it. Among other stars in country music of the 1930 and 1940s were the Carter
Family (“Wildwood Flower”), Roy Acuff (1903— ; “Great Speckled Bird”),
 Rock 259

Emest Tubb (1914-1984; “Walking the Floor over You”), and Bob Wills
(1905-1975; “Steel Guitar Rag”).

Rock and Roll Although there are many influences from country music, rock and roll
is an extension of rhythm and blues. The primary difference is that rock and
roll in its early years, was performed by white musicians. The prevailing
attitudes toward race in the United States of the 1950s probably dictated that
any new widely successful music would be white.
Haley (1925-1981)
Bill Haley was the first star of rock and roll. Haley had all the requisite
social and musical credentials for national success: he was white, middle—
class, but not from the south, was influenced strongly by rhythm and blues,
and was experienced in performing country music styles. Like many of the
early white rock and roll performers, Haley and his group (The Comets)
recorded covers of successful rhythm and blues songs—that is, they took
songs by black performers, generally toned down the racy language, and
packaged them for adolescent white audiences. His ‘Shake, Rattle, and
Roll” was such a song, taken from Joe Turner. Haley’s version of the song
entered the Billboard hit charts on 1 January 1955, and effectively dates the
beginning of rock. Later that year, his “Rock Around the Clock” became a
number-one hit, the first such rock and roll song to do so. The music featured
a heavy backbeat, a twelve—bar blues structure, the instrumentation of
rhythm and blues, and a text that encouraged adolescent rebelliousness, all
characteristics of the style.

Presley (1935-1977)
The pivotal figure in the history of rock and roll, Elvis Presley brought
the music to wide national attention. His music is exemplary of the synthesis
of rhythm and blues and country music. In fact, aname often used to describe
this music is itself a synthesis: rockabilly. Nearly all aspects of his style,
dress, stage presence, and songs are traceable to one or the other of the genres.
Presley went on to record an unprecedented string of hits over the next
several years including number—one hits like “Heartbreak Hotel,” “Hound
Dog” (a cover of a Big Mama Thornton song), “Don’t Be Cruel,” and
“Jailhouse Rock.”
Other White Performers
Performers such as Buddy Holly (1938-1959), Jerry Lee Lewis
(1935-— ), Carl Perkins (1932— ), and the Drifters sang rock and roll songs
about young romance and the concerns of the adolescent (cars, high school,
clothes, peer status). Like country music, these songs were sincere, without
any touch of irony. Members of the so-called baby boom generation thus
had their own music, distinct from anything associated with their parents.
260 History of Western Music

Black Performers
Once the way had been led by white musicians, black musicians started
to enjoy success performing a generally toned—down version of rhythm and
blues. Among these were Little Richard (1932- ; “Tutti Frutti’), Chuck
Berry (1926— ; “Maybelline”), and Fats Domino (1928 ; “I’m Walkin’’’).
Each of these used the boogie—woogie ostinato bassline that had been heard
first in 1920s jazz. It became a characteristic of many rock and roll songs.

THE YEARS 1958-1964

Rock and roll in its earliest years was most frequently produced in small
recording studios and distributed locally or regionally, much like rhythm and
blues. With the popularity of Elvis Presley, the commercial potential of the
music became obvious. Accordingly, many large recording companies,
which had been allied with Tin Pan Alley, attempted and managed to gain
economic control. Their natural reaction was to alloy rock and roll with Tin
Pan Alley styles.

Boone (1934- ) Pat Boone, a clean-cut singer who sang ina style close to crooning, was
the first to be set up as an alternative to raucous rock and roll. His music
was much less abrasive and the accompaniment sometimes included soft
violins. The backbeat was still present, but muted. Among his hits were
“Ain’t That a Shame,” a cover of a song by Fats Domino, and “Love Letters
in the Sand,” a song from the 1930s.
Other similar singers followed, including Frankie Avalon 1940— ), Fab-
ian (1943— ), Paul Anka (1941— ), and Ricky Nelson (1940-1985).

Novelty Rock Within the same vein were the many hit novelty songs of the period,
which featured unusual, exotic, bizarre, but essentially harmless, lyrics.
Examples of the sort include “Witch Doctor,” “Purple People Eater,” ““Yakety
Yak,” “Alley—Oop,” “Ahab the Arab,” and “Yellow Polka Dot Bikini.”
Other Styles
Other number-one hits were Tin Pan Alley songs, such as “Smoke Gets
in Your Eyes.” Then there were performers like Bert Kaempfert (1923-— )
and Mitch Miller (1911— ), who were not associated with rock and roll at all,
and Connie Francis (1938— ), who was popular with teenagers but whose
singing had little to do with rock and roll. This development pointed up the
 Rock 261

plurality of musical styles that existed during the time, and is evidence of
efforts by the music business to tame rock and roll.
Vestiges of Rock and Roll
There were still elements of rhythm and blues to be found, generally
among black performers. One style, out of Detroit, was called motown. It
was smoother and more refined than R & B, with soft melodies and slick
harmonies, but it retained the energy and drive. Doo—wop was essentially
an unaccompanied, close—harmony black vocal style that can be traced back
to the Ink Spots in the 1930s. With adolescent—specific lyrics and a softened
rock beat, groups like Danny and the Juniors (‘At the Hop”) and the
Belmonts (“A Teenager in Love’) enjoyed a period of popularity. Dance
crazes in the early 1960s produced songs glorifying the twist, first popular-
ized by Chubby Checker (1941-— ), and other dances like the hucklebuck, the
pony, the fly, the watusi, the mashed potato, pony, fish, and hully—gully. All
of these were danced to the basic rock and roll beat. Surf rock, popularized
by the Beach Boys, had much of the subject matter of rock and roll but with
an innocence of tone and lyrics foreign to the genre.
Folk Rock
‘This style should also be mentioned. Initially, it was perceived as an
alternative to rock and roll. The Kingston Trio sang songs in the late 1950s
and early 1960s that were sometimes rooted in the oral tradition (“Tom
Dooley,” 1958). They took a style that went back through the Weavers and
Woody Guthrie (1912-1967) to folk music and shaped it for urban tastes
accustomed to a more genteel sound. They had many imitators, the best—
known of whom were Peter, Paul, and Mary, whose first big hit was ‘“Blowin’
in the Wind” (1963). This song was composed by Bob Dylan (1941- ), who
wedded a rock beat to the urban folk style in 1965.

THE YEARS 1964-1972

During this period the primary influence of rhythm and blues waned
somewhat. This is reflected in the use of the term rock (rather than rock and
roll) to name the music. Rock headed off in several different directions as
songwriters and performers explored the possibilities of the still-young style.
Nonetheless, some general observations can be made. (1) The group be-
came the primary performing unit. (2) During this time performers fre-
quently served as their own songwriters. (3) Rock was internationalized as
262 History of Western Music
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England, primarily, contributed mightily to the development of the style. (4)

It was a period of tremendous social change and the music reflected this. (5)
The generation in its teens and early twenties during this time identified so
strongly with the music that popular music enjoyed unprecedented accep-
tance.

The Beatles This group’s dramatic rise to prominence in 1963-1964 signaled the
internationalization of rock, the ascension of the rock group, and the immi-
nent domination of the genre by singer—songwriters. The Beatles were
composed of a quartet of lower—middle—class Englishmen in their twenties,
heavily influenced by American rock and roll dance music, who sang and
played amplified guitars (one “lead” melody instrument, one rhythm guitar,
and one bass guitar) and a trap drum set. Their early songs revealed their
schooling in American rock and roll; “Can’t Buy Me Love,” for example, is
a form of twelve—bar blues. Beginning in 1964, especially with the songs
written by Paul McCartney (1942—) and John Lennon (1940-1980) for studio
recording sessions (i.e., not for live performance in the dance hall), their style
broadened to include the lyrical, humorous, even philosophical. By 1967,
with their recording Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Heart Club Band, the Beatles were
incorporating structures, ideas, and instrumentation from art music, but
maintaining the essential rock beat. Their music was extraordinary in its
breadth, ranging stylistically from country music to avant—garde art music,
and socially and politically across the spectrum of issues concerning young
people at that time. The Beatles have been the most influential group in the
history of rock—an influence that continues to be felt decades after their
disbanding in 1970. They might also be rock’s most popular group. Perhaps
the groups most closely related to the Beatles were the Kinks and Pink Floyd,
both also English.

Other English The Rolling Stones are also an English group, but one more limited in
Influences style. They played music closer to the traditional core of rock and roll,
specifically R & B and blues. “(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction” (1965), their
first number—one hit, is characteristic in its blues—inflected singing, virtuosic,
screaming guitar playing, and loud, hard—driving rhythms that together give
sound to the notion of rebellion. Their image was more aggressive than that
of the Beatles, personified by their lead “bad—boy” singer, Mick Jagger
(1944— ). The Who was a British group also influenced by traditional rock
and roll. Eric Clapton (1945-— ), one of the finest guitarists in a genre filled
with them, and his group Cream established a heavily blues—oriented style
called blues rock.

West Coast American rock flourished during the period with many important per-
Rock formers and developments in style, although no group or performer equaled
the popularity of the Beatles or the Rolling Stones. Several important groups
 Rock 263

made their homes on the West Coast, including Jefferson Airplane, the blues—
and jazz—influenced Grateful Dead, and the Doors. Acid Rock (also psyche-
delic rock) was music that grew out of the drug culture around San Francisco
at that time. The disjunctive lyrics of this heavily amplified music were
supposedly reflective of the mind—altering, psychedelic drug experience.
Much of this music included distortion of some kind; indeed instrumentalists
sought out equipment that would produce this sound. The guitarist Jimi
Hendrix (1943-1970) and the singer Janis Joplin (1943-1970) were masters
at this. The “rock generation” interpreted this deliberate rejection of a
musical convention as symbolic of their general rejection of social norms.

Folk Rock Bob Dylan (1941- ) is the pivotal figure in this genre. His use of
_amplified instruments in 1965 dates the beginning of the style. This music
was text—oriented in a way other forms of rock were not. In many cases, the
songs qualifyas outstanding contemporary poetry. The Byrds, another West
Coast group, were also early exponents of the style. Related to folk rock in
instrumentation and in its emphasis on textual content is soft rock. Per-
former—composers in this genre wed acoustic instruments to a tuneful me-
lodic style reminiscent of Tin Pan Alley but with a rock beat. Among the
best-known of these were Simon and Garfunkel, Joni Mitchell (1943— ), James
Taylor (1948— ), and Joan Baez (1941—). The popularity of this genre is attested
to by the success of the recording Tapestry by Carole King (1942— ), which has
been one of the best-selling recordings in the history of rock.

Soul Generally, aforementioned rock styles were practiced by white musi-

cians. American black performers and audiences were largely drawn to soul.
The sources for this music were twofold: (1) motown and (2) gospel music.
From motown the music got its instrumentation, its theatrical values, and its
secularity. It got its “soul” from the black gospel music tradition, in which
singers sang religious songs with intense, flaming, spontaneous passion.
Part blues, part ecstatic singing, soul singers like Aretha Franklin (1942— ),
James Brown (1932-— ), and Otis Redding (1941-1968) returned rock close
to its roots. Stevie Wonder (1950— ) widened the genre by the force of his
rich imagination. As a result of his work, soul came to have an elemental
influence on music of the 1970s and 1980s.
264 History of Western Music

ROCK SINCE 1972

Rock since 1972 has gone in many different directions. It is impossible

to refer to a single style or group or performer as the most important.
Instrumentation of the rock group expanded during this period to include not
only electric guitars and drums, but also synthesizers and other electronic
instruments. This period has seen the demise of American dominance of the
genre; British, Australian, Swedish, and German groups now have interna-
tional followings. Much of rock has become highly commercial, with profit
as its reason for being.

Rock This grouping includes important performers, groups, and styles that
have not generated a special category. Several of these continued develop-
ment from musics of the 1960s. Some performers and groups have remained
close to rock and roll. Among these is Bruce Springsteen (1949— ), who has
been perhaps the most successful American rock singer—songwriter of the
period in any genre. His intensity, conviction, the quality and range of his
music, his backup group (the E Street Band), and the timeliness of his songs
have preserved his popularity. Two others who have managed similarly are
Tom Petty (1952- ) and John Cougar Mellencamp (1951—). The influence
of the Beatles, endemic throughout rock, is especially evident in the music
of U2. Paul Simon (1941— ) has continued to search out the folk roots of
rock. His Graceland (1986), one of the most influential recordings of the
1980s, brought black South African music and musicians to the attention of
the world.

Art Rock Several groups of the late 1960s and 1970s were influenced by art music.
Emerson, Lake, and Palmer played transciptions of art music compositions
in a rock style, most famously their “Pictures at an Exhibition” after Modest
Mussorgsky. Others, like Genesis and Electric Light Orchestra, used some
of the idioms more subtly. Frank Zappa (1940-— ), who admits to being
influenced by Erik Satie, Edgard Varése, and John Cage, produced a mixture
of rock, jazz, and art music. Minimalist techniques have been applied to
rock, which in structure is naturally sympathetic. This has been done by
Brian Eno (1948— ), the German groups Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream,
and the Talking Heads. For some performers, only convention determines
their membership in the art music world or the rock music sphere. For
example, Laurie Anderson (1947— ), discussed earlier in Chapter 29, has
regularly appeared on the rock music charts.

Heavy Metal This music was derived from acid rock. Heavy metal is highly amplified,
features electric guitars in extended virtuosic solos, electronic distortion of
 Rock 265

sound often resulting from “power chords,” and attention—grabbing stage

acts, outrageous clothing, posturing, light shows, visual images, and the like.
The lyrics often deal with sex, violence, and rebellion. This highly the-
atricized music appeals generally to white male teenagers. Among the most
important of these groups are Led Zeppelin, Aerosmith, Black Sabbath, Iron
Maiden, Kiss, and Van Halen.

Southern Rock This form of rock was distinctive for its references to forms of country
music, especially rockabilly. The Allman Brothers were generally consid-
ered the best exponents of this music. The Band, who backed Bob Dylan on
many of his tours, was also of the genre, although only one member of the
group was from the south.

Punk Punk was:initially an English music that sprang from the working-class
neighborhoods of south London. There, poverty and lost hope promoted a
youth revolt that led to rejection of the values, mores, and music of preceding
generations. Groups like the Sex Pistols played loud, simplistic music,
purposefully uncommercial, with antiestablishment, nihilistic lyrics; they
also dressed in wildly unconventional ways and comported themselves
violently. Their music was solidly grounded in traditional rock and roll and
prompted renewed interest in the roots of the music. Punk gave way to new
wave, which maintained the primitive energy but acknowledged changes in
rock styles since the 1950s. The best English group of this sort was the Clash.
English groups strongly influenced by new wave but closer to the mainstream
were the Police, the Pretenders, Culture Club, and the Eurhythmics. In the
United States the style was less well defined, but groups like Blondie, Devo,
the Ramones, and the B52s were called “new wave.”

Reggae This music originated in Jamaica and grew from a 1950s style called ska.
It achieved considerable popularity in England. Reggae is a melding of
American and traditional African—Jamaican styles. Its most important fea-
ture is a rhythm with a heavy accent on beats two and four in a :meter and
avoidance of emphasis on beats one and three. Bob Marley and the Wailers
was the best-known reggae group. Groups and performers as diverse as Eric
Clapton, Stevie Wonder, Bob Dylan, the Clash, and Blondie have been
influenced by the style.

Disco Disco enjoyed great popularity in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It is
fundamentally dance music, with a relentless jibeat and extended instrumen-
tal breaks that encourage freestyle dancing. Lyrics are generally of an
amorous, if not erotic, quality. Soul is an important influence. Many of the
recordings featured synthesizers. Donna Summer (1948— ), Chic, and The
266 History of Western Music

Bee Gees gave the style definition. By the early 1980s, disco had been
overexposed and lost popularity. Funk superseded it, with its sparser, more
relaxed sound. It is characterized by extended repetitions over one or two
chords and by heavy syncopation. Instrumentation features a prominent bass
guitar, conga drums, and whistles. Some important performers of funk include
Kool and the Gang and the jazz—influenced Herbie Hancock (1940- ).

Rap This is a style of black music in which rhymes are improvised to a highly
rhythmic, dance—based accompaniment. It is a part of the general movement
of black popular music from melody—based to rhythm—based. Rap emerged
in the mid—1970s but has become especially important since the mid—1980s.
Its lyrics have ranged from exhortations to dance to social commentary on
the lot of urban blacks. Initially, the rhythmic background was producing by
scratching, in which an LP was moved by hand on a turntable to produce a
rhythm. Later, electronic “drum machines” were aids in producing the
characteristic thumping bass line. Funk was an early source for the music.
Among the best-known rap groups are M. C. Hammer, Run—DMC, and
Public Enemy.

The Video In 1982, television network MTV began twenty—four—hour broadcasting

of popular music. Like the single on many radio stations, highly theatricized
videos of hit songs became the staple of programming. Some performers
have been more adept than others at combining mainstream rock with the
dramatic potential of the medium. Madonna (1959— ; “Material Girl’),
Michael Jackson (1958— ; “Thriller”), and Prince (1960— ; “Purple Rain”)
have become immensely popular and influential for their work in this new
dimension.

Recordings It is a simple matter to find examples of this music at almost any record
store. Among collections that are especially useful are these:
Atlantic Rhythm and Blues: 1947-1974 (Atlantic 781620-1)
Country Music: The Smithsonian Collection of Classic Country Music
(Smithsonian RO25 P815640)
Time-Life Music issues several outstanding series useful for document-
ing the music discussed in this chapter. They are: The Rock 'n’ Roll Era,
Classic Rock [primarily dedicated to the 1960s], and Sounds of the Seventies.
Selected Bibliography

This bibliography is designed as a guide to English-language sources of

information related to music history. It excludes books that are biographical
and most that are genre— or region—based. Information on these sorts of
subjects can be gathered from the references listed below.

Five sources should be singled out as especially useful and important:

(1) Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
20 vols., London: Macmillan, 1980. This monumental work of
music history should be the first choice of any student for any kind
of additional information on music. The bibliographies are also
generally excellent, although some are becoming outdated.
(2) Hitchcock, H. Wiley, and Stanley Sadie, eds. The New Grove Dictionary
of American Music. 4 vols., London: Macmillan, 1986. Equally
important in the more specialized fields of American music.
(3) Grout, Donald Jay, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music,
4th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988. One of the most widely
accepted surveys of Western music history. The bibliographies at
the end of nearly every chapter are accurate, well-chosen, up—to—
date, and extremely useful.
(4) Duckles, Vincent, and Michael A. Keller. Music Reference and Research
Materials: An Annotated Bibliography, 4th ed. New York:
Schirmer, 1988. This book offers additional bibliographic assis-
tance to the inquiring student.
(5) Library Catalogs and Databases. Obvious, perhaps, but a primary
reference source for locally available materials, books, scores,
and recordings. It should be consulted for important subject
headings, name entries authors, composers, performers, and titles.

267
268 History of Western Music

Music Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

In addition to essential information about subjects or persons, most of the
following reference works provide bibliographies of books and articles.
Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2d ed. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1969. A comprehensive dictionary of terms;
significant historical information about musical subjects. There
are no biographical entries.
Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music, 10th ed., edited by John
Owen Ward. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Extensive
cross references and many illustrations.
Slonimsky, Nicholas. Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 7th ed.
New York: Schirmer, 1984. A fairly comprehensive and accurate
one—volume dictionary of names and dates.
Sadie, Stanley, and Alison Latham, eds. The Norton/Grove Concise Ency-
clopedia of Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988.

Comprehensive Histories of Music

The New Oxford History of Music. 10 vols. London: Oxford University
Press, 1954. This is basically a treatment of Western art music.
The History of Music in Sound, a series of recordings with descriptive
booklets, accompanies the text.
The Universe of Music: A History forthcoming. This effort, jointly spon-
sored by UNESCO and the International Music Council, will be
a twelve—volume exhaustive treatment of the world’s music, past
and present, of all sorts and types. It is an attempt to rectify the
Western art music bias that is prevalent in most literature on
music.

Surveys of Music History

Byrnside, Ron. Music: Sound and Sense, 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: William
C. Brown, 1990. Especially valuable for its treatment of vernac-
ular music.
Hickok, Robert. Exploring Music, 4th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: William C.
Brown, 1989.
Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation, 4th ed. New York: McGraw—
Hill, 1988. 7 ;
Kerman, Joseph, with Vivian Kerman. Listen, 3d ed. New York: Worth,
1980.
 Selected Bibliography 269

Lang, Paul Henry. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton,

1941. Especially valuable for background in political, economic,
social, and cultural history.
Machlis, Joseph, with Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music, 6th ed. |
New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.
Rosenstiel, Léonie, ed. Schirmer History of Music. New York: Schirmer,
1982.
Sadie, Stanley, ed., with Alison Latham. Music Guide: An Introduction.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1986.

Historical Periods and Styles

Antiquity
Sachs, Curt. The Rise of Music in the Ancient World, East and West. New
York: W. W. Norton, 1943.
The Middle Ages
Bukofzer, Manfred. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music. New
York: W. W. Norton, 1950.
Hoppin, Richard H. Medieval Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1978.
Reese, Gustave. Music in the Middle Ages. New York: W. W. Norton, 1940.
Seay, Albert. Music in the Medieval World, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Yudkin, Jeremy. Music in Medieval Europe. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
tice—Hall, 1989.
The Renaissance
Blume, Friedrich. Renaissance and Baroque Music. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1967:
Brown, Howard M. Music in the Renaissance. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice—Hall, 1976.
Reese, Gustave. Music in the Renaissance, 2d ed. New York: W. W. Norton,
1959.
The Baroque
Bukofzer, Manfred. Music in the Baroque Era. New York: W. W. Norton,
1947.
Palisca, Claude V. Baroque Music, 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
tice—Hall, 1988.
The Classical Period
Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music. New York: W. W. Norton,
1970.
270 History of Western Music

Pauly, Reinhard. Music in the Classic Period, 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1988.
Ratner, Leonard. Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style. New York:
Macmillan, 1985.
Rosen, Charles. The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. New
York: W. W. Norton, 1972.
The Romantic Period
Abraham, Gerald. One Hundred Years of Music, 4th ed. London:
Duckworth, 1974.
Einstein, Alfred. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W. W. Norton,
1947.
Longyear, Rey M. Nineteenth-Century Romanticism in Music, 3d ed. En-
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, 1988.
Plantinga, Leon. Romantic Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984.
The Twentieth Century
Austin, William. Music in the Twentieth Century from Debussy through
Stravinsky. New York: W. W. Norton, 1966.
Cope, David H. New Directions in Music, 4th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C.
Brown, 1984.
Griffiths, Paul. Modern Music: The Avante—Garde Since 1945. London:
Dent, 1981.
Machlis, Joseph. Introduction to Contemporary Music, 2d ed. New York:
W. W. Norton, 1979.
Nyman, Michael. Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond New York:
Schirmer, 1981.
Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction, 3d ed. Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
Simms, Bryan. Music of the Twentieth Century: Style and Structure. New
York: Schirmer, 1986.
Watkins, Glen. Soundings: Music in the Twentieth Century. New York:
Schirmer, 1988.

Popular Music
Hamm, Charles. Yesterdays: Popular Song in America. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1979.

Jazz
Kernfeld, Barry, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, 2 vols., London:
Macmillan, 1988.
 Selected Bibliography 271

Tirro, Frank. Jazz: A History. New York: W. W. Norton, 1977.

Rock
Charlton, Katherine. Rock Music Styles: A History, Dubuque, Iowa: Wil-
liam C. Brown, 1990.
Miller, Jim, ed. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll, rev.
ed. New York: Rolling Stone, 1980.

Other Subjects
Musical Instruments
Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton,
1940.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. 3
vols. London: Macmillan, 1984.
Notation
Apel, Willi. The Notation of Polyphonic Music, Sth ed. Cambridge: Medi-
eval Academy of America, 1961.
Parrish, Carl. The Notation of Medieval Music. New York: Pendragon,
1978.
Theoretical Writings
Strunk, Oliver. Source Readings in Music History from Classical Antiquity
through the Romantic Era. New York: W. W. Norton, 1950.
Translations of important writings of theorists.
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 Glossary

A Cappella. Choral music without instrumental accompaniment.

~ Accent. Dynamic emphasis placed on a tone or chord.
Accidental. A sharp, flat, or natural sign that alters a diatonic pitch.
Accompaniment. Subordinate harmonic or rhythmic material supporting a principal melody.
Air. A vocal or instrumental melody.
Answer. The countersubject in a fugue.
Anticipation. An unaccented nonharmonic tone that resolves by repetition.
Antiphonal. Containing alternating choirs.
Aria. A solo song in an opera, oratorio, or cantata.
Arpeggio. The notes of a chord played consecutively in a consistently ascending or
descending direction.
Atonality. Absence of key or central tonality.
Augmentation. Doubling of the note values of a melody.
Augmented triad. A three—note chord consisting of two major thirds.

Authentic A cadence consisting of the progression dominant to tonic (V — I).

cadence.
Auxiliary tone. An unaccented nonharmonic tone approached stepwise from above or below
a chordal tone to which it returns.
Backbeat. A regular emphasis on the typically unstressed beats in a 4meter (i.e., beats
two and four).
Band. A large ensemble consisting mainly of wind instruments.
Bar, barline. A vertical line drawn through one or more staves to indicate measure
divisions. Bar also means measure (as in, a four—bar phrase).
Bar form. A form in three sections, the first of which is repeated (AAB).
Bass. A voice, instrument, or part in the lowest register.
Basso continuo. The instrumental figured—bass part in an ensemble, played by one or more
bass instruments and a keyboard instrument.

PYfs)
 274 History of Western Music

- Beat. The unit of time in metric music. In time signatures, the upper numeral
indicates the number of beats per measure.
~ Bel canto. Literally, beautiful singing, or singing in a highly lyrical mode. Generally
associated with Italian opera in the early nineteenth century.
Binary. A form in two sections (AB).
Bitonality. Use of two different keys simultaneously.
Brass. Wind instruments that produce tone by vibration of the lips.
Broken chord. The tones of a chord played consecutively, usually according to some pattern.
Cadence. The harmonic or melodic progression that concludes a phrase, section, or
composition.
Canon. Contrapuntal form in which the entire melodic line in one part is strictly
imitated in one or more other parts at fixed intervals of pitch and time.
Cantabile. In a singing style.
Cantus firmus. A melody that serves as the structural basis for music in the Middle Ages
and Renaissance.
Chamber music. An ensemble consisting of only a few instruments, and usually only one
instrument to a part.
Chanson. French term for song.
Chant. General term for liturgical song; Gregorian chant.
Chart. The score of a jazz composition.
Choir. Vocal ensemble, usually a small church chorus. Also applied to groups in
an orchestra (e.g., brass choir, woodwind choir).
Choral. Music for chorus or choir.
Chorale. German hymn.
Chorale prelude. Organ composition based on a chorale melody.
Chord. A combination of three or more tones heard simultaneously.
Chordal style. In vocal polyphony, a texture in which all the parts have the same rhythm
and sing the same syllables simultaneously. Also called homophonic
style.
Chorus. A large vocal ensemble. In vernacular music, an extended refrain to a song;
jazz further defines it as the main unit of improvisation.
Chromatic, Extensive use of nondiatonic pitches in melody and harmony.
chromaticism.
Chromatic scale. Twelve consecutive half—steps.
Clef. A symbol that establishes a particular pitch on the staff, from which the other
pitches can be deduced.
Coda. A closing section.
 Glossary 275

Codetta. A short closing section.

Coloratura. A vocal style involving light and fast running passages, arpeggios, and
ornaments. Also, a high soprano voice capable of singing such music.
Common Refers to the musical language of the West between the sixteenth and
practice. twentieth centuries.
Conjunct. Progressing stepwise in melody.
Consonance, Harmonic intervals (thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, and octaves) that produce
consonant. a sense of repose; harmony that consists only or mainly of these intervals.
~ Consort. A term of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries meaning ensemble.
Contrafactum. Replacement of the original text to a piece by a new, different one.
Counterpoint, Texture consisting of two or more independent lines.
contrapuntal.
Contrary motion. Simultaneous melodic progression in opposite direction between two parts.
Crescendo. Increasing the dynamic level; getting louder.
Da capo. To return to the beginning of a composition. Abbreviation: D.C.
Decrescendo. Decreasing the dynamic level; getting quieter.
Diatonic. Melody or harmony confined to the pitches within a major or minor key.
Diminished triad. A three—note chord consisting of two minor thirds.
Diminuendo, Decreasing the dynamic level; getting quieter.
Diminution. To decrease the note values of a melody. Also, a form of ornamentation.
Discant. In fifteenth-century practice, akin to fauxbourdon. In modem practice, a
melodic line sung contrapuntally against a familiar melody.
Disjunct. Melodic progression dominated by wide skips.
Dissonance, Harmonic intervals (conventionally, seconds, sevenths, ninths, and aug-
dissonant. mented and diminished intervals) that produce the effect of action or
tension; chords that contain one or more of these intervals.
Dominant. The fifth tone of a diatonic scale, and the chord built on that tone.

Dotted rhythm. Rhythmic patterns consisting of a dotted note followed by a note of the next
smaller denomination (e.g., a dotted quarter followed by an eighth note).
Double bar. Two vertical lines drawn through one or more staves to indicate a major
sectional division or the conclusion of a composition.
Double fugue. A fugue with two subjects and, correspondingly, two expositions.
Double stop. The playing of two notes simultaneously on a bowed string instrument.
Duple meter. Two or four beats to the measure.
Dynamics. Levels of soft and loud.
276 History of Western Music
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Eighth note. One eighth the value of a whole note ( J).

Eleventh chord. A chord of six tones, five superimposed thirds.

Embellishment. Ornamentation such as trills, mordents, and turns.

Enharmonic. Two different notations of the same pitch (e.g., Cy and Dy are the same
sound).
Ensemble. A performing group consisting of two or more players or singers.
Episode. A section in a piece of music in with no important thematic material.
Equal The standard method of tuning Western instruments since the early eigh-
temperament. teenth century. The twelve semitones that form an octave are equally
spaced.
Ethnomusicology. The systematic study of music in different cultures, especially non—Western
or non—European music.
Exposition. The section in which thematic material is introduced.
Familiar style. Homophonic style.
Fauxbourdon. Parallel first—inversion chords in fifteenth-century music.
Fermata. A symbol (% ) signifying a pause.
Figuration. Recurrent melodic pattern.
Figured bass. Use of numerals and other signs accompanying the notes of a bass part to
indicate harmony to be filled in on a keyboard instrument, used in the
Baroque.
Final. The concluding tone in a Gregorian chant; the tonic.
Finale. The last movement or concluding section
of a large composition. In opera, the section from the last recitative.
Flat. A symbol placed in front of a note to indicate lowering that note by one
half—step (|, ).
Florid. Ornamented, embellished, decorated.
Form. The plan of organization of musical materials.
Forte. Loud. Abbreviation: f.
Fugal. In the style of a fugue; involving of contrapuntal imitation.
Fughetta. A short fugue or a fugal section in a composition.
Fugue. A contrapuntal form based on imitation of a subject and a contrasting answer.
Genre. A type of music, usually defined by form or medium.
Glissando. Producing all pitches between two or more notes, as by sliding the finger
along the string of a violin or the keyboard of a piano.
Gregorian chant. Liturgical Catholic monophonic song. Also called plainsong or plainchant.
 Glossary 277

Half note. One-half the value of a whole note ( J ).

Half-step. In the chromatic scale, the distance from one note to its immediate neighbor.
Harmony. The aspect of music involving simultaneous sounds, the combinations of
tones, chord structure, chord progression, consonance, and dissonance.
Heterophony. Two or more versions of the same melody played or sung simultaneously.
Homophony, A texture consisting of a single melodic line with subordinate accompani-
homophonic. ment. Also, sometimes used to mean chordal style in polyphonic music.
_ Hymn. A religious song.
idiom. Style appropriate to a specific medium, its capacities and limitations. Also
used to mean style in general.
Imitation. The repetition of a theme or melody in different parts within a contrapuntal
texture. —
Improvisation. To create music extemporaneously, usually within the constraints of some
structural framework.
Incipit. The first word or words of a text. Also, the first few identifying notes of a
theme.
Instrumentation. The instruments indicated in an orchestral score.
Interval. The pitch distance between two tones, designated numerically as seconds,
thirds, fourths, and so on.
Inversion. In melody, the interval—for—interval progression in the opposite direction.
In harmony, the root of a chord in some part other than the bass—for
example, first inversion (third of the chord in the bass) or second
inversion (fifth of the chord in the bass).
invertible Counterpoint so designed that either of two melodic lines may be the upper
counterpoint. line.
Key. The tonal center of a composition or subdivision thereof, indicated by the
letter name of its tonic.
Keyboard. The series of black and white keys of a piano, organ, harpsichord, or similar
instrument.
Key signature. Sharps or flats at the beginning of each staff that indicate the key of the
composition.
Leading tone. The seventh note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that note.
Libretto. The text of an opera, oratorio, or cantata.
Lied. German word for song. Plural: Lieder.
Line. The melodic component in a composition; melodic line.
Liturgical. Proper for use in a church service.
Lyric. Songlike, as opposed to dramatic.
278 History of Western Music :
et a ee Se ee a ee

Major. A mode based ona diatonic scale with half—steps between the third and fourth
degrees and the seventh and eighth degrees. A triad consisting of a major
third between the two lower notes and minor third between the two upper
notes.
Measure. A group of beats between bar lines; also, all the notes between two bar lines.
Mediant. The third note of a diatonic scale, and the chord built on that note.
Medium. The voices or instruments, or a combination thereof, required for the perfor-
mance of acomposition. Plural: media.
Melisma, A melodic passage sung to one syllable of text; a melodic style of many notes
melismatic. to a syllable.
Melody, melodic. Consecutive tones; the linear or horizontal element of music.

Mensural, This refers to premetric temporal concepts of the sixteenth century and
mensuration. earlier, in which fixed time—value relationships between notes deter-
mined rhythm.
Meter, metric. The measuring of time in music according to a specific number of beats and
accents to the measure.
Minor. A mode based on a diatonic scale with a half—step between the second and
third notes of the scale; the upper tetrachord of a minor mode is variable,
resulting in natural, harmonic, and melodic forms of the mode. A triad
consisting of a minor third between the two lower notes and major third
between the two upper notes.
Modality, modal. Melody or harmony based on one of the church modes.
Mode. One of the eight church modes. Also refers tomajor or minor keys.
Modulation. Melodic or harmonic progressions that begin in one key and end in another.
Monody. Early seventeenth—century term for accompanied solo songs.
Monophony, Texture consisting of a single melodic line without accompaniment.
monophonic.
Motive. A short melodic or rhythmic fragment long enough to be identifiable.
Movement. A complete and independent part of large works such as sonatas, sympho-
nies, suites.
Musicology. The scholarly study of music, especially systematic research in music his-
tory.
Natural. A symbol that cancels a previously indicated sharp or flat (4 ).
Neighbor tone. Same as auxiliary tone.
Neumatic. A melodic style in which several notes are sung to a single syllable. Also a
type of notation that indicates general pitch direction.
Ninth chord. A chord of five tones, four superimposed thirds.
 Glossary 279

Nonchordal, A dissonant tone that does not function within the chord with which it sounds.
nonharmonic.
Notation. A system of symbols for writing music, mainly indicating pitch and duration
of tones.
Octave. The pitch interval between a tone and the seventh tone above it in a diatonic
scale, or between the letter name of a tone and its recurrence above or
below. The vibration ratio of an octave is two to one: if the tone A has
440 vibrations per second, the octave above it has 880 and the octave
below has 220.
Opera. A drama with music.
Oratorio. A nonliturgical, nontheatrical religious work.
Orchestra. A large instrumental ensemble.
Orchestration. The manner in which instruments are employed in an orchestral composition.
Ostinato. A persistent rhythmic or melodic pattern.
Overture. The instrumental introduction to an opera or oratorio.
Parallel keys. Major and minor keys having the same letter name but different key signa-
tures (e.g., G Major with one sharp and g minor with two flats).
Parallel motion, Two or more melodic lines that move simultaneously in the same direction
parallelism. and by the same intervals.
Part. The single line in a polyphonic composition. One refers to the soprano part,
the violin part, and so on.
Passing tone. An unaccented nonharmonic tone that moves stepwise between two chordal
tones up to a third apart.
Pedal point. A sustained tone in the bass over which changing harmonies take place.
Pentatonic. A mode based on a five-tone scale (e.g., the black keys of the piano).
Percussion. Essentially, rhythmic instruments such as drums, cymbals, gongs, and trian-
gle.
Phrase. A musical unit, often four measures in length, which concludes with a
cadence. It usually refers to the melody.
Piano. A keyboard instrument. Also, the indication for a low dynamic level.
Abbreviation: p.
Pickup beat. One or several unaccented notes of a melody preceding the bar line at the
beginning of a phrase. Also called anacrusis.
Pitch. The vibration frequency of a tone.
Pizzicato. Plucking the strings of a bowed string instrument.
Plagal cadence. The cadence progression subdominant to tonic (IV — I).
Plagal mode. In Gregorian chant, the modes that range approximately a fourth below and
a fifth above the final.
280 History of Western Music

Plainsong. Gregorian chant.

Point of In the Renaissance, a structural device in which each phrase or line of text
imitation. received full treatment in imitation; these sections overlapped somewhat
giving a characteristic sense of continuity to the music.
Polychoral. The use of two or more separate choirs.
Polyphony, A texture consisting of two or more lines. In practice, the terms are related
polyphonic. to counterpoint and contrapuntal respectively.
Polyrhythm. The layering of metric rhythmic patterns.
Polytonality, The simultaneous use of two or more keys.
polytonal.
Preparation. A chordal (consonant) tone that subsequently becomes a nonchordal (disso-
nant) tone, as in a suspension.
Program music. Instrumental music through which the composer intends to describe some
action, scene, or story, and which carries a descriptive title.
Progression. A sequence of tones in melody, or chords in harmony that makes some
musically grammatical sense.
Psalm. Musical setting of texts from the biblical book of Psalms.
Quarter note. One-fourth the value of a whole note ( i}
Range. The pitch distance between the highest and lowest note of a melody, voice,
or instrument.
Realization, Filling in the harmony of a figured bass.
to realize.
Recitative. A declamatory prose style of singing in operas, oratorios, and cantatas.
Refrain. Recurrent lines of text and music at the end of each stanza of a song.
Register. The general pitch level of a part, voice, or instrument (e.g., soprano implies
a high register; bass, a low register).
Registration. The combinations of stops used in an organ composition.
Relative keys. Major and minor keys that have the same key signature (e.g., C major and A
minor are relative keys).
Responsorial. In Gregorian chant, a section for solo voice followed by a section for chorus
in unison,
Retrograde. Music read backward.
Rhythm. The time element in music that is determined by accent or duration of tones.
Riff. A short melodic background pattern, typically repeated throughout a jazz or
rock composition.
Root. The tone on which a chord is built.
Round. A form of canon.
 Glossary 281

Scale. A system of adjacent notes.

Score. Two or more staves with notes vertically aligned in vocal or instrumental
part music.
Semitone. A half—step in the diatonic or chromatic scale.
Sequence. A recurrent melodic pattern repeated at successively higher or lower inter-
vals. In Gregorian chant, a form of trope.
Seventh chord. A chord of four tones, three superimposed thirds.
Sharp. A symbol placed in front of a note to indicate raising that note by one half
step (#).
Sixteenth note. One-sixteenth the value of a whole note ( S ).
Song. An independent composition with text.
Sonority. Qualities of texture (e.g., thick or thin, heavy or light, etc.).
Staff, staves. The five horizontal parallel lines on or between which notes are written.
Strings. Instruments whose tone is produced by bowing or plucking taut strings (e.g.,
violins and guitars).
String quartet. A chamber ensemble consisting of two violins, viola, and cello. Also,
compositions written for that medium.
Strophic. Song form in which all stanzas of the text are set to the same music.
Style. The characteristic quality of music determined by the integration of all
elements (e.g., rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, and medium).
Subdominant. The fourth note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that note.
Subject. The theme of a fugue.
Submediant. The sixth note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that note.

Supertonic. The second note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that note.

Suspension. A nonharmonic device in which a chordal (consonant) tone is held through

a change of harmony to become a nonchordal (dissonant) tone that then
resolves downward to another chordal (consonant) tone.
Syllabic. A Style of text setting in which there is generally one syllable of text to one
note of the melody.
Syncopation. A rhythmic device in which the normal accents of the measure are displaced
by accenting weak beats, rests on strong beats, or tying notes over from
a weak to a strong beat.
Tablature. A type of instrumental notation that indicates where to place the fingers.
Tempo. Generally, the relative speed of music; the rate of beats as indicated by such
terms as allegro, presto, adagio, lento, and andante.
Tenor. The voice part that held the cantus firmus in music of the Middle Ages and
Renaissance; also a high male voice type.
282 History of Western Music
LEO DE al TE ONAN FAR TAS OM a PR Pg MN a a NA ENS ee

Ternary. A form in three sections (ABA).

Tessitura. Register.
Tetrachord. A four-tone section of a scale.
Texture. The disposition of the melodic element in music (see monophonic,
heterophonic, polyphonic, and homophonic), also means sonority.
Theme. The melodic idea on which a composition is based. A theme may also
include rhythmic, harmonic, and other factors.
Thoroughbass. See basso continuo, figured bass.
Tie. A curved line connecting two consecutive notes on the same line or space of
the staff; indicates the note to be held over rather than repeated.
Timbre. Tone color or tone quality.
Time signature. Numerals at the beginning of a composition, the upper figure of which
indicates the number of beats in the measure, and the lower of which
indicates the kind of note that gets one beat.
Tonality. The sense of gravitation around a tonal center or key.
Tonic. The first note of a diatonic scale, the note from which a key gets its name,
and the chord built on that note.
Transcription. The arrangement of a composition for a different medium.
Treble. A relatively high—register part, indicated by the G clef, or treble clef.
Tremolo. Rapid reiteration of a single note or rapid alternation between two notes.
Triad. A three—note chord, consisting of two thirds.
Triple meter. Three beats to the measure.
Tune. A melody.
Tutti. A passage played by the entire ensemble.
Unaccompanied. A solo part, passage, or vocal ensemble without accompaniment.
Unison. Two or more parts singing or playing the same melody.
Variation. The modified repetition of a theme or melody; a form based on this technique.
Virtuosity. Prominent display of technical facility in performance.
Vocal. To be performed by the human voice or voices.
Voice. The human organ of sound, classified in the West according to registers (e.g.,
soprano, alto, tenor, and bass). Also, a part in polyphonic music (e.g., a
four—voice madrigal or a five—voice fugue).
Whole note. The basic unit of note values (©).
Whole-step. An interval consisting of two half steps.
Whole-tone A mode based on a scale of six notes, separated by whole-steps.
mode.
 Glossary 283

Wind Instruments that produce tones by a vibrating column of air when blown;
instruments. woodwinds and brass.
Woodwind Wind instruments that generate tone by a vibrating reed (e.g., oboes, clari-
instruments. nets, saxophones, and bassoons) or by a whistle-type mechanism (flutes
and recorders).
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 Index

A Anderson, Laurie, 205, 218, 264

Andriessen, Henrik, 230
Abaco, Evaristo dall’, 114 Andriessen, Jurriaan, 230
Abgesang, 26 Andriessen, Louis, 230
Absii, Jean, 227 Anerio, Felice, 59
Absolute music, 124 Anhalt, Istvan, 228
A cappella, 19, 22, 99 Anka, Paul, 260
Acid rock, 263 Antheil, George, 218
Act tunes, 95 Anticipations, 57
Acuff, Roy, 258 Antiphonal style, 11
Adam of St. Victor, 22 Antiquity, 78
Adams, John, 204, 210, 218 Greek music in, 9-11
Adler, Guido, 145 Hebrew music in, 11
Aeolian mode, 20, 24 musical characteristics of, 89
Aerosmith, 265 Roman music in, 11
Agréments, 114 time line of, 7
Agricola, Alexander, 54 Apollo, cult of, 9
Ainsworth, Henry, 61 Appleton, Jon, 203, 218
Albéniz, Isaac, 163, 175 Arcadelt, Jacques, 62
Alberti, Domenico, 122, 123 Arezzo, Guido d’, 30, 75
Alberti bass, 123 Argentina, composers in, 227
Aldhelm, Bishop, 30 Argento, Dominick, 209, 210, 217
Aleatory music, 199, 200 Aria, 92, 137
Alla breve, 81 Arioso, 93
Alleluluia, 22 Ariosti, Attilio, 93
Allemande, 69, 109 Aristotle, 11
Allman Brothers, 265 Aristoxenos, 11
Altus, 53 Arlen, Harold, 247
Amati, Nicolo, 107 Armstrong, Louis, 253
Ambrose, 18 Arne, Thomas, 136, 240
Ambrosian chant, 18 Arnello, Richard, 225
Amfiparnasso, |’, 62 Arnold, Malcolm, 225
Ammerbach, Elias Nikolaus, 71 Ars Antiqua, 31-36
Analog-synthesizer, 201, 202 composers in, 35
Analog-to-digital converter, 202 genres of, 32-35

285
286 Index
a cL em ee

Ars Antiqua (cont’d) Baaren, Kees van, 230

manuscripts from, 36 Babbitt, Milton, 199, 201, 203, 207, 209, 218
musical characteristics of, 31-32 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 121, 133, 137
Ars Cantus Mensurabilis, 78 Bach, J. S., 89, 98, 100, 101, 103, 105, 114, 121, 162,
Ars Nova, 37 163, 204
composers in, 38-39 Bach, Johann Christian, 122, 133, 135
compositions from, 39 Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, 121, 133
forms in, 38 Backbeat, 258, 260
Ars Novae Musicae, 39 Badings, Henk, 230
Art music, support of, 182 Baez, Joan, 263
Art rock, 264 Baird, Taqdeusz, 231
Art song Balakirev, Mily, 173
composers of, 154-157 Balbulus, Notker, 22
French, 157 Ball, Emest R., 246
musical characteristics of, Ballad, 239-240
154-155 Ballade, 25, 38
poets of, 154 Ballad opera, 96, 135, 136
Russian, 157 Ballata, 27, 39
in 20th century, 209 Ballet. See also Dance forms
Ashley, Robert, 200, 203, 210, 212, 218 in 16th century, 92
Aston, Hugh, 71 in 20th century, 210-211
Asymmetrical grouping, in 20th century music, 193 Ballett, 63
Atonality, 197 Balletto, 62
Attaingnant, Pierre, 71 Bamberg Codex, 36
Atterberg, Kurt, 232 Band, The, 265
Aube, 25 Bands, 252
Auber, Daniel, 149, 150, 173 Bantock, Granville, 225
Augmentation, 53 Barber, Samuel, 207, 208, 209, 210, 217
Aulos, 9, 10 Barbershop quartets, 245
Auric, Georges, 221 Bar form, 26
Austin, Larry, 200, 218 Baroque
Austria, composers of, 171-172, 222 chorale prelude in, 110
Authentic modes, 19 comic opera in, 96-97
Avalon, Frankie, 260 dance suite in, 109-110
Avant-Garde, 189-190 historical context of, 90
composers in, 189, 217-218, 221, 224-227, 230, 232 improvisation in, 110-111
electronic music in, 200-203 instrumental genres in, 108-113
improvisation in, 203-204 instrumental music in, 104-115
indeterminacy in, 199-200 liturgical music in, 99-101
instruments in, 211-212 nonliturgical music in, 101-103
jazz in, 255 opera in, 91-96
media of, 211-213 orchestra music, 112-113
minimalism in, 204 schools and composers in, 113-115
multiple serialism in, 198-199 sonata in, 111-112
notation in, 190 timeline for, 87-88
performance art in, 204—205 vocal chamber music in, 97-98
twelve-tone music in, 298 Barth, Hans, 195, 218
Ayala, Daniel, 231 Bartholomée, Pierre, 227
Ayre, 63 Bartok, Béla, 193, 195, 207, 209, 211, 225
Basie, Count, 247, 254
Bass clarinet, 163
B Basse—danse, 69
B52s, 265 Basso continuo, in Baroque music, 104-105
 Index 287

Bassoon, 107, 124, 130, 163 Black Sabbath, 265

Bassus, 53 Blake, Ran, 256
Bateson, Thomas, 64 Bland, James, 244
Baudelaire, Charles, 155 Bliss, Arthur, 225
Bautista, Julian, 226 Blitzstein, Marc, 217
Bax, Amold, 225 Bloch, Emest, 217, 232
Beach, Amy Cheney, 176, 214, 216 Blomdahl, Karl—Birger, 232
Beach Boys, 261 Blondie, 265
Beatles, 262 Blood, Sweat, and Tears, 256
Bebop, 254-255 Blow, John, 95, 98, 101
Bechet, Sidney, 253 Blue Notes, 251-252
Beck, Conrad, 232 Blues, 251-252, 262
Becker, John, 217 Blues rock, 262
Beckwith, John, 228 Boccherini, Luigi, 132
Bee Gees, 265-266 Boesmans, Philippe, 227
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 125, 128, 130-131, 132, 136, Bohm, Georg, 114
137, 138, 151, 156-157, 158, 161, 166, 169, Boieldieu, Francis, 149
AES 7. Boieldieu, Francois, 173
Behrman, David, 202, 218 Boito, Arrigo, 149
Beiderbecke, Bix, 253 Bolcom, William, 187, 217
Bel canto, 93 Bologna, Jacopo da, 40
Belcanto opera, 148 Bononcini, Giovanni, 94
Belgium, composers in, 227 Boogie—woogie, 253
Bellini, Vincenzo, 148, 172 Boone, Pat, 260
Bells, 164 Born, Bertran de, 26
Belmonts, 261 , Bornelh, Giraut de, 26
Benevoli, Orazio, 100 Borodin, Alexander, 153, 165, 173
Bennet, John, 64 Bortniansky, Dimitri, 158, 174
Bennett, Richard Rodney, 225 Boulanger, Nadia, 221
Bennett, William Sterndale, 175 Boulez, Pierre, 199, 201, 221
Berg, Alban, 188, 209, 222 Bourgeois, Loys, 60, 61
Berg, Natanaél, 232 Bourrée, 109
Berger, Arthur, 217 Bowed instruments
Berger, Jean, 208, 217 in Middle Ages, 41
Berger, Roman, 229 in Renaissance, 68
Bergman, Erik, 229 Bozay, Attila, 226
Bergsma, William, 217 Brahms, Johannes, 156, 157-159, 162-163, 165, 167,
Berio, Luciano, 187, 199, 201, 203, 224 169, 172
Berkeley, Lennox, 225 Branle, 69
Berlin, Irving, 246, 248 Brant, Henry, 218
Berlioz, Hector, 149, 150, 157, 158, 159, 164, 166, 173 Brass instruments
Bemers, Lord, 225 in Classical period, 130
Bernstein, Leonard, 193, 210, 211, 217, 249 in Romantic period, 164
Berry, Chuck, 260 Brazil, composers in, 228
Bertali, Antonio, 100 Break, 251
Béthune, Conon de, 26 Brecht, George, 213, 218
Beze, Théodore de, 60 Breve, 75, 78, 80
Biber, Heinrich von, 114 Bristow, George, 176
Big Bands, 247 Britten, Benjamin, 208, 209, 210, 225
Binary dance movements, 109 Broadside, 239-240
Binchois, Gilles, 53 Brooks, William, 209, 218
Bizet, Georges, 150, 173 Brott, Alexander, 228
Blachner, Boris, 223 Brown, Earle, 200, 209, 218
288 Index
ate een nn ae

Brown, James, 263 Cantus firmi forms (cont'd)

Brubeck, Dave, 255 in 15th century, 51, 54
Bruce, Neely, 209, 218 in Renaissance, 69, 70
Bruckner, Anton, 152, 158, 167, 172 Cantus Firmus Chorale, 110
Buchner, Hans, 71 Canzona, 70, 108
Buck, Dudley, 176 Canzonet, 63
Buckley’s New Orleans Serenaders, 242 Capriccio, 108
Bull, John, 71, 72 Cardew, Cornelius, 200, 225
Biilow, Hans von, 161 Carissimi, Giacomo, 98, 102
Burden, 52 Carlos, Wendy, 202, 218
Burgundian music, 51-52 Carol, 52
Burkhard, Willy, 232 Carpenter, John Alden, 209, 214, 216
Burlas, Ladislav, 229 Carrillo, Julian, 195, 231
Burns, Robert, 240 Carter, Elliott, 207, 216
Bush, Alan, 225 Carter Family, 258
Busnois, Antoine, 54 Cascia, Giovanni da, 40
Busoni, Ferruccio, 163, 172, 223 Casella, Alfredo, 224
Bussotti, Sylvano, 200, 224 Cassation, 132
Buxtehude, Dietrich, 101, 114 Castanets, 164
Byrd, William, 59, 61, 64, 71 Castiglioni, Niccolé, 224
Byrds, The, 263 Castrati, 93
Byron, Lord George, 155 Castro, Juan, 227
Byzantine chant, 18 Catch, 98
Cathedral anthem, 61
Catholic music, 99-100
c Cavalieri, Emilio dé, 102
Cabanilles, Juan, 115 Cavalli, Pier Francesco, 93
Cabézon, Antonio, 71 Cavazzoni, Girolamo, 71
Caccia, 39 Cazzati, Maurizio, 113
Caccini, Giulio, 91, 92, 97 Celestas, 164
Cadenza, 131 Cello, 130
Cage, John, 195, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 209, 211, Cerha, Friedrich, 222
212, 218, 223, 264 Certon, Pierre, 63
Caldara, Antonio, 100, 102 Cesti, Marc Antonio, 93, 98
Call and Response, 251 Chabrier, Emmanuel, 173
Calzabigi, Raniero, 135 Chaconne, 108, 109
Cambert, Robert, 94 Chadwick, George, 176, 214, 216
Cambiatas, 57 Chamber Cantata, 98
Camerata, 91 Chamber music
Campion, Thomas, 64, 72 Classical, 132-133
Campra, André, 98 composers in, 169-170
Canada, composers in, 228 media in, 169
Cancionero del Palacio, 65 scores and recordings, 170
Cancrizans, 54 in 20th century, 207
Cannabich, Christian, 122 Chambonieres, Jacques Champion de, 114
Canon, 35, 197 Champagne, Claude, 228
Canonic form, 53-54 Chance music, 199-200
Canso, 25 Chanler, Theodore, 209, 217
Canti carnascialeschi (carnival songs), 62 Chanson, 52, 54
Cantiga, 27 Chanson balladée, 38
Cantus, 53 Chanson de geste, 25
Cantus firmi forms Chanson de toile, 25
in Ars Antiqua, 31 Chanson mesurée, 63
 Index 289

Chanson rimée, 63 Clarinet, 124, 130

Character pieces, in romantic period, 161 Clash, 265
Charpentier, Gustave, 150, 173, 221 Classical mensural notation, 81
Charpentier, Marc-Antoine, 98, 100, 102 Classical music, 119, 123
Charts, 254 absolute music, 124
Chausson, Ernest, 157, 173 chamber music, 132-133
Chavez, Carlos, 195, 207, 231 characteristics of, 123-124
Checker, Chubby, 261 composers in, 124-125
Cherubini, Luigi, 135, 137, 158 concerto in, 131-132
Chic, 265 counterpoint, 123
Chicago, 256 form, 123
Childs, Barney, 200, 218 harmony, 124
Chimes, 164 historical context, 125-126
Chnitke, Alfred, 220 improvisation, 124
Choir, 164 instrumental music, 124, 127-133
Choirbooks, 78 ‘ instrumentation, 124
Chopin, Frédéric, 148, 162, 173 ; melodic style, 124
Chorale, 60 opera in, 134-147
Chorale fantasia, 110 religious music, 137-138
Chorale fugues, 110 sonata cycle in, 127-129
Chorale partita, 110 symphony in, 129-131
Chorale passion, 103 texture, 123
Chorale prelude, 60 timeline, 119-120
in Baroque, 110 Clausula, 33
in Reformation, 60 Clavichord, 68
Chorale trios, 110 Clef signs, 75
Choralis constantinus, 55 Clementi, Muzio, 133, 163, 175
Choral music Clérambault, Louis, 98
composers of, 159 Closing theme, 128
religious, 158 Cluny, Odo de, 30
scores and recordings, 159 Coda, 128
secular, 158-159 Codetta, 128
in 20th century, 208-210 Cohan, George M., 248
Chordal style, 51 Coleman, Omette, 255
Chord construction, in 20th century music, 195-196 Coloration Chorale, 110
Chord progression, in 20th century music, 196 Coltrane, John, 255
Chord streams, 196 Combos, 254
Chorus, 92, 241, 251 Comets, The, 259
Chowning, John, 202, 218 Comic opera, 96, 135-136
Christy’s Minstrels, 242 English 96, 136
Chromatic, 10 French, 96, 136, 149-150
Chromaticism, in 19th century music, 144 German, 97, 136
Chronological organization, 3-4 Italian, 96, 136
Chrysander, Karl Friedrich, 145 Spanish, 97, 136
Church cantata, 100-101 Compeére, Loyset, 54
Church modes, 19-20 Compline, 21
Church sonata, 101, 111 Conceptual art, 205
Ciconia, Johannes, 40 Concert band, in 20th century, 207-208
Cikker, Jan, 229 Concerto, 112
Cikku, Jan, 229 Classical, 131-132
Cimarosa, Domenico, 136 Romantic, 164
Civil War, songs of the, 243-244 Concerto grosso, 112
Clapton, Eric, 262, 265 Concert overtures, romantic, 165
290 Index

Conductus, 27 D
Conjunct order, 10
Consorts, 68. Da capo arias, 93
Contrabassoon, 163 Dafne, 92
Contrafactum, 60 Dahl, Ingolf, 217
Contrapuntal imitation, 70 Dallapiccola, Luigi, 199, 208, 224
Converse, Frederick, 176, 214, 216 Dalza, Ambrosio, 71
Cooke, John, 53 Damett, Thomas, 53
Cool jazz, 255 Dance music
Copla, 65 in Middle Ages, 42-43
Copland, Aaron, 187, 194, 206, 207, 211, in Renaissance, 69
214, 216 in Romantic period, 161, 165
Corea, Chick, 256 in 20th century, 210-211, 261
Corelli, Arcangelo, 113 Dance suite, in Baroque
Corigliano, John, 187, 210, 217 instrumental music,
Comelius, Peter, 157, 172 109-110
Corer, Philip, 200, 218 d’Anglebert, Jean—Henri, 114
Cornets, 68 Danican-Philidor, Andre, 136
Coryell, Larry, 256 Danks, H. P., 245
Costeley, Guillaume, 63 Danny and the Juniors, 261
Cotton, John, 30 Danse royale, 43
Counterpoint, 29, 123 Daquin, Louis-Claude, 114
Country and western, 258 Dargomizsky, Alexander, 153, 174
Country blues, 251-252 Dashow, James, 202, 218
Country music, 258-259 Davidovsky, Mario, 201, 203, 218, 227
Couperin, Francois, 100, 114, 121 Davies, Peter Maxwell, 213, 225
Courante, 69, 109 Davis, Miles, 255, 256
Cowell, Henry, 189, 196, 211, 214, 216 Debussy, Claude, 187, 188, 195, 206, 209, 220
Crab canon, 54 Delibes, Léo, 150, 173
Crawford, Ruth, 209, 217 Delius, Frederick, 225
Crécquillon, Thomas, 63 Dempster, Stuart, 203, 213, 218
Crescendo, 122 Denisov, Edison, 220
Creston, Paul, 208, 217 Denmark, composers in, 229
Cristofori, Bartolomeo, 106 Dependence, in antiquity, 8
Croft, William, 101 Der Prinzen Tanz-Proportz, 69
Crooning, 247-248 Decrescendo, 122
Crosby, Bing, 248 Desprez, Josquin, 54, 58
Cross rhythms, 194 Dessau, Paul, 223
Crumb, George, 187, 209, 213, 218 Devo, 265
Cruce, Petrus de, 34, 35, 78 Diaghilev, Sergei, 210
Cui, César, 174 Diamond, David, F., 207
Culture Club, 265 Diastematic notation, 73-74
Cunningham, Merce, 211 Diatonic, 10
Curtain tunes, 95 Dies Irae, 22
Cyclical form, 166 Dietrich, Sixt, 60
Cyclical mass, 54 Digital-synthesizer, 202-203
Cymbals, 164 Diminution, 53
Czechoslovakia Dionysus, cult of, 9
composers in, 174, 228-230 Discant style, 33, 51
national Bohemian opera in, 153 Disco, 265-266
romantic opera in, 153 Disjunct order, 10
Czerny, Carl, 163, 172 Displaced bar line, in 20th century music, 193-194
Dissemination of popular music, 247-248
 Index 291

Dissonance Egk, Werner, 223

in 19th century music, 144 Eichendorff, Joseph von, 155
in 20th century music, 196 Einem, Gottfried von, 222
Dissonant intervals, 57 Eisler, Hanns, 223
Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 122 El-Dabh, Halim, 217
Divertimento, in classical chamber music, 132 Electric Light Orchestra, 264
Divine offices, 21 Electronic music, 200
Dixieland jazz, 253 analog-synthesizer in, 201-202
Dodecachordon, 65 composers of, 221
Dodge, Charles, 203, 218 digital synthesizer in, 202-203
Dohnanyi, Ernst von, 226 instruments for, 212
Dominant key, 128 performance of, 203
Domino, Fats, 260 tape music, 200-201
Donaldson, Walter, 247 Elgar, Edward, 158, 165, 175, 186, 225
Donato, Baldassare, 63 Elias, José, 115
Donatoni, Franco, 224 Ellington, Duke, 247, 254
Donizetti, Gaetano, 148, 172 : Emerson, Lake and Palmer, 264
Doors, 263 Emmett, Dan, 242
Doo-wop, 261 Empfindsamer Stil, 121
Dorian mode, 19 Enchiridion Musices, 30
Dorsey, Tommy, 247 Encina, Juan del, 65
Dorsey Brothers, 254 England
Dots, 81 church music in, 101
Double, 110 comic opera in, 136
Double canons, 54 composers in, 59, 61, 64, 115, 175, 224-225
Double exposition, 131 dramatic music in, 95
Dowland, John, 64, 72 15th century music in, 51-52
Draghi, Antonio, 100, 102 instrumental music in, 71-72
Dramma giocoso, 137 madrigals in, 63
Dresser, Paul, 246 reformation music in, 61
Drifters, The, 259 Romantic opera in, 153
Druckman, Jacob, 203, 218 secular music in, 63-64
Duckworth, William, 218 solo song in, 98
Ductia, 43 English horn, 163
Duet,53,.92, 137 Englund, Einar, 229
Dufay, Guillaume, 53 Enharmonic, 10
Dukas, Paul, 165, 173, 221 Eno, Brian, 264
Du Mont, Henry, 114 Enriquez, Manuel, 231
Duni, Egidio, 136 Ensembles
Dunstable, John, 52 in Baroque, 105
Duparc, Henri, 157, 173, 221 in Renaissance, 69
Durey, Louis, 221 Entr’acte music, in England, 95
Durk6, Zsolt, 226 Enueg, 25
Duruflé, Maurice, 221 Episodes, 108, 128
Dussek, Jan Ladislav, 133 Erb, Donald, 218
Dvorak, Antonin, 153, 167, 169, 170, 174 Erickson, Robert, 203-204, 218
Dylan, Bob, 261, 263, 265 Erlebach, Philipp, 97
Escher, Rudolf, 230
Espla, Oscar, 226
E Essercizi, 122
Eaton, John, 202, 210, 218 Estampie, 42-43
Eccard, Johannes, 60, 64 Esteve y Grimau, Pablo, 136
Ecossaise, 161 E Street Band, 264
292 Index
Diep Conprenor ale ay ie dE i es

Estrihillo, 65 Form (cont'd)

Ethiopian serenaders, 242 bar, 26
Ethnomusicology, 8, 183 canonic, 53-54
Etudes, romantic, 161 in Classical music, 123, 129, 131
Eurhythmics, 265 modified strophic, 155
Euridice, 92 in Romantic period, 144-145
Experimental music, 190 in secular song, 25
Exposition, in sonata form, 128 sonata, 127
Expressionism, 188 strophic, 155
: thirty-two bar, 245
F through-composed, 155
of Trecento, 39-40
Fabian, 260 in 20th century music, 197
Falla, Manuel de, 186, 188, 226 Formes fixes, 38
Fantasia, 70, 108, 110 Fortner, Wolfgang, 199, 223
Farnaby, Giles, 71 Foss, Lukas, 200, 204, 207, 210, 218
Farwell, Arthur, 214, 216 Foster, Stephen Collins, 242-243, 245
Fauré, Gabriel, 157, 158, 163, 170, 173, 186 15th century music
Fauxbourdon, 51 English and Burgundian School, 51-53
Felciano, Richard, 209, 218 Franco—Flemish School, 53-54
Feldman, Morton, 200, 204, 218 manuscripts from, 55
Feldpartita, 132 Fourth movement of sonata cycle, 129
Felius, Frederick, 188 Four-voice writing, 53
Fermata, 131 Frangaix, Jean, 221
Ferrari, Luc, 221 France
Festa, Costanzo, 62 art song in, 157
Fiddle Tunes, 258 ballet in, 94
Field, John, 163, 175 comic opera in, 136, 149-150
Figured bass, 104 composers in, 60-61, 63, 114-115, 173, 220
Finale, 129 grand opera in, 150
Finck, Heinrich, 64 lyric opera in, 150
Fine, Irving, 217 opera in, 94, 149-150
Finland, composers of, 168, 174, 229 reformation music in, 60-61
Finney, Ross Lee, 217 Renaissance music in, 71
Firenze, Gherardello da, 40 romantic opera in, 149-150
First movement secular music in, 25, 63
of classical concerto, 131 troubadours in, 25-26
of sonata cycle, 127-128 trouvéres in, 26
Fischer, Johann Caspar Ferdinand, 114 Francis, Connie, 260
Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, 71 Franck, César, 158, 163, 165, 167-168, 170, 173
Florentia, Johannes de, 40 Franck, Melchior, 64, 71
Florentine opera, 92 Franco-Flemish music, 53-55, 59
Florid organum, 29 composers in, 54, 59
Flotow, Friedrich von, 151, 172 genres in, 53-54
Floyd, Carlisle, 210, 217 manuscripts and documents in, 55
Flute, 107, 124, 130, 163 musical characteristics of, 53
Fluxus Group, 213 Franconian motet, 34
Folk rock, 261, 263 Franconian notation, 78-79
Folk-songs, 237, 239-240 Franco of Cologne, 34, 35, 78
Foote, Arthur, 176, 214, 216 Franklin, Aretha, 263
Form. See also Genre Franz, Robert, 157, 172
in Ars Nova, 38 Franz, Schubert, 171
in art song, 155 Freedman, Harry, 228
 Index 293

Free jazz, 255-256 Germany (cont'd)

Free organum, 29 late Romantic opera in, 152
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 113 meistersingers in, 26
Fricke, Peter Racine, 225 minnesingers in, 26
Friml, Rudolf, 248 music drama in, 151-152
Froberger, Johann, 114 opera in, 151-152
Frottola, 62 organ tablature in, 83
Fry, William Henry, 176 Reformation music in, 60
Fuenllana, Miguel de, 71 Renaissance instrumental music in, 71
Fughettas, 110 secular music in, 26, 64
Fugue, 108, 197 solo song in, 97
Fulda, Adam von, 64 Gershwin, George, 209, 214, 216, 246-247, 250-251
Funk, 266 Gesammtkunstwerk, 151
Fusion, 256 Gesualdo, Don Carlo, 63
Fux, Johann, 95, 100, 114 Getz, Stan, 255
Gibbons, Orlando, 61, 64, 71, 72
Gigault, Nicolas, 114
G Gigue, 109
Gabrieli, Andrea, 59, 71 Gilbert, Henry, 176, 214, 216
Gabrieli, Giovanni, 59, 71, 111 Gilbert, William, 153, 175
Gaburo, Kenneth, 209, 218 Gillespie, Dizzy, 255
Gaffurius, Franchinus, 65 Gilmore, Patrick Sarsfield, 208, 244
Gaillard, 69 Gilson, Paul, 227
Galindo, Blas, 231 Ginastera, Alberto, 227
Gallican chant, 18 Glanville-Hicks, Peggy, 217
Galop, 161 Glareanus, Henricus, 65
Galuppi, Baldassare, 96 Glass, Philip, 204, 205, 210, 218
Gandini, Gerardo, 227 Glazunov, Alexander, 186, 219
Gastoldi, Giovanni, 62 Gleemen, 24, 27
Gaukler, 24 Glees, 241
Gaultier, Denis, 114 Gliédre, Reinhold, 157, 174, 186, 219
Gavotte, 109 Glinka, Mikhail, 153, 173
Gay, John, 96 Gluck, Christoph Willibald von, 124, 135, 147
Gazouleas, Stephanos, 230 Goehr, Alexander, 225
Gebrauchsmusik, 189 Goethals, Lucien, 227
Geminiani, Grancesco, 113 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 155
Genesis, 264 Goeyvaerts, Karl, 227
Genres, 2. See also Form Goliards, 27
in Ars Antiqua, 32-35 Gombert, Nicholas, 63
in Baroque instrumental music, 108-113 Gongs, 164
of English Reformation music, 61 Goodman, Benny, 247, 254
nonliturgical, 58 Gorecki, H. M., 231
in Renaissance, 52, 69-70 Gospel recitation, 103
in Romantic period, 160-161, 164-165 Gossec, Frangois-Joseph, 122
in secular music, 62-65 Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, 161, 176
Genteel songs, 242, 243 Goudimel, Claude, 61, 63
Gerharde, Roberto, 226 Gounod, Charles, 150, 157, 158, 173
Gerle, Hans, 71 Grabovsky, Leonid, 220
Germany Grainger, Percy, 208, 212, 217
comic opera in, 136 Granados, Enrique, 163, 175
composers in, 59, 60, 64, 113-114, 171-172, 222- Grand opera, in France, 150
223 Grateful Dead, 263
dramatic music in, 95-96 Graun, Carl Heinrich, 122, 137
294 =Index
I

Graun, Johann Gottlieb, 122 Harmony

Great Britain. See England in Ars Antiqua, 32
Greater Perfect System, 10 in 20th century music, 195-196
Greece, composers in, 230 Harp, 164
Greek music, 9-11 Harpsichord
characteristics of, 9 in Baroque, 106
cults of, 9 in Renaissance, 68
Ethos doctrine of, 9 Harpsichord notation, 84
extant music in, 10 Harris, Charles K., 246
instruments in, 10 Harris, Roy, 217
notation in, 10 Harrison, Lou, 187, 218
theory of, 10 Hartman, Karl, 223
writers of, 10-11 Hasse, Johann Adolph, 135, 137
Gregorian chant Hassler, Hans Leo, 59, 60, 64, 101, 103
branches of, 18-19 Hatrik, Juraj, 229
functions and types of, 21-22 Haubenstock-Ramati, Roman, 200, 222, 231
history of, 18-19 Hauer, Josef, 222
musical characteristics of, 19-20 Haussmann, Valentin, 71
Gretchaninov, Alexander, 157, 174, 219 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 124-125, 130, 131, 132, 137, 156
Grétry, André Emest Modeste, 136 Hays, Will S., 244
Grieg, Edvard, 163, 165, 174, 186 Heavy metal music, 264-265
Griffes, Charles, 188, 214, 216 Hebrew music, 11
Grofé, Ferde, 217 Heine, Heinrich, 155
Ground, 70, 108 Heinrich, Anthony Philip, 176
Guarneri, Giuseppe Bartolomeo, 107 Henderson, Fletcher, 247, 254
Guarnieri, Camargo, 228 Hendrix, Jimi, 263
Guastavino, Carlos, 227 Henry, Pierre, 201, 221
Guitar, 107 Henselt, Adolf von, 163, 172
Guthrie, Woody, 261 Henze, Hans Werner, 210, 223
Guyonnet, Jacques, 232 Herbert, Victor, 248
Heredia, Sebastian Aguilera de, 115
H Hérold, Louis Ferdinand, 149, 173
Herz, Henri, 161
Haba, Alois, 229 Heseltine, Philip, 225
Hadley, Henry, 176, 214, 216 Heterophony, 9, 28
Hadzidakis, Manos, 230 Hewitt, John Hill, 241, 244
Halevy, Jacques, 150, 173 Hexachord variations, 70
Haley, Bill, 259 Hidalgo, Juan, 97
Halffter, Critébal, 226 Hill, Edward Burlingame, 214, 216
Halffter, Emesto, 226 Hillbilly music, 258
Halffter, Rodolfo, 226 Hiller, Johann Adam, 97, 136
Halle, Adam de la, 26 Hiller, Lejaren, 202, 203, 218
Hambraeus, Bengt, 232 Hindemith, Paul, 189, 207, 208, 209, 210, 223
Hamilton, Iain, 225 Hocket, 34—35
Hammer, M. C., 266 Hoffman, E. T. A., 151, 172
Hammerschmidt, Andreas, 101 Hofhaimer, Paul, 64, 71
Hammond organ, 212 Holewa, Hans, 232
Hancock, Herbie, 256, 266 Holland, composers in, 230
Handel, George Frideric, 89, 94, 102, 115, 137 Holly, Buddy, 259
Handl, Jacob, 58, 59 Holst, Gustav, 206, 225
Hanson, Howard, 208, 217 Holzbauer, Ignaz, 122
Harmoneons, 242 Home songs, 244
Harmonic aspects, in 20th century music, 196 Homophonic texture, 51
 Index 295

Honegger, Arthur, 195, 197, 208, 212, 220-221, 232 Instrumental music
Hook, James, 240 in Ars Antiqua, 32
Hopkins, John, 61 in Avant-Garde, 211-212
Hom, 107, 130 in Baroque, 104-115
Hot jazz, 253 classical, 130
Hovhaness, Alan, 187, 211, 217 in the Middle Ages, 41-42
Howard, Joseph E., 246 in Renaissance, 67-72
Howe, Julia Ward, 244 Intermezzi, 91
Huber, Klaus, 232 Inversion, 53-54
Huguenot movement, 60 Ioannidis, Yannis, 230
Humanism, 49-50 Ionian mode, 20, 24
Humfrey, Pelham, 101 Ippolitov-Ivanov, Mikhail, 219
Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, 163, 172 Irish melodies, 240
Humperdinck, Englebert, 151,172 Tron Maiden, 265
Hungary, composers in, 225-226 Isaac, Heinrich, 54, 55, 64
Hunter, Alberta, 252 Isorhythmic motet, 38, 52
Husa, Karel, 208, 218, 229 ; Istituzioni harmoniche, Le, 65
Hutchinson Family Singers, 241 Italy
Hydraulus, 10 comic opera in, 136
Hymns, 18 composers in, 113, 223-224
Hypoaeolian mode, 20 composers of, 172
Hypodorian mode, 19 madrigal in, 62
Hypoionian mode, 20 opera in, 92-94
Hypolydian mode, 19 Renaissance instrumental music in, 71
Hypomixolydian mode, 19 Romantic opera in, 147-149
Hypophrygian mode, 19 secular music in, 62-63
solo song in, 97
Ah oohopgeee tae eae Ives, Charles, 189, 193, 195, 196, 207, 209, 214, 216

Ibert, Jacques, 187, 212, 221 J

Ichiyangi, Toshi, 231
II trionfo di Dori, 62 Jackson, Michael, 213, 266
Imbrie, Andrew, 217 Jagger, Mick, 262
Imitation Janatek, LeoS, 153, 174, 186-187, 228
in Ars Antiqua, 31 Janequin, Clément, 63
in Baroque instrumentalism, 108 Japan, composers in, 230-231
Imitation mass, 57 Jazz, 247, 250
Imitative forms, in Renaissance components of, 250-252
instrumental music, 70 stylistic periods of, 252-256
Impressionism, 187 time line in, 236
style in, 187-188 Jazz rock, 256
Improvisation Jefferson Airplane, 263
in antiquity, 8 Jeney, Zoltan, 226
in Baroque music, 105, 110-111 Jenkins, John, 115
in jazz, 250-251 Jeu-parti, 25
in Renaissance music, 70, 203-204 Jimenez, Miguel, 231
in 20th century music, 203-204 Johanson, Sven-Eric, 232
Incidental music, in England, 95 Johansson, Bengt, 229
Incipit, 34 Johnson, Frank, 252
Indeterminacy, 199-200 Johnston, Ben, 195, 218
d’Indy, Vincent, 150, 165, 168, 173 Joio, Norman Dello, 208, 217
Ingegneri, Marc Antonio, 59 Jolivet, André, 212, 221
Instrumental idiom, in Baroque music, 104 Jommelli, Niccold, 135
296 Index
a

Joms, Joaquin, 226 Koven, Reginald de, 248

Jongen, Joseph, 227 Kraftwerk, 264
Jongleurs, 24 Krenek, Emst, 199, 209, 218, 222
Joplin, Janis, 263 Kretzschmar, Hermann, 145
Joplin, Scott, 252 Krieger, Adam, 97
Judenkiinig, Hans, 71 Krieger, Armando, 227
Krieger, Johann Philipp, 114
Krotola, 10
K Krummhom, 68
Kabalevsky, Dmitri, 219 Kuhnau, Johann, 101, 112, 114
Kabelaé, Miloslav, 229 Kupkovi¢, Ladislav, 229
Kadosa, Pal, 226 Kuri-Aldana, Mario, 231
Kaempfert, Bert, 260 Kurtag, Gydérgy, 226
Kagel, Mauricio, 200, 212, 213, 227
Kalkbrenner, Friedrich, 163, 172
L
Kalomiris, Manolis, 230
Kasemets, Udo, 228 Laderman, Ezra, 218
Kay, Ulysses, 217 Lalande, Michel Richard de, 100
Keiser, Reinhard, 96, 98 Lalo, Edouard, 150, 173
Kelley, Edgar Stillman, 176, 214, 216 Lambelet, George, 230
Kelterbom, Rudolf, 232 Landi, Stefano, 92
Kerll, Johann, 100 Landini, Francesco, 40
Kem, Jerome, 246, 248 Landini cadence, 37, 51
Kettledrums, 42 Landler, 161
Keyboard instruments Lang, Istvaan, 226
in Classical music, 133 Lansky, Paul, 203, 218
in Baroque period, 106-107 Lanza, Alcides, 227
in Middle Ages, 41-42 Larsson, Lars-Erik, 232
in Renaissance, 68-69 Laserna, Blas, 136
in Romantic period, 160-163 Las Huelgas Codex, 36
Keyboard sonatas, 112 Lassus, Orlande de, 59, 62, 63, 64
Khatchaturian, Aram, 210, 219 Latin secular songs, 27
Khrtennikov, Tikhon, 220 Lauda, 27
Kiesewetter, Raphael Georg, 145 Laude, 58
Kilpinen, Krj6, 229 Lauds, 21
King, B. B., 252 Lawes, Henry, 95, 115
King, Carole, 263 Lawes, William, 98, 115
Kingston Trio, 261 Lebégue, Nicolas, 114
Kinks, 262 Leclair, Jean-Marie, 115
Kirchner, Leon, 207, 217 Led Zeppelin, 265
Kiss, 213, 265 Leeuw, Ton de, 230
Kithara, 9, 10 Legrenzi, Giovanni, 93, 98
Kittredge, Walter, 244 Leitmotifs, 152
Klebe, Giselher, 223 Le Jeune, Claude, 61, 63
Kleber, Leonhard, 71 Lennon, John, 262
Knowles, Alison, 218 Lentz, Daniel, 218
Kodaly, Zoltan, 226 Leo, Leonardo, 102
Koechlin, Charles, 221 Leoncavallo, Ruggiero, 149, 172, 186
Kokkonen, Joonas, 229 Léonin, 35, 36
Kolb, Barbara, 187, 217 Les Six, 220
Kolman, Petr, 229 Lewis, Jerry Lee, 259
Kool and the Gang, 266 Libretto, 92
Kotter, Hans, 71 Liebermann, Rolf, 232
 Index 297

Lieder, 54, 155 Main theme, 128

Liederbiicher, 55 Maleingreau, Paul de, 227
Lieder ohne Worte, 162 Malipiero, Francesco, 224
Liege, Jacques de, 39 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 155
Ligatures, 75 Mamangakis, Nikos, 230
Ligeti, Gyérgy, 187, 222, 226 Mannered notation, 80
Lindberg, Oskar, 232 Mannheim school, 122
Liszt, Franz, 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, Marais, Marin, 115
171 Marcabru of Gascony, 26
Little Richard, 260 Marcello, Benedetto, 134-135
Liturgical music, 99 Marchand, Louis, 114
Locke, Matthew, 95, 115 Marchetto, 40
Loeffler, Charles, 176, 188, 214, 216 Marenzio, Luca, 62
Loesser, Arthur, 249 Marley, Bob, and the Wailers, 265
Loewe, Karl, 157, 172 Marot, Clément, 60
Logothetis, Anestis, 230 Marschner, Heinrich, 151, 172
Lombardo, Guy, 247 4 Martin, Frank, 232
Long, 75 Martintek, Dusan, 229
Lortzing, Albert, 151, 172 Martino, Donald, 207, 218
Lotti, Antonio, 102 Martinot, Ondes, 212
Loure, 109 Martinu, Bohuslav, 229
Lucier, Alvin, 218 Martirano, Salvatore, 202, 209, 213, 218
Ludwig, Friedrich, 145 Mascagni, Pietro, 149, 172, 186
Luening, Otto, 201, 203, 218 Maschera, Florentio, 71
Lully, Jean Baptiste, 94, 100, 115 Mason, Daniel Gregory, 214, 216
Lunetta, Stanley, 218 Mason, Lowell, 176
Lute Masque, in England, 95
in Baroque, 107 Mass, 21, 52, 99, 137
in Middle Ages, 41 cantus firmus, 52, 54
* in Renaissance, 68 cyclical, 54
Lute ayre, 63-64 imitation, 57
Lute tablature, 83 parody, 57
Lutosawski, Witold, 231 prolation, 54
Lutyens, Elisabeth, 225 requiem, 21
Lydian mode, 19 Massé, Victor, 149, 173
Lyre, 10 Massenet, Jules, 150, 173
Lyric opera, in France, 150 Mass prolation in 15th Century, 54
Matins, 21
Matsudaira, Yori-Aki, 230
M Matsudaira, Yoritsune, 230, 231
MacDowell, Edward, 163, 176, 187, 214, 216 Matsushita, Shin-elchi, 230
Machaut, Guillaume de, 38 Matthews, Max, 202, 218
Macque, Giovanni de, 71 Mauduit, Jacques, 63
Maderna, Bruno, 199, 224 Mayr, Johann Simon, 148, 172
Madonna, 266 Mayuzumi, Toshiro, 230
Madrigal, 39, 63 Mazurka, 161
English, 63-64 . McCartney, Paul, 262
Italian, 62 McLaughlin, John, 256
Madrigal comedies, 62, 91 McLean, Barton, 213, 218
Madrigalisms, 62 McPhee, Colin, 187, 228
Madrigali spirituali, 62 Meantone intonation, 105
Magnus Liber Organi, 36 Media, 2
Mahler, Gustav, 152, 157, 164, 167, 172, 186, 187 in Avant-Garde music, 211-213
 298 =Index

Media (cont'd) Minim, 80

in 20th century, 206-214 Minimalism, 204, 264
Méhul, Etienne-Nicolas, 135 Minnelied, 26
Meissen, Heinrich von, 26 Minnesingers, 26
Meistergesang, 26 Minstrel show, 242, 244-245, 249
Melismatic, 21 Minuet, 109
Melismatic organum, 29 Minuet and trio, 128-129
Mellencamp, John Cougar, 264 Mison, Luis, 136
Melodic progression, 51 Mitchell, Joni, 263
Melody Mixolydian mode, 19, 195
in art song, 154 Modal notation, 75-78
in 20th century music, 194, 195 Mode
Mendelssohn, Felix, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, 165, 166, Aeolian, 20, 24
169 in Ars Antiqua, 32
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, 171 in Ars Nova, 80
Mendes, Gilberto, 228 authentic, 19
Mennin, Peter, 217 Dorian, 19
Menotti, Gian Carlo, 208, 209, 210, 217, 224 Hypoaeolian, 20
Mensural notation, 78-83 Hypodorian, 19
Mensuration canons, 54 Hypoionian, 20
Menuetto, 128 Hypolydian, 19
Mercure, Pierre, 228 Hypomixolydian, 19
Merikanto, Aare, 229 Hypophrygian, 19
Merulo, Claudio, 71 Ionian, 20, 24
Messiaen, Olivier, 199, 207, 209, 212, 221 Lydian, 19
Mesuration signs, 80-81 Mixolydian, 19, 195
Metastasian opera, 134 Phrygian, 19
Metastasio, Pietro, 134 plagal, 19
Meter thythmic, 10
in Ars Antiqua, 31 in 20th century music, 195
in 20th century music, 192-194 whole-tone, 188, 195
Metheny, Pat, 256 Modified strophic form, 155
Mexico, composers in, 231 Modulation in 19th century music, 144
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 150, 173 Moliére, 94
Miaskovsky, Nicolai, 219 Moncayo, Pablo, 231
Middle Ages Music Moniuszko, Stanislaw, 175
Ars Antiqua in, 31-36 Monk, Meredith, 204, 211, 218
Ars Nova in, 37-39 Monk, Thelonious, 255
dance forms of, 42-43 Monn, Georg Matthias, 122
Gregorian chants in, 18-23 Monody, 92
historical context of, 17 Monophony, in antiquity, 8
instruments of, 41-42 Monsigny, Pierre-Alexandre, 136
secular songs in, 24-27 Monspellier Codex, 36
timeline of, 15-16 Monte, Philippe de, 59, 62
Trecento in, 39-40 Monteverdi, Claudio, 63, 89, 92, 93, 97, 100
Mignone, Francisco, 228 Moore, Douglas, 209, 210, 217
Milan, Luis de, 65, 71, 111 Moore, Thomas, 240
Milhaud, Darius, 187, 197, 207-210, 212, 220, 221 Morales, Cristébal, 59
Miller, Glenn, 247 Moran, Robert, 213, 218
Miller, Mitch, 260 Moricke, Eduard, 155
Milner, Anthony, 225 Morillo, Roberto, 227
Milton, John, 95 Morley, Thomas, 64, 65
Mingus, Charles, 255 Morton, Jelly Roll, 253
 Index 299

Morungen, Heinrich von, 26 Neighboring tones, 57

Moten, Bennie, 247, 254 Nelson, Ricky, 260
Motet, 57, 99 Neo-bop, 255
Franconian, 34 Neoclassicism, 189
Franco-Flemish, 54 composers in, 189
isorhythmic, 38, 52 Gebrauchsmusik in, 189
Petronian, 34 Neri, Filippo, 102
Motown, 261 Nesle, Blondel de, 26
Mozarabic chant, 18 Neumatic, 21
Mozart, Leopold, 122 Neumatic notation, 19
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 122, 125, 130, 131-132, Neumeister, Erdmann, 100
136-138 Neumes, in neumatic notation, 73
Mudanza, 65 Neusiedler, Hans, 71
Muffat, Georg, 114 New Music Ensemble, 203
Muffat, Gottlieb, 122 New Orleans style, 253
Miiller, Wilhelm, 155 New Thing Jazz, 255
Mulligan, Gerry, 255 New Wave, 265
Multimetric music, in 20th century music, 193 Nicolai, Otto, 151, 172
Multiple Serialism, 198-199 Nielsen, Carl, 229
Mumma, Gordon, 212, 218 Nilsson, Bo, 232
Murs, Jehan des, 39 Nivers, Guillaume, 114
Musgrave, Thea, 210, 225 Nobre, Marlos, 228
Music Non, Luigi, 199
knowledge of, 183-184 Nondance movement, 110
powers of, 9 Nones, 21
Musica Elettronica Viva, 203 Nonharmonic music, in 20th century music,
Musica Enchiriadis, 30 196
Musica ficta, 20 Nonliturgical music, 58, 101-103
Musica getutscht, 65 Nonmetric music, in 20th century music,
Musical comedies, in 20th century, 210 193
Musical dissemination, 182 Nono, Luigi, 224
Musical notation. See Notation Nonperiodicity, 197
Musical scores, 2 Norway, composers of, 174
Musical style, 2 Notation, 3
Musical theater, 248-249 Ars Nova, 80-81
Musica reservata, 53 Avant-Garde, 190
Music drama, in Germany, 151-152 classical mensural, 81
Music education, in Romantic period, 145 diastematic, 73-74
Music literature, 12 franconian, 78-79
Musicology, 145, 183 Greek, 10
Musique concréte, 201 harpsichord, 84
Mussorgsky, Modest, 153, 157, 163, 165, 173, 264 keyboard and lute, 83-84
mannered, 80
mensural, 75-78
N modal, 75-78
Nachtanz, 69 neumatic, 19, 73-75
Nachtigall, Konrad, 26 plainsong, 73
Nakers, 42 in Renaissance, 73-84
Nancarrow, Conlon, 211, 218, 231 square, 75
Nanino, Giovanni, 59 staff, 75
Narvaez, Luys de, 71 Noturno, 132
Nationalism, and romanticism, 187 Novachord, 212
Neapolitan opera, 93, 134 Novelty rock, 260
300 ~=Index

O Organum (cont'd)
sources of, 30
Obbligato instrument, 132 Organum purum, 29
Oberlin College Conservatory, 145 Overture, 92
Oboe, 107, 124, 130, 163 French, 94
Obrecht, Jacob, 54
Ockeghem, Johannes, 54
P
Odes, 98
Odhecaton, 55 Pablo, Luis de, 226
Offenbach, Jacques, 150, 173 Pachelbel, Johann, 101, 114, 187
Old Hall Manuscript, 55 Paderewski, Ignace Jan, 161
Oliver, King, 253 Padovano, Annibale, 71
Oliveros, Pauline, 204, 218 Paganini, Niccolo, 166
ONCE Group, 212 Paik, Nam June, 200, 213, 218
Ono, Yoko, 213, 218 Paine, John Knowles, 145, 158, 176
Opera. See also Comic opera Paisiello, Giovanni, 136, 137
in England, 95 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 59, 103
in France, 94 Pallavicini, Carlo, 93
in Germany, 95-96 Palmgren, Selim, 188, 229
in Italy, 92-94 Panufnik, Andrej, 225, 232
Neopolitan, 134-137 Papa, Clemens non, 59
in 16th century, 91-92 Papineau-Couture, Jean, 228
in 20th century, 209-210 Paradies, Domenico, 133
Opera-ballets, 94 Parallelism, 188
Opera buffa, 96, 135, 136 Parallel organum, 28-29
Opéra comique, 96, 97, 135-136 Parker, Charlie, 255
Opera seria, 134-135 Parker, Horatio, 158, 176, 214, 216
Operetta, in 20th century, 210 Parlando, 136
Oratorio, 101—102, 137 Parlor songs, 242, 243
Oratorio Latino, 102 Parody mass, 57
Oratorio passion, 103 Parry, Charles, 175, 225
Oratorio volgare, 102
Parry, Hubert, 158
Orchestra, 92 Part, Arvo, 208, 220
in Baroque, 112-113 Partbooks, 83
classical, 129-130 Partch, Harry, 195, 204, 212, 218
genres in, 164-165
Partitas, 108, 109
instrumentation in, 163-164 Pasquini, Bernardo, 113
orchestration in, 164 Passacaglia, 108-109, 197
in 20th century, 206-207
Passamezzo, 69
romantic, 164, 165
Passepied, 110
Orff, Carl, 223
Passing tones, 57
Organ
Passion music, 102-103
in Baroque, 107 Pastourelle, 25
in Middle Ages, 41-42 Patriotic songs, 208, 244
in Renaissance, 68-69
Paulus, Stephen, 210, 217
in 20th century, 212
Paumann, Conrad, 71
Organ chorale prelude, 101
Pavane, 69
Organum
Paz, Juan Carlos, 227
free, 29
Peabody Conservatory, 145
melismatic, 29 Penderecki, Krzysztof, 195, 208, 210, 2 23 1=232
Notre Dame, 32
Penny ballad, 239-240
parallel, 28—29 Pentland, Barbara, 228
St. Martial, 32
Pepusch, John, 96
 Index 301

Percussion instruments Polonaise, 110, 161

in Baroque music, 107 Polychoral writing, 99
in Middle Ages, 42 Polychords, 196
in Romantic period, 164 Polymetric music, in 20th century music, 193
Performance art, 204—205 Polyphonic Conductus, 33
Pergolesi, Giovanni, 96, 100 Polyphonic lied, 64
Peri, Jacopo, 92 Polyphonic passion, 103
Perkins, Carl, 259 Polyphony, 28, 103
Perle, George, 209, 218 in Ars Antiqua, 31
Pérotin, 35 organum, 28-29
Perrin, Abbé Pierre, 94 secular, 52
Persichetti, Vincent, 208, 217 Polyrhythms, 252-253
Peter, Paul and Mary, 261 Polytonality in 20th century music, 196-197
Petrassi, Goffredo, 224 Pomerian, 40
Petronian motet, 34 Ponce, Manuel, 231
Petrucci, Ottaviano dei, 55 Poot, Marcel, 227
Petty, Tom, 264 Popular music, 238, 239
Pezel, Johann, 112 dissemination of, 247-248
Pfitzner, Hans, 152, 172 early history of, 239-240
Phase music, 204 and musical theater, 248-249
Phasing, 204 of 19th century, 241-245
Phrygian mode, 19 time line in, 235-236
Piano music Tin Pan Alley, 245-248
in Baroque period, 106-107 Porpora, Nicola, 93
in classical music, 132, 133 Porter, Cole, 246, 249
in Dixieland jazz, 253 Porter, Quincy, 207, 217
in Romantic period, 155, 160 Positive organs, 68
in 20th century, 209, 211-212 Poulenc, Francis, 208, 209, 210, 221
Piccini, Niccold, 135, 136 Pousseur, Henri, 199, 203, 227
Piccolo, 163 Powell, Mel, 218
Picker, Tobias, 217 Power, Leonel, 52
Pijper, Willem, 230 Practica musicae, 65
Pilkington, Francis, 64, 72 Praetorius, Michael, 60, 101
Pink Floyd, 213, 262 Preclassical period, 121-122
Pinkham, Daniel, 207, 217 Prelude, 70, 110
Piston, Walter, 207, 208, 211, 217 Presley, Elvis, 259, 260
Pizzetti, Ildebrando, 224 Pretenders, 265
Plagal modes, 19 Prime, 21
Plainchant, 18 Prince, 266
Plainchant theory, 19 Process music, 204
Plaine and Easie Introduction of Practicall Musicke, 65 Programmatic symphonies, 130
Plainsong, 18 Program music, 124
notation, 73 Prokofiev, Sergei, 189, 197, 206, 207, 219
Plainsong passion, 103 Prolation, 80
Planh, 25 Prolation mass, 54
Plato, 11 Protestant music, 100-101
Plucked instruments Provenzale, Francesco, 93
in Middle Ages, 41 Psalm singing, 61
in Renaissance, 68 Psalmodic, 21
Pointillism, 197 Psalter music, 60-61
Poland, composers in, 175, 231-232 Psaltery, 41
Police, 265 Psouyopoulos, George, 230
Polka, 161 Psychedelic rock, 263
302 Index

Ptolemy, 11 Release, 246

Public Enemy, 266 Religious music
Puccini, Giacomo, 149, 172, 186 in Baroque period, 103
Punk music, 265 in Classical period, 137-138
Purcell, Henry, 95, 98, 101, 115 in Romantic period, 158
Puschmann, Adam, 26 Renaissance, 47-48
Pythagoras, 10 Burgundias School, 51-53
English School in, 51-53
Franco-Flemish in, 53-54
Q historical content, 49-50
Quantz, Johann, 122 instruments of, 68-69
Quartal harmony, 195 instrumental music in, 71-72
Quintanar, Hector, 231 Reformation in, 60-61
Quodlibet, 64 Roman Catholic music in, 56-59
secular music in, 61-65
timeline of, 47-49
R Requiem Mass, 21
Rabaud, Henri, 221 Respighi, Ottorino, 188, 223
Rabe, Folke, 200, 232 Responsorial style, 11
Rachmaninoff, Sergei, 157, 161, 163, 165, 168, 174, Retrograde motion, 54
186 Reuental, Neidhart von, 26
Ragtime music, 252 Reusner, Esaias, 113
Rainey, “Ma”, 252 Revue, 249
Raison, André, 114 Revueltas, Silvestre, 231
Rameau, Jean Philippe, 94, 98, 114, 115, 121 Reynolds, Roger, 204, 209, 212, 218
Ramones, 265 Riigen, Wizlav von, 26
Randall, J. K., 202, 218 Rhythm, in 20th century music, 192-194
Rap, 266 Rhythm and blues, 258
Rathaus, Karol, 231 Rhythmic modes, 10
Rauschenberg, Robert, 212 Ricercare, 70, 108
Ravel, Maurice, 188, 193, 209, 210, 220 Richter, Franz Xaver, 122
Rawsthorne, Alan, 225 Riegger, Wallingford, 199, 209, 218
R & B, 262 Riemann, Hugo, 145
Real time, 202 Riffs, 251
Rebec, 41 Rigaudon, 110
Recapitulation, in sonata form, 128 Rigid da capo, 135
Recitative, 92 Riley, Terry, 204, 218
Recitativo accompagnato, 93 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nicholas, 153, 164, 165, 174
Recitativo secco, 93 Rinuccini, 92
Recitativo strumento, 93 Ripresa, 40
Recorders, 41, 68, 107 Riquier, Guiraut, 26
Recordings, 247 Risorgimento movement, 148-149
Redding, Otis, 263 Risset, Jean-Claude, 203, 221
Redford, John, 72 Ritornelli, 92
Reformation music, 60 Ritornello section, 39
Refrains, 25 Roach, Max, 255
Regals, 68 Robertsbridge Codex, 42, 83
Reger, Max, 163, 172 Rochberg, George, 187, 209, 217
Reggae music, 265 Rock, 257, 264
Register, 31 1958-1964, 260-261
Reich, Steve, 204, 218 1964-1972, 261-263
Reiner, Karel, 229 early years of, 257-260
Reinken, Jan, 113 since 1972, 264-266
Rock (cont'd) Rondeau, 25, 38, 52
time line in, 236-237 Rondellus, 35
Rockabilly, 259 Root, George F., 244
Rock and Roll, 259-260 Ropartz, Joseph Guy, 221
Rococo style, in preclassical period, 121 Rore, Cipriano de, 62
Rodgers, Jimmie, 258 Rorem, Ned, 208, 209, 217
Rodgers, Richard, 247, 249 Rosenmiiller, Johann, 114
Rodrigo, Joaquin, 226 Rossi, Luigi, 92, 98
Roger-Ducasse, Jean, 221 Rossini, Gioachino, 148, 150 158, 172
Rolling Stones, 262 Rota, 35, 43
Roman Catholic music, 56 Rotta, 43
genres in, 57-58 Rotte, 43
liturgy in, 21 Round, 35
Gregorian chants in, 18-23 Rounded binary, 128
mass in 16th century, 57-58 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 96
motet in 16th century, 57-58 Roussel, Albert, 221
musical characteristics of, 56-57 Rubbra, Edmund, 225
schools and composers, 58-59 Rubinstein, Anton, 161, 163, 174
Roman de Fauvel, 39 Rue, Pierre de la, 54
Roman music, 11 Ruggles, Carl, 217
Roman opera, 92 Run-DMC, 266
Roman School, composers of, 59 Russell, Henry, 241
Romanticism, 186-187 Russia
Romantic opera, in Germany, 151 art song in, 157
Romantic period composers of, 173-174,
art song in, 154-157 219-220
cantata in, 157-158 nationalist opera in, 153
chamber music in, 168-170 Rzewski, Frederic, 209, 218
composers in, 161-162
dynamics in, 144
form of, 144-145
S
harmony in, 144 Sacchini, Antonio, 135
historical context of, 145-146 Sachs, Hans, 26
instrumental music in, 160-170 Saint Alexis, 92
instrumentation in, 163-164 St. Gall, 22
introduction to, 141-142 St. Martial, 30
keyboard music in, 160-163 St. Martial organum, 29, 32
melody in, 144 Saint-Saéns, Camille, 150, 165, 168, 173, 186
musical characteristics of, 143-144 St. Thomas Aquinas, 22
music education in, 145 Saltarello, 43, 69
musicology, 145 Sammartini, Giovanni Battista, 122
opera in, 147-153 Sampling, 202
oratorio in, 157-158 Santiago di Compostela, 30
organ music in, 163 Santoro, Claudio, 228
performers in, 161 Sarabande, 109
piano in, 160 Sarti, Giuseppe, 135, 137
religious choral music in, 158 Sartorio, Antonio, 93
secular choral music in, 158-159 Sary, Lazl6, 226
texture in, 144 Satie, Erik, 189, 195, 204, 220, 264
timeline for, 141-142 Sauguet, Henri, 221
tonality in, 144 Scarlatti, Alessandro, 93, 96, 98, 100, 102, 122
vocal music in, 154-159 Scarlatti, Domenico, 122
Ronde, 69 Scat-singing, 253
304 =Index

Scena, 147 Sermisy, Claudin de, 63

Schaeffer, Pierre, 201, 221 Service, 61
Schafer, R. Murray, 228 Sessions, Roger, 217
Schaffer, Boguslaw, 213, 231 Sex Pistols, 265
Scheidt, Samuel, 101, 113 Sext, 21
Schein, Johann, 101, 114 Shapero, Harold, 217
Scherzo, 129 Shapey, Ralph, 218
Schiller, Johann, 155 Shaw, Artie, 247, 254
Schlick, Amold, 71 Shawm, 41, 68
Schmelzer, Johann, 100 Shifrin, Seymour, 217
Schmitt, Florent, 221 Shostakovich, Dmitri, 207, 209, 219
Schnebel, Dieter, 223 Sibelius, Jean, 165, 168, 174, 186
Schobert, Johann, 122 Siciliana, 93
Schoenberg, Amold, 188, 198, 207, 208, 209, 222 Siegmeister, Elie, 217
Scholia Enchiriadis, 30 Silvestrov, Valentin, 220
Scholze, Johann, 97 Simon, Paul, 264
School, 3 Simon and Garfunkel, 263
Schreker, Franz, 222 Sinatra, Frank, 248
Schubert, Franz, 154, 156, 158, 161, 166, 169 Sinfonia, 93, 129
Schuller, Gunther, 204, 210, 218, 256 Singspiel, 95, 97, 135, 136
Schuman, William, 211, 217 Sirventes, 25
Schumann, Clara Wieck, 161 Sixteenth century
Schumann, Robert, 151, 156, 157, 159, 162, 166, 169, Reformation music in, 60-61
171 Roman Catholic music in, 56-60
Schiitz, Heinrich, 95, 101, 103 secular music in, 61-65
Sciarrino, Salvatore, 224 treatises of, 65
Scops, 27 Skalkottas, Nikos, 230
Scordatura, 114 Slonimsky, Sergei, 220
Scratching, 266 Smetana, Bedrich, 153, 165, 167, 174
Scriabin, Alexander, 188, 195, 219 Smith, Bessie, 252
Searle, Humphrey, 225 Soft rock, 263
Sebastian Virdung, 65 Soggetto cavato, 54
Secco recitatives, 135 Soldiering songs, 243
Secondary dominance, 245 Solo concerto, 112-113
Second movement Solo sonatas, 111
of classical concerto, 131 Solo song, 97-98
in sonata cycle, 128 Sonata
Second theme, 128 in Baroque period, 111-112
Secular music, in Romantic period, 161
in 15th century, 52, 54 Sonata Cycle, 127-129
in Renaissance, 61-65 Sonata da camera, 112
in Romantic period, 158-159 Sonata da chiesa, 111
in Middle Ages, 24-25 Sonata form, 127
Secular polyphony, 52 Sonata principle, 127
Seiber, Matyas, 225 Sonatine, 128
Semibreve, 75, 80 Sondheim, Stephen, 249
Semiminim, 80 Song cycle of art song, 155
Senfl, Ludwig, 59, 64 Sonic Arts Group, 203
Sequence, 22 Sonneck, Oscar, 145
in Baroque music, 105 Soul, 263
Serenade, 132 Sousa, John Philip, 208, 217
Serialism, 198 Southem rock, 265
Serly, Tibor, 226 Soviet Union. See Russia
 Index 305

Spain Surf rock, 261

comic opera in, 136 Surinach, Carlos, 226
composers in, 59, 65, 115, 175, 226 Suspensions, 57
Renaissance music in, 71 Sutermeister, Heinrich, 232
secular music in, 64-65 Sweden, composers in, 232
Speculum Musicae, 39 Sweelinck, Jan Pieterzoon, 61, 113
Spinacino, Francesco, 71 Swing, 250, 254
Split choirs, 59 Swing band, 247
Spohr, Ludwig, 151, 157, 172 Switzerland, composers in, 232
Spontini, Gasparo, 135 Syllabic, 21
Sprechgesang, 222 Symphonic band, 207
Sprechstimme, 222 Symphonic poem, 165
Springsteen, Bruce, 264 Symphonic suites, romantic, 165
Squarcialupi Codex, 40 Symphonic wind ensemble, 207
Square notation, 75 Symphony
Stadlmayr, Johann, 100 classical, 129-131
Staff notation, 75 romantic, 164
Stainer, John, 158, 175 Syrinx, 10
Stamitz, Johann, 122 Szymanowski, Karol, 231
Stanford, Charles, 175, 186, 225
Steffani, Agostino, 93 T
Sternhold, Thomas, 61
Stile rappresentativo, 92 Tablature, 68
Still, William Grant, 217 Tabor, 42
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 207, Tailleferre, Germaine, 221
209, 212, 213, 223 Takahaski, Yuji, 231
Stollen, 26 Takemitsu, Toru, 230
Stradella, Alessandro, 93, 98, 102, 113 Talea, 38
Stradivari, Antonio, 107 Talking Heads, 264
Strambotti, 62 Tallis, Thomas, 59, 61
Strauss, Christoph, 100 Tangerine Dream, 264
Strauss, Johann, 165, 172 Tansman, Alexander, 231
Strauss, Richard, 152, 157, 164, 165, 168, 172, 186, Tanz, 69
212 ; Tape music, 200-201
Stravinsky, Igor, 189, 193, 196, 207, 209, 210, 211, 219 Tartini, Giuseppe, 113, 122
Stride piano, 253 Tatum, Art, 255
String bass, 130 Tauriello, Antonio, 227
Stringed instruments Tausig, Carl, 161
in Baroque period, 107 Tavemer, John, 59
in Classical period, 130 Taylor, Cecil, 255
in Romantic period, 164 Taylor, James, 263
String quartet, 132, 169 Tchaikovsky, Peter Illich, 153, 157, 165, 167, 174, 210
Strophic form, 155 Tcherepnin, Nicholas, 219
Sturm und Drang, 121 Telemann, Georg Philipp, 97, 98, 101, 114, 121
Style in 20th century music, 194-195 Telharmonium, 212
Style galant, 121 Tempus imperfectum, 37
Subotnik, Morton, 202, 213, 218 Tempus perfectum, 31, 37
Suchon, Eugen, 229 Tenney, James, 202, 218
Suites, 109 Tenor, 29, 53
Suk, Josef, 229 Tenso, 25
Sullivan, Arthur, 153, 175 Terce, 21
Summer, Donna, 265 Terminorum Musicae Diffinitorium, 55
Superius, 53 Ternary, 128
306 Index

Terpander, 10 Triangle, 164

Tertial basis, 195 Trio, 92
Tetrachords, 10 Trio sonatas, 111
Text setting, 21 Triple meter, 51
Texture, in 20th century music, 197 Tristano, Lennie, 255
Thalberg, Sigismond, 163, 172 Triumphs of Oriana, 64
Theile, Johann, 95, 97 Tromba marina, 41
Theme, 128 Trombone, 107, 164
Thibaut IV of Navarre, 26 Trope, 22
Third movement Troubadours, 25-26
of classical concerto, 131 Trouveéres, 25
of sonata cycle, 128-129 Trumpet, 107, 130, 164
Third Stream, 256 Tuba, 164
Thirty-two bar form, 246 Tubb, Emest, 259
Thomas, Ambroise, 150, 173 Tucker, Henry, 244, 245
Thompson, Randall, 208, 217 Tudor, David, 212
Thomson, Virgil, 207, 208, 211; 214, 216 Tunder, Franz, 101, 113
Thoroughbass, 104 Tuning, in Baroque music, 105
Through-composed form, 155 Tuotilo, 22
Tilbury, John, 225 Turina, Joaquin, 226
Time, 80 Turner, Joe, 258
Time signatures in 20th century music, 193 Twelve-bar blues, 251-252
Timotheus, 10 Twelve-tone music, 198
Timpani, 107, 130 Twentieth century music,
Tinctoris, Johannes, 55 181-182
Tin Pan Alley art song in, 209
music in, 245-248 avant-garde in, 189-190,
songs in, 260 197-205
Tippett, Michael, 225 ballet and modem dance in,
Titelouze, Jean, 71, 114 210-211
Toccata, 110 chamber music in, 207
Toch, Ernst, 208, 217, 222 choral music in, 208-209
Todi, Jacopo da, 22 commercial aspects of, 183
Tomkins, Thomas, 115 concert band in, 207-208
Tonadilla, 136 dissemination of music in, 182
Tonality in 20th century music, 196-197 form in, 197
Tone clusters, 196 harmony in, 195-196
Tone poem, romantic, 165 historical context of, 184-187
Tone row, 198 impressionism in, 187-188
Torelli, Giuseppe, 113 knowledge of music in, 183-184
Total serialization, 199 media in, 206-214
Touveéres, 26 melody in, 194
Tower, Joan, 187, 217 meter and rhythm in, 192-194
Tower sonatas, 112 neoclassicism in, 189
Traetta, Tommaso, 135 opera in, 209-210
Tragedies-Lyriques, 94 orchestral music in, 206-207
Trecento, 37, 39 piano music in, 209
composers, 40 romanticism in, 186-187
documents and manuscripts, 40 style in, 194-195
forms of, 39-40 support of art music in, 182
scores and recordings, 40 texture in, 197
Tredici, David del, 187, 217 time line for, 179-181
Trent Codices, 55 tonality in, 196-197
 Index 307

Twist, 261 Vitali, Giovanni, 113

Tye, Christopher, 59, 61 Vitry, Philippe de, 39, 80
Tympanon, 10 Vivaldi, Antonio, 113
Vocal canzoni, 62
U Vocal chamber music, 97
Vogel, Wladimir, 232
U2, 264 Vogelweide, Walther von der, 26
United States, composers in, 176, 215-218 Voice pairing, 53
Ussachevsky, Vladimir, 201, 218 Volkonsky, Andrei, 220
Ut re mi fa sol la, 70 Von Tilzer, Harry, 246
Vox organalis, 28
V Vox principalis, 28
Vriend, Jan, 230
Valderrabano, Enriquez de, 71 Vuelta, 65
Valentini, Giovanni, 100
Vallee, Rudy, 248 ‘ Ww
Van Halen, 265
Varése, Edgard, 189, 195, 212, 217, 264 Wagenseil, Georg, 122
Variation Wagner, Peter, 145
in Baroque music, 105, 108-109 Wagner, Richard, 26, 151, 164, 172
in Renaissance music, 70 Walkabout, 242
in Romantic period, 161 Walkaround, 242
Varvoglis, Mario, 230 Waller, Fats, 253
Vasilenko, Sergei, 219 Walter, Johann, 60
Vaudeville, 96, 249 Walther, Johann Jacob, 114
Vecchi, Orfeo, 62 Walton, William, 208, 224-225
Venetian opera, 93 Waltz, 161
Venetian School, 59 — Ward, John, 64
Ventadom, Bernart de, 26 Ward, Robert, 210, 217
Verdelot, Philippe, 62 Warlock, Peter, 225
Verdi, Giuseppe, 148-149, 158, 172 Waters, Muddy, 258
Verismo opera, 149 Weather Report, 256
Verlaine, Paul, 155 Weavers, 261
Vernacular music, 4 Webber, Andrew Lloyd, 249
Verse, 69, 110 Weber, Carl Maria von, 151, 171
Verse anthem, 61 Weber, Anton, 188, 193, 197, 198, 208, 209, 222
Versets, 69 Weelkes, Thomas, 64
Vespers, 21 Weill, Kurt, 209, 223
Viadana, Lodovica da, 100, 112 Weinberger, Jaromir, 229
Vibraharp, 212 Weiner, Leo, 226
Victoria, Tomas Luis de, 59 Weinzweig, John, 228
Video, 266 Weisgall, Hugo, 217
Vielles, 41 Weiss, Adolph, 199, 217, 218
Vihuela, 65, 68, 107 Weiss, Leopold, 113
Villa-Lobos, Heitor, 207, 228 Wen-chung, Chou, 217
Villancico, 27, 64-65 Wert, Giaches de, 62
Villanella, 62 Wesley, Samuel, 175
Vinci, Leonardo, 93 Wesley, Samuel Sabastian, 175
Viola, 130 West Coast rock, 262-263
Violin, 107, 130, 132 Westendorf, Thomas P., 245
Viols, 68, 107 White, C. A., 244
Virelai, 25, 27, 38 White, Robert, 59
Virginia Minstrels, 242 White noise, 196
308 = Index

White’s Minstrels, 242 Woodwinds (cont'd)

Who, The, 262 in Romantic period, 163
Whole-tone mode, 188, 195 Work, Henry Clay, 245
Widor, Charles, 163, 173 Wuorinen, Charles, 202, 218
Wilbye, John, 64
Wildberger, Jacques, 232
Willaert, Adrian, 59, 62
Xx
Willan, Healey, 228 Xenakis, Yannis, 200, 202, 230
Williams, Alberto, 227 Xylophones, 164
Williams, Hank, 258
Williams, Ralph Vaughan, 207, 208, 224
Williamson, Malcolm, 225
Y
Willis, Chuck, 258 Youmans, Vincent, 247
Wills, Bob, 259 Young, La Monte, 204, 213, 218
Willson, Meredith, 249 Young, Lester, 255
Wilson, Olly, 218 Yuasa, Joji, 230
Winchester Troper, 30
Wind instruments
in the Baroque, 107
Z
in Classical period, 130 Zappa, Frank, 264
in Middle Ages, 41 Zarlino, Gioseffo, 65
in Renaissance, 68 Zarzuela, 97, 135
Wolf, Hugo, 156, 172 Zeljenka, Ilja, 229
Wolf, Johannes, 145 Zemlinsky, Alexander von, 222
Wolff, Christian, 200, 218 Ziani, Marc Antonio, 100
Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno, 224 Ziegfeld, Florenz, 249
Wolpe, Stefan, 199, 218 Zingarelli, Nicola, 137
Wonder, Stevie, 263, 265 Zumsteeg, Johann Rudolf,
Woodwinds 155-156, 172
in Classical period, 130
 § HARPERCOLLINS Features: Antiquity; The Middle Ages: Gregorian Chant,
m COLLEGE OUTLINE Secular Song, Early Polyphony, Ars Antiqua, The Fourteenth
——> — Century, Instruments and Dances; The Renaissance:
— The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Instrumental Music,
— Musical Notation; The Baroque: Opera and Vocal Chamber
ee
SS
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Music, Religious Music, Instrumental Music; The Classical Era:

— Instrumental Music, Opera, Religious Music; TheRomantic
Era: Instrumental Music, Opera, Vocal Music, Nineteenth
© Century Composers; The Twentieth Century: Trends in Music,
ee |

=
Musical Media, Specific Styles and Techniques, Composers;
Popular Music, Rock, Jazz, Composers and Performers.
Fo) Selected Bibliography and Fully Indexed, Chronology
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Pri
of History for Easy Reference.
od
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