IAEE A BULLE

IA BULLE TI
TINN
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
The IAEA’s flagship publication | April 2023 | www.iaea.org/bulletin

Nuclear Decommissioning

Robots, AI and 3D models: How high-tech breakthroughs help nuclear

decommissioning, pg 14
Decommissioning by design: How advanced reactors are designed with
disposal in mind, pg 16
How the circular economy is transforming nuclear decommissioning, pg 18
 IAEE A BULLE
IA BULLE TI
TINN
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
The IAEA’s flagship publication | April 2023 | www.iaea.org/bulletin

Nuclear Decommissioning

The International Atomic Energy Agency’s mission is to help

prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and to help all countries —
especially in the developing world — benefit from the peaceful,
safe and secure use of nuclear science and technology.

Robots, AI and 3D models: How high-tech breakthroughs help nuclear

decommissioning, pg 14
Established as an autonomous organization under the United
Nations in 1957, the IAEA is the only organization within the UN
Decommissioning by design: How advanced reactors are designed with
disposal in mind, pg 16
How the circular economy is transforming nuclear decommissioning, pg 18
system with expertise in nuclear technologies. The IAEA’s unique
specialist laboratories help transfer knowledge and expertise to
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Infographics: Adriana Vargas Terrones
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 Foreword

Meeting the challenges of decommissioning

By Rafael Mariano Grossi, Director General, IAEA

A s more countries embrace nuclear power

to improve energy security and mitigate
climate change, the challenge of successfully
recycled, while cost savings are being made
and timeframes condensed. Meanwhile,
new technologies such as data science,
decommissioning nuclear facilities is set artificial intelligence, robotics and drones are
to grow. A crucial factor in meeting that bringing greater effectiveness and safety to
challenge is to address it up front. decommissioning activities.

Today, 56 reactors are under construction The IAEA ensures lessons and innovations
worldwide, and many countries are putting from successful decommissioning projects are
into motion plans to expand their nuclear fleet shared, including through our International
or build their first nuclear power programme. Decommissioning Network. It also plays
a vital role ensuring safety, even under
When it comes to the end of life of a nuclear challenging circumstances. The Fukushima
reactor, forethought and innovation today Daiichi nuclear accident in 2011 required
play pivotal roles. New nuclear power plants, innovations, such as the use of cosmic-ray
including those with small modular reactors muon mapping to help locate the damaged
(SMRs), are being designed with their fuel and the building of a frozen subterranean
decommissioning in mind. In other words, wall to prevent groundwater seeping into “The IAEA ensures
designers are planning how their nuclear contaminated water inside the reactor lessons and innovations
power reactors will be dismantled even before buildings, as well as the use of robotics for from successful
construction begins. work in areas with limited access. These decommissioning projects
innovations helped boost effectiveness and
The IAEA has a unique global role in facil- efficiency while minimizing the danger are shared, including
itating the adoption of emerging nuclear to workers, the general public and the through our International
technologies, coupled with greater harmoniza- surrounding environment. Decommissioning
tion of regulations to enable safe and efficient Network. It also plays a
decommissioning when the time comes. Safety is crucial, but it is not the only
consideration. Safeguards are key to the vital role ensuring safety,
Almost half of the 423 nuclear power reactors decommissioning process. IAEA inspectors even under challenging
the world relies on today are expected to enter are on hand when spent fuel is moved or circumstances.”
the decommissioning process by 2050. Each disposed of to verify that materials used in
— Rafael Mariano Grossi,
one could take up to 20 years or more to fully nuclear plants are not diverted from
Director General, IAEA
decommission. peaceful use.

The IAEA assists countries in ensuring International cooperation and knowledge

that decommissioning work is carried sharing supported by the IAEA are vital
out within the appropriate technical and to meeting the growing global demand for
regulatory frameworks, by promoting safety nuclear decommissioning. It is important to
standards and good international practices get the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle right
through workshops, forums, missions and so that nuclear can play a full and sustainable
publications. role in addressing the world’s most pressing
challenges, from mitigating climate change
Decommissioning reflects a responsibility and air pollution to providing energy security
and commitment to a circular industrial and the nuclear medicine needed to fight
and nuclear cycle. More material is being cancer and heart disease.

(Photos: IAEA)

IAEA Bulletin, April 202 | 1

 Contents

1 Meeting the challenges of decommissioning

4 Nuclear decommissioning
Addressing the past and ensuring the future

8 Infographic: Decommissioning a nuclear power plant

10 Slovakia sets global example for nuclear power plant

decommissioning

12 Next generation tools enable faster, more effective

decommissioning of nuclear reactors after severe accidents

14 Robots, AI and 3D models

How high-tech breakthroughs help nuclear decommissioning

16 Decommissioning by design
How advanced reactors are designed with disposal in mind

18 How the circular economy is transforming nuclear

decommissioning

2 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Contents

20 Infographic: Management of radioactive waste from

decommissioning

24 Nuclear decommissioning market set to boom

26 Applying nuclear safeguards during decommissioning

28 Preparing 60 years in advance

The UAE’s first nuclear power plant and plans for decommissioning

30 Encouraging the next generation to pursue careers in

decommissioning

Q&A

32 Expert insights on decommissioning France’s spent fuel reprocessing facility

WORLD VIEW

34 A new business model for decommissioning nuclear power plants

IAEA UPDATES

36 IAEA News
40 Publications

IAEA Bulletin, April 202 | 3

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Nuclear decommissioning
Addressing the past and ensuring the future
By Patrick O’Sullivan

Timespan and budget

T he number of nuclear facilities that
require decommissioning is expected
to increase significantly over the next 10
The decommissioning of a large nuclear
facility is a complex undertaking which
to 20 years. There is no simple relationship usually requires a significant timespan
between the age of a facility and the timing and budget. For example, the cost of
of permanent shutdown, as multiple factors, decommissioning a nuclear power reactor,
including political and economic forces, can including the associated waste management
influence this decision. The timing may also costs, typically ranges from $500 million
depend on maintenance, refurbishment costs to $2 billion, with gas-cooled graphite
and electricity market conditions, among moderated reactors being significantly more
other things (see pages 8 and 9). However, expensive to decommission than pressurized
government policies are increasingly or boiling water reactors, owing to their
promoting strategies for immediate much greater size and complexity. The
dismantling in line with sustainability decommissioning process typically takes
principles, so that the burdens associated with around 15 to 20 years, although this can
decommissioning, such as the management of vary. The cost of decommissioning a large
waste, are not passed on to future generations. fuel cycle facility, such as a facility used to
The potential of sites to be reused for the reprocess spent fuel, is generally around $4
construction of new nuclear facilities or other billion, while the decommissioning of such
purposes is also an important consideration. facilities may take more than 30 years to

Start of Per
Operation Sh

PRE-OPERATION OPERATION

Pre-Sh
Design Build Commission Operate (30-60+ years)
(Acti

4 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

complete. A research reactor with a thermal However, the decommissioning of a

power output of 10 megawatts may cost significant number of facilities is funded
over $20 million to decommission and take either directly or indirectly from State
5 to 10 years to implement, although the resources. In these cases, the availability
cost depends on the reactor’s size, purpose or not of sufficient funding may delay such
and operational history. However, some implementation. A large, highly skilled
successful examples suggest that there is workforce will also be needed to implement
potential for a more time efficient and less future decommissioning programmes.
expensive decommissioning process. Encouraging young people to pursue careers
in decommissioning and radioactive waste
management is one of the most significant
Biggest challenges for the challenges currently facing the industry (see
decommissioning industry page 30).
The anticipated increase in the number of
nuclear facilities to be permanently shut
down between now and 2050 means that Recycling and reusing waste
significant resources — human, as well as material
financial — will be needed to implement the Decommissioning results in the generation
necessary decommissioning programmes, of large quantities of materials and waste,
some of which will run to the end of this most of which have not been radioactively
century. For commercial facilities, funds have contaminated. Efforts are being made
generally been set aside during operation to ensure that a large proportion of this
to cover the costs of decommissioning. non-contaminated waste, including metals,

rmanent
hutdown

DECOMMISSIONING
Inmediate Dismantling
hutdown
ivities) Post-Shutdown Decontamination, Dismantling, Termination of Authorization
Activities Demolition, Cleanup
(2-8 years) (10-20 years)

Deferred Dismantling

Post-Shutdown Decontamination, Dismantling,

Safe Enclosure
Activities Demolition, Cleanup
(20-50 years)
(2-8 years) (8-15 years)

TRANSITION

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 5

 Nuclear Decommissioning

concrete debris and soil, is recycled or reused, will be significant changes in project
in line with circular economy principles implementation in the near future, once
(see page 18). In some cases, rubble from such technologies are widely adopted and
demolition can be used to fill the spaces their cost-effectiveness has been proven.
that are created by the removal of structures Developments include the application of
below ground level. The greater use of metal digital techniques to support planning and to
recycling, including for reuse within the optimize project implementation; the greater
nuclear industry, is also being considered. use of remotely operated tools, including
drones and robotics, for the segmentation
A large proportion of the material that has of plant components, material handling,
been radioactively contaminated — which measurements and decontamination; the
typically represents about five per cent of the increased automation of waste management
total material generated by decommissioning activities; and the use of artificial intelligence
— contains very low levels of radioactivity (see page 12).
and is suitable for disposal in near surface
repositories. A small proportion of the The role of the supply chain is crucial in
radioactively contaminated material (less than ensuring that future projects are implemented
five per cent of the total material generated) as effectively and efficiently as possible.
is not suitable for release from regulatory There is already evidence of supply chain
control or for near surface disposal, owing organizations developing expertise to provide
to high levels of activity and the presence of a wider range of decommissioning services in
highly active or long-lived radionuclides; this fields such as research and development on
material will ultimately be safely disposed of new technologies, engineering, dismantling
in underground disposal facilities (see pages and radioactive waste management. A recent
20, 21, 22 and 23). development specific to nuclear power plant
decommissioning has been the emergence
of decommissioning consortia that bring
Meeting future needs together specialized companies in order
Given the extent of future decommissioning to implement entire decommissioning
needs and the potential for new and emerging projects within a fixed budget, by following
technologies to improve the efficiency of standardized approaches and assuming all
decommissioning, it is likely that there associated project risks (see pages 24).

What is nuclear decommissioning?

In the nuclear energy industry, ‘decommissioning’ is an umbrella term
given to all activities that enable nuclear facilities to be permanently shut
down, decontaminated, dismantled and released from regulatory control.
Decommissioning is not complete until radioactive and other hazardous
materials have been removed from the site, and the buildings and land
which were formerly used as nuclear facilities have been prepared for
new uses. The final step (of the decommissioning process) involves
extensive surveys to confirm the absence of any significant radioactivity
on the site, enabling its release from regulatory control.

6 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Global decommissioning in numbers

420+
Nuclear power
There are currently around 420 nuclear
power reactors in operation around the
world, a majority of which are approaching
reactors in operation the end of their original design lives.
around the world

1/2
Shut down by
Up to half of the current operating fleet
may be permanently shut down by 2050
and would therefore need to be
decommissioned.
2050

≈ 200 Retired
Over two hundred nuclear power reactors
have already been retired from service and
twenty one of these have been fully
decommissioned.
from service

222 353 Significant numbers of research reactors

currently in operation (222 in 53 countries)
and fuel cycle facilities (353 in 40 countries)
research reactors fuel cycle facilities
in 53 countries in 40 countries are also likely to be permanently shut down
over this timeframe.
likely to be permanently shut down

≈ 450Research
+ 150Fuel cycle
Around 450 research reactors have already
been fully decommissioned, as well as more
and than 150 fuel cycle facilities.
reactors facilities

have been fully decommissioned

Significant decommissioning experience has already been gained since the turn of the century,
particularly in countries that established their nuclear programmes in the middle of the 20th century,
such as France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United
States. Others, including Bulgaria, Canada, Lithuania, Slovakia, Spain and Ukraine also have expertise
in this field, while significant programmes may be expected over the next 30 years in Belgium, China,
India, Korea, Pakistan and Sweden.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 7

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Decommissioning a nuclear power plant

By Joanne Liou

D ecommissioning is the last stage of the lifecycle of a nuclear power plant. Planning for
decommissioning begins from the design stage of the plant to ensure that dismantling and
associated waste management can be safely and effectively implemented without negatively
impacting the environment, human health and society. Once a nuclear power plant is permanently
shut down, it transitions from a facility involving operational processes for electricity production
to activities associated with preparation and implementation of decommissioning, including
changes to the organization and to plant safety systems. When dismantling is deferred, the facility

PREPARATION DECONTAMINATION
AND DISMANTLING
The key to success in
decommissioning is to The radioactive components
carefully plan and consider all are decontaminated, reduced
aspects of the project, from in size by cutting and placed
the design stage, including in waste packages, or
funding, organizational removed from the facility for
transformation and regulatory further processing.
approvals.

POST-SHUTDOWN
Fuel is removed from the reactor core
and transferred to a spent fuel storage
facility. Safety and waste management
systems of the facility are adapted. The
decommissioning-related
characteristics of the facility and the
levels of radiation expected to be
encountered are determined.

8 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

is placed in a stable condition until dismantling occurs, while radioactivity levels naturally
decay. The time taken between the permanent shutdown of a nuclear power plant and the
completion of decommissioning, which can range from one to several decades depending on the
strategy adopted.

After decommissioning, the site is available for other social or economic purposes. The
decommissioning process comprises the following main activities:

CLEANUP AND
PREPARATION FOR REUSE
The site is prepared for
eventual reuse by
removing any
contaminated soil or other
materials for disposal.
Remaining holes in the
ground from the removal
of structures are filled.

FINAL SURVEY AND RELEASE

DEMOLITION FROM REGULATORY CONTROL
All buildings, structures and A detailed survey of the site provides
non-radioactive components are broken assurance to the regulator that
down into pieces, organized and agreed levels of cleanup have been
recycled to the greatest extent possible. achieved, allowing the site to be
Radioactive waste is separately treated released from regulatory control and
and sent for storage or disposal. reused for other purposes.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 9

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Slovakia sets global example for

nuclear power plant decommissioning
By Michael Amdi Madsen

W hen Slovakia joined the European

Union (EU) in 2004, it did so on an
important condition relating to nuclear safety:
However, there were challenges regarding
the containment building’s design, as it was
at greater risk of large pipe breaks compared
the country would need to shut down and to later buildings that were constructed using
decommission its V1 reactors at the Bohunice improved designs.
nuclear power plant. These were Soviet-era
reactors that were considered to no longer Olena Mykolaichuk, Director of the Division
“Throughout
meet the relevant nuclear safety standards of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology
decommissioning, JAVYS of the day. The Slovakian Government at the IAEA, has worked closely with experts
has turned to innovative made a commitment to decommission the from Slovakia’s State-owned Nuclear and
digital tools to ensure that reactors and, in the process, it set an example Decommissioning Company (JAVYS) as the
for others to follow on decommissioning a Bohunice V1 decommissioning project has
the process was safe and
nuclear power plant safely, efficiently and progressed. “Throughout decommissioning,
efficient. These tools are effectively. With support from the IAEA and JAVYS has turned to innovative digital
now being adopted by the European Commission, Slovakia is now tools to ensure that the process was safe and
decommissioning projects sharing what it has learned in order to benefit efficient. These tools are now being adopted
other countries. by decommissioning projects around the
around the world.”
world,” Mykolaichuk said.
­— Olena Mykolaichuk, Director, Slovakia generates a little more than half of
Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and its electricity from nuclear energy. The four The tools that were employed by JAVYS
Waste Technology, IAEA reactors at the Bohunice site have played a included virtual modelling and simulations.
large role in this. The Bohunice V1’s first Using simulations, engineers developed
unit, which started up in 1978, was the site’s procedures to extract the reactor vessel,
first pressurized water reactor using a water which was embedded in the concrete reactor
cooled, water moderated power reactor shaft, and then to move it and lower it into
(WWER) 440 V230 design. It was one of the pools of water where it could be safely cross
earliest versions of ‘water-water energetic sectioned using saws for further packaging
reactors’ developed by the Soviet Union. towards safe storage.

10 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Eva Hrasnova, a project manager at JAVYS, “In Bohunice we can effectively demonstrate
said that the project showed that mechanical technical progress and safety in physical
cutting tools, such as band and circular saws and radiological characterization,
used underwater, were safe and productive decontamination, dismantling, demolition and
ways to fragment the radioactive primary associated waste management,” said Pavol
circuit components of WWER-440 reactors. Štuller, Chief Executive Officer of JAVYS, at
She also said that the experience showed the Collaborating Centre’s signing ceremony,
that a combination of decontamination which was held in Vienna, Austria. “Our
methods — chemical, electrochemical and cooperation with the IAEA is centred on
ultrasonic, as well as mechanical methods implemented and planned work, and will be
such as blasting and grinding — proved to further enhanced as the Collaborating Centre
be crucial for the follow-up effective waste progresses over the coming years.”
management.
The partnership between the IAEA and
“The Bohunice V1 decommissioning JAVYS is already bearing fruit, and the
uncovered a host of practical insights for IAEA held the International Workshop on
decommissioners,” said Mykolaichuk. “From Lessons Learned from the Implementation of
determining ways to save space and money Decommissioning Projects for Water Cooled,
by reusing buildings for storage, to recycling Water Moderated Power Reactors in Trnava,
a high degree of steel, metals and concrete so Slovakia, in May 2022. At the workshop,
as to support circular economy principles.” experts from JAVYS shared the company’s
decommissioning insights with experts from
The decommissioning of Bohunice V1 is Armenia, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, the
ongoing and is expected to continue until Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Italy,
2027. With financial support from the EU Norway, Türkiye and Uzbekistan as well as
and the European Bank for Reconstruction representatives of EBRD and EC.
and Development, the project’s final bill is
expected to reach €1.239 billion. “Some of these countries currently operate
WWER reactors and are planning for
In recognition of the achievements made their decommissioning, while others are
by JAVYS in decommissioning Bohunice embarking on nuclear power programmes
V1, and in order to further strengthen the or building nuclear facilities and are already
implementation of similar projects around considering their long-term decommissioning
the world, the company was designated an requirements,” said Mykolaichuk. “We are A group scientific visit to Trnava
IAEA Collaborating Centre in March 2021. seeing the emergence of more responsible and the Bohunice nuclear power
Consequently, as a Collaborating Centre and forward-looking nuclear activities, station in Slovakia included
for nuclear facility decommissioning and where decommissioning and its challenges experts from Georgia, Greece,
radioactive waste management, JAVYS has are considered from the beginning. These Hungary, Lithuania, Russia,
been able to share its experiences with others, activities are strengthened by the lessons Slovenia and Ukraine.
in coordination with the IAEA. from the efforts by JAVYS at Bohunice V1.” (Photo: D. Calma/IAEA)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 11

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Next generation tools enable faster,

more effective decommissioning of
nuclear reactors after severe accidents
By Nayana Jayarajan

W ithin days of the most powerful

earthquake ever recorded in Japan, it
was apparent that Units 1-4 at the Fukushima
nuclear material in shipping containers.
Muon tracking devices detect and track
naturally occurring, high energy subatomic
Daiichi nuclear power station (NPS) would particles as they pass through materials, using
be shut down permanently. On 11 March changes in trajectory to determine material
2011, huge tsunami waves caused by the density. Nuclear materials such as uranium
earthquake broke through Japan’s coastal and plutonium are very dense and, therefore,
defences, including the perimeter of the relatively easy to identify using this technique.
NPS, causing extensive damage. Flooding
knocked out the emergency generators, Cosmic-ray muon mapping was deployed
causing nuclear fuel in three reactor units at the Fukushima Daiichi NPS to estimate
to overheat and partially melting the cores. the location and condition of fuel debris in
The NPS also experienced several hydrogen the reactor cores. In 2015, experts in Japan
“Remotely operated explosions which damaged buildings and led developed a modified technique that allowed
robots that carry radiation to the release of radioactive material. More debris as small as 30 centimetres in size
measurement/visualization than 150 000 people were evacuated from to be tracked. This technique was used to
the Fukushima prefecture and authorities set determine the status of the damaged fuel in
tools are a priority area of
up an exclusion zone. However, even once the Fukushima Daiichi Unit 1 reactor, an
research and development the immediate crisis following the tsunami essential precursor to decommissioning.
to help minimize the had largely been resolved, the challenges
radiation exposure to of decommissioning the heavily damaged This example is just one of many where
facility were just beginning. technological innovation has been used to
site workers, and to
solve the unique and unforeseen challenges of
systematically advance Decommissioning a nuclear facility after a post-accident decommissioning and recovery.
the decommissioning of severe accident is a complex endeavour and,
Fukushima Daiichi.” in comparison with decommissioning after “The consequences of an accident are always
a planned shutdown, often requires specific unpredictable, and existing organizational
— Kentaro Funaki, Executive
approaches, techniques and practices. This and technical infrastructure, and available
Director, Japan Atomic Energy
makes guaranteeing radiation safety while technologies, may not be suitable or
Agency.
carrying out all operations a major challenge. sufficient for post-accident needs. Often,
For instance, one of the most delicate jobs in when decommissioning damaged nuclear
the decommissioning of a damaged reactor is facilities, technological approaches and
the removal of spent and damaged fuel. associated equipment are developed on a
case-by-case basis,” said Vladimir Michal, a
In the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear decommissioning expert at the IAEA, who
accident, some nuclear fuel had melted and co-led a project to document and analyse
fallen to the lower containment sections the decommissioning and remediation of
of reactor units 1, 2 and 3. High levels of damaged nuclear facilities, ‘the International
radiation inside the containment buildings Project on Managing the Decommissioning
restricted worker access to the area close and Remediation of Damaged Nuclear
to the reactor. The operators faced a major Facilities’ or DAROD. “In many instances, as
challenge: how were they to remove the in the example of cosmic-ray muon mapping,
damaged fuel when they did not know its these technologies found wider application in
exact location? decommissioning, or even in other industries.”

Enter cosmic-ray muon mapping, a technique Another notable example is the construction
that was first deployed over six decades ago of a new safe confinement ‘shield’ over the
and that has been used since in applications Unit 4 reactor building of the Chornobyl
from mapping the insides of volcanoes and Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) in Ukraine
ancient Egyptian pyramids to detecting between 2016 and 2019. Constructed to

12 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

replace the temporary shelter built after

the 1986 disaster, it is the largest land-
based movable structure in the world and is
designed to last a century and to withstand
a severe tornado. The new confinement
structure was constructed some 180 metres
west of the damaged Unit 4. Its construction
and subsequent positioning involved the
use of state-of-the art civil engineering
techniques.

“The new safe confinement does more than

prevent the release of radioactive material: it
assists with future decommissioning,” said
Valeriy Seyda, the Acting General Director
of State Specialized Enterprise Chornobyl
NPP. The safe confinement structure is
designed to prevent the release of radioactive
contaminants, protect the internal structures
of the reactor and facilitate decommissioning.
For the latter purpose, the confinement
structure incorporates two state-of-the-art
remotely operated cranes. These hang
from just under the roof and are designed
to allow the eventual decommissioning of
Unit 4, while protecting workers and the
environment.

At the Fukushima Daiichi NPS, the well-

established engineering technique of
building a subterranean frozen soil wall development projects. “Extensive efforts are Decontamination robot deployed
was used to prevent groundwater from ongoing to visualize radioactive hotspots at Fukushima Daiichi to support
flowing into the site and mixing with the in three dimensions near Units 1 and 2 of decommissioning activities
already-contaminated water inside the Fukushima Daiichi. A great deal of success (Photo: The International Research Institute
for Nuclear Decommissioning (IRID), Japan)
reactor buildings. The 1500 metre wall was has been achieved by incorporating the
established by freezing the soil so that it results of national and international joint
became impermeable to groundwater, thus research, and these efforts will continue to be
reducing the overall amount of contaminated pursued in the future,” he said.
water requiring treatment.
The use of non-nuclear technologies
Advanced remote operation and in nuclear environments brings many
robotic technologies can now enable challenges, including significant development
decommissioning work to proceed in areas costs, particularly owing to the presence of
with high radiation levels. At the Fukushima radiation and uncertainty concerning the
Daiichi NPS, for example, robots are used precise conditions in which the equipment
for monitoring and measurement, to carry out will operate. However, advances in wiring
surveys, for decontamination and to prepare and other critical components, along with
for the removal of fuel debris. the development of radiation-resistant
equipment, make it possible to safely and
“Remotely operated robots that carry effectively apply robotic technologies in
radiation measurement/visualization tools are these challenging environments. In addition,
a priority area of research and development laser technologies enable the interiors in such
to help minimize the radiation exposure of environments, which are often inaccessible
site workers, and to systematically advance to humans, to be scanned, while protecting
the decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi,” the health and safety of workers. “These
said Kentaro Funaki, an Executive Director advances greatly enhance the possibility of
of the Japan Atomic Energy Agency. Funaki safely and effectively dismantling, even in
highlighted international joint projects very challenging situations, facilities that
as one of the key areas among a wide have suffered a severe nuclear accident,”
range of government-funded research and said Michal.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 13

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Robots, AI and 3D models

How high-tech breakthroughs help nuclear
decommissioning
By Jeffrey Donovan

R obots, drones, artificial intelligence (AI)

and other emerging digital technologies,
which are already helping to advance nuclear
“These technologies are used to train
workers, including in radiation visualization,
so that they have an understanding of the
decommissioning projects worldwide, are radiological conditions,” said István Szőke,
set to play an increasingly key role in the a research manager at IFE. “The core of
“The aim of the project is sector, as more and more countries choose to IFE’s expertise is integrating 3D digital
to harness the expertise immediately dismantle their retired nuclear models of nuclear assets with physics and
facilities. AI models, including real-time radiation
of a diverse range of physics models. This means that there is real
organizations involved To help get the job done efficiently and physics behind the radiation visualization,
in decommissioning to reduce risks, including financial and and radiation transport models can calculate,
fully realize the potential radiological ones, countries are turning to for instance, the radiation levels present in
high-tech tools such as virtual reality and the environment surrounding equipment to be
of new and emerging 3D simulation — a trend that looks set to dismantled, which is visualized for planning
technologies.” intensify in the coming years as several and training purposes.” This practice is now
— Olena Mykolaichuk, Head, ageing nuclear power plants and other nuclear becoming increasingly commonplace in
Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and facilities are phased into retirement. decommissioning programmes, including for
Waste Technology, IAEA power and research reactors, as well as for
“Whether it’s radiation-defying robots fuel cycle facility dismantling.
working at accident sites such as Fukushima
Daiichi in Japan, or 3D modelling used to More recently, IFE has supported
better plan dismantling at retired power international collaboration aiming to
plants, the nuclear decommissioning sector establish modular, integrated information
increasingly finds itself at the forefront of management systems for use throughout
technological innovation,” said Mikhail the entire decommissioning process. This
Chudakov, IAEA Deputy Director General involves building an integrated system based
and Head of the Department of Nuclear on 3D scanning and computer-aided design
Energy. “These technologies provide vital (CAD) or producing building information
insights for planning and implementing management (BIM) models incorporating 3D
projects, especially in situations which radiological and other data. Such a model or
could be risky for people, thereby helping to design manages all information, is integrated
ensure these jobs are carried out safely and with radiological physics models and other
effectively.” systems, and brings them all together into a
system that supports the principle of reducing
From across Europe to Asia and the the radiological risk to ‘as low as reasonably
Americas, examples of cutting edge tech achievable’ (ALARA).
being used to overcome unique challenges
and advance decommissioning projects Digital simulations and 3D modelling
abound. One organization at the forefront of have also been successfully used in
this trend is Norway’s Institute for Energy decommissioning projects in both Italy and
Technology (IFE), which in 2019 became Slovakia. Italy’s State decommissioning and
an IAEA Collaborating Centre focused on radioactive waste management company,
supporting IAEA activities and Member Sogin, has used 3D models and simulations
States in the digitalization of knowledge to help prepare for reactor dismantling and
management for nuclear decommissioning. for managing generated waste streams.
IFE has pioneered the use of virtual reality The Slovak Nuclear and Decommissioning
systems to support maintenance and Company (JAVYS) has employed 3D models
decommissioning in nuclear environments. and simulations in the dismantling of power
reactor components at the country’s Bohunice

14 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

A1 and V1 nuclear power plants. Like IFE, In 2022, the IAEA launched a global
Sogin and JAVYS share their knowledge initiative aimed at boosting the role of
and experience with the global nuclear new and emerging technologies in the
community as IAEA Collaborating Centres decommissioning of nuclear facilities. The
for decommissioning and radioactive waste initiative, a collaborative project among
management. organizations involved in the planning
or implementation of decommissioning
A related current trend involves the increased and associated research activities, aims
use of robotics. This can reduce the risk to to provide information on the new and
personnel by enabling them to work away emerging digital tools and technologies used
from the tools deployed to manipulate in data management, planning, licensing and
components, as well as improving efficiency, implementation of decommissioning.
as autonomous and remotely operated robots
are better able to access and work in hard-to- “The aim of the project is to harness the
reach areas. Mobile robots carrying sensors expertise of a diverse range of organizations
and 3D systems are increasingly used to scan involved in decommissioning to fully
facilities and collect data that can be used to realize the potential of new and emerging
build 3D models of the site. “One of the very technologies,” said Olena Mykolaichuk,
urgent objectives right now for the industry is Head of the IAEA’s Division of Nuclear
to work out how to use AI to turn 3D scans, Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology. The
which are now very easy to produce, into IAEA will publish the project findings in
intelligent BIM models,” Szőke said. “Allied a report in 2025, including information on “Dog robot”: Autonomous legged
to this is the development of ‘digital twins’ experiences gained from several countries, robot making radiation mapping
of facilities, which can be used to support with the aim of further supporting successful around Chernobyl Unit 4
the decommissioning of complex systems, decommissioning projects around the world. (Photo: Boston Dynamics, USA)
but also to organize knowledge of the facility
throughout its life cycle.”

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 15

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Decommissioning by design
How advanced reactors are designed with
disposal in mind
By Joanne Liou

P lanning for the end of life from the

outset might not be either particularly
appealing or a priority. However, when it
feasibility of decommissioning scenarios
and optimize the decommissioning of these
reactors,” Mrazova said.
comes to a nuclear facility’s life cycle, the
value in accounting for that end of life is
driving designers, vendors and regulatory Great expectations and
bodies to address decommissioning opportunities
upfront. This proactive approach, known The aims of decommissioning by
as decommissioning by design, draws on design are to better plan the sequence of
best practices and lessons learned from past decommissioning activities, to reduce
experience, and implements a ‘by design’ potential radiation exposure of workers,
“By taking into account concept that is also applied to nuclear and to reduce the amount of radioactive
safety, security and safeguards. When waste, thereby lessening the burden on
decommissioning in the
decommissioning is considered from the waste facilities and future generations.
design stage of a nuclear outset, facility developers can make design “Decommissioning by design does not
facility, it is possible to choices that will make decommissioning only involve physical design features, it
optimize its final phase safer, more efficient and more cost-effective. also includes how businesses are structured
to plan and conduct the decommissioning
— its decommissioning —
“By taking into account decommissioning activities,” said Marcel Devos, Director
which is mandatory in the in the design stage of a nuclear facility, it of Regulatory Affairs for Prodigy Clean
life cycle of a reactor.” is possible to optimize its final phase — its Energy, a developer of marine- and land-
— Helena Mrazova,
decommissioning — which is mandatory based transportable NPPs. Devos formerly
Decommissioning Technology in the life cycle of a reactor,” said Helena managed the Vendor Design Review (VDR)
Specialist, IAEA Mrazova, a Decommissioning Technology programme at the Canadian Nuclear Safety
Specialist at the IAEA. Early generations of Commission (CNSC). “Determining funding
nuclear power plants (NPPs) were designed mechanisms and establishing responsibilities
with a focus on short-term operational for decommissioning are essential to enable a
performance, with decommissioning as an successful end-of-life process,” he said.
afterthought. For example, the designs of
some graphite gas cooled reactors built in Although decommissioning by design has
France in the 1970s did not address how they not been universally adopted, Canada is one
would be dismantled, and this is now proving country that has taken steps towards this
difficult to implement. forward-looking practice. The CNSC’s review
for reactor vendors includes decommissioning
“We have facilities that are more than 60 by design, which applies lessons learned from
metres in height, 30 metres in diameter and experiences documented by the IAEA and the
with thick walls of more than 5 metres of Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation
concrete, housing tonnes of graphite in the for Economic Co-operation and Development.
reactor core. The dismantling of these reactors “Future owners and operators in Canada are
is very challenging, because they were increasingly expecting vendors to complete
simply not designed to be decommissioned. the VDR process and to have a clear plan
The French electricity utility company EDF to resolve gaps that have been identified.
(Électricité de France) has recently established Industry is recognizing that end-of-life
a Graphite Reactor Decommissioning considerations are a priority in the licensing
Demonstrator (which has also become an and environmental assessment processes,”
IAEA Collaborating Centre) to test, improve Devos said.
and optimize innovative tools and remote
handling technologies on full-scale mock-ups There is growing interest in small modular
and digital 3D models in order to verify the reactors (SMRs), which are a type of

16 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Many SMR reactors are designed

to be small enough to be
transported by truck or shipping
container.
(Photo: Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
US Department of Energy)

advanced nuclear reactor with a limited safety, and increase acceptance of SMR
power capacity — typically up to 300 deployment,” Mrazova said. “There is also
MW(e) per reactor. “Developers of the next potential for the standardization of some
generation of NPPs, including SMRs, have a decommissioning activities, such as the
tremendous opportunity to address, through decontamination or dismantling of primary
the design and deployment process, the equipment.” However, this approach leaves
social questions associated with the end of tasks outstanding, such as the development
life of a nuclear facility, while speeding up of specialized dismantling tools and remote
decommissioning and reducing waste burdens handling equipment.
on future generations,” Devos said.
Knowledge of the materials used, such as the
type of steel, and of the required standards for
Decommissioning for SMRs steel producers, including the need for very
There are more than 80 SMR designs and low levels of impurities in order to minimize
concepts in various stages of development activation, will positively impact the
around the world. With the portfolio of management of waste from decommissioning.
SMRs varying in size, materials and By practising decommissioning by design,
technology, decommissioning approaches impurity levels and the associated cost
for these advanced reactors will vary. “The impacts on dismantling at the end of life
decommissioning process will depend on could be limited when material composition
the facility’s design, its accessibility and is addressed carefully beforehand.
compactness, as well as a country’s spent fuel
and radioactive waste management plans and “The general rule for decommissioning
practices,” Mrazova said. nuclear facilities, including SMRs, is
to have a ‘decommissioning-friendly’
The modularity of SMRs and their various design, underscoring the value of the
deployment models could redefine early approach,” Mrazova said. “The
conventional decommissioning practices. distinguishing features of SMRs, such as
Some smaller SMRs, commonly referred their modular design and material selection,
to as microreactors, are designed to be should make the decommissioning process
factory-assembled and transported as a more efficient, less costly and reduce the
unit to a location for installation. At the daily dose rate of global workers involved in
end of life, the module would be returned decommissioning.”
to the factory of origin to be refuelled or
moved to a decommissioning facility. “This The IAEA is developing a publication
approach could reduce costs and the scope of focused on the design aspects of SMRs for
activities taking place in the locality of the decommissioning, which is expected to be
power plant, increase nuclear and radiation published in 2024.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 17

 Nuclear Decommissioning

How the circular economy is

transforming nuclear decommissioning
By Artem Vlasov

T he traditional linear economic model —

extracting materials, turning them into
manufactured goods and discarding them after
the added benefits of lowering the cost of
decommissioning and reducing the risk of
delays.
consumption — is often criticized for creating
a considerable amount of waste and pollution, “By applying the principles of a circular
as well as contributing to climate change and economy to decommissioning, we can
biodiversity loss. According to the United reduce the amount of radioactive and
Nations Environment Programme International non-radioactive waste to be disposed of
Resource Panel, the extraction and processing and, at the same time, reduce the amount of
of natural resources account for about half of raw material pulled out of the ground,” said
all global greenhouse gas emissions. Arne Larsson, radioactive waste technology
and decommissioning manager at Cyclife
A departure from this model, known as the Sweden. “Instead, we can reuse materials
circular economy, offers a way to reduce and equipment from existing installations,
waste and associated pollution. It is a model buildings and structures, and support making
of production and consumption that seeks the site available again for other useful
to effectively keep resources in use for as purposes.”
long as possible by reducing, reusing and
recycling them. Worldwide, more than 200 nuclear
power reactors have been shut down for
When nuclear facilities are being decommissioning, while it is expected that
decommissioned, the adoption of hundreds of reactors currently in operation
circular economy principles can provide will be shut down and decommissioned in the
The French city of Grenoble many benefits. Decommissioning is coming decades. Today’s nuclear facilities
used to be home to six nuclear a multidisciplinary process, typically are designed with decommissioning and
facilities. After successful lasting a decade or more, that involves waste management plans in place before
decommissioning, the site now the decontamination, dismantling and the first brick is laid. The designs of nuclear
serves as a centre for research demolition of nuclear facilities so that a site reactors constructed in the 1960s and 1970s,
and development in the field of can be released from regulatory control and by contrast, did not take circularity principles
renewable energy. reused. By recycling materials during this into account.
(Photo: Unsplash) process, less waste is generated. This has

18 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

However, even old facilities can be There are several examples of repurposed
effectively decommissioned by using nuclear sites, including nuclear power plants,
circularity principles: up to 90 per cent of the research reactors and other facilities used in
non-radioactive materials at a nuclear power medicine or industry. Nuclear power plant
plant, such as metals, concrete and even sites can be turned into waste processing
work clothing, can be reused or recycled. and storage facilities or research centres for
Only around three per cent of materials, training operating personnel. The sites can
mainly spent fuel, are highly radioactive and, become industrial parks and buildings can be
even then, more than 95 per cent of this fuel given new life through repurposing for other
can be reprocessed to make new fuel and conventional industries, attracting businesses
by-products. and creating new jobs.

“Adopting circular economy principles can In the French city of Grenoble, six nuclear
provide significant drivers for minimizing facilities, including three research reactors, “Adopting circular
waste, increasing efficiency and enhancing one laboratory and two radioactive waste
sustainability,” said Vladimir Michal, Acting storage facilities, were successfully economy principles can
Head of the IAEA’s Decommissioning decontaminated and dismantled in 2012. provide significant drivers
and Environmental Remediation Section. The site is now used as a research and for minimizing waste,
“Decommissioning of nuclear facilities development centre for green energy increasing efficiency and
generates noteworthy amounts of materials technology and renewable energy sources,
that can be recycled and reused for other focusing on electric vehicles, batteries and enhancing sustainability.”
purposes.” hydrogen. ­— Vladimir Michal, Acting
Head, Decommissioning and
The IAEA provides a space for countries, Environmental Remediation
From six nuclear facilities to a organizations and individuals to cooperate Section, IAEA
renewable energy centre and share knowledge and technology
Recycling is already widespread in in the field of decommissioning. The
decommissioning work. After dismantling, IAEA’s e-learning platform contains lectures
large metal components can be melted down on decommissioning, environmental
and turned into ‘new’ metal to be returned remediation, radioactive waste and spent fuel
to the economy. Equipment parts can be management.
reused in other operating nuclear facilities,
and materials from demolished buildings, The IAEA’s International Decommissioning
such as concrete, can be used as fill material Network (IDN) was set up in 2007 to provide
for site restoration or in other construction a forum enabling professionals involved in
projects, including for houses and roads. decommissioning to collaborate and interact.
For example, when the Australian research In addition, the IAEA supports capacity
reactor MOATA, located in Sydney, was building in Member States and facilitates
decommissioned in 2009, more than 85 per expert missions, peer review and advisory
cent of the materials were reused or recycled. services for decommissioning programmes
and other related activities, such as
Materials left over after decommissioning radioactive waste and spent fuel management.
that cannot be decontaminated and cleaned
up for reuse or recycling are disposed of as “The circular economy offers a promising
radioactive waste in repositories of different approach to adapting the industry to
types until it no longer presents a hazard to sustainability and circularity, reducing
humans or the environment (see page 22). the environmental impact and conserving
resources for future generations,” Michal
concluded.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 19

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Management of radioactive waste

from decommissioning
During decommissioning, radioactive
materials and objects contaminated with
radioactivity — from protective clothing
to parts of a reactor — are characterized
and sorted to ensure waste prevention and
waste minimization, reuse and recycling.

Radioactive materials and objects are subject

to regulatory control. However, most of the
material resulting from decommissioning is
cleared from regulatory control, owing
to its very low level of radioactivity.

Radioactive materials not suitable

for recycling are sorted and
packaged for temporary storage before
disposal in purpose-built facilities — the final
step in the management of radioactive waste.

The waste hierarchy

More
desirable 1 Waste prevention
2 Waste minimization
3 Reuse
4 Recycling
Less
desirable 5 Disposal

The waste hierarchy, a key element

in the implementation of sustainable
decommissioning and waste management,
A priority is to minimize sets the priority for managing waste. By taking
the generation of decommissioning into account during the
radioactive waste.
design phase of a nuclear facility, the creation
of waste is prevented and minimized.

20 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Amounts of waste from decommissioning

The range of waste resulting from

decommissioning varies widely in
Of the radioactive waste, terms of quantity and radioactivity.
About about 95% is very low level
About 5% of the material resulting
95% and low level waste.
of waste is from decommissioning a nuclear
not power plant is radioactive at levels
radioactive. that mean it must be managed as
About 5%
is intermediate level
radioactive waste (see classification
and high level waste. below).

To reduce the amount of

radioactive waste, facility
components are often
About 5%
is categorized as
decontaminated.
radioactive waste.

Classes and types of radioactive waste

The classification of radioactive waste may vary from country to country.

VLLW LLW ILW HLW

Very low level waste Low level waste Intermediate level waste High level waste
Concrete, soil, rubble... Personal protective equipment, Reactor primary circuit components, Spent fuel, spent fuel cladding
wipes, auxiliary systems for highly contaminated metals… hulls, vitrified waste from
decontaminating and dismantling reprocessing…
structures…

Suitable for disposal in deep

Suitable for disposal at
Suitable for disposal in near geological formations several
greater depths in geological
Suitable for disposal in near surface facilities; requires hundred metres below the
repositories; requires isolation
surface landfills. isolation and containment for surface; requires isolation and
and containment for several
up to several hundred years. containment for several
thousand years.
thousand years.

Disposal facilities for radioactive waste provide isolation and

containment based on multiple barriers and safety functions.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 21

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Reuse and recycling of materials cleared from regulatory control

1 Waste prevention
A significant volume of
2 Waste minimization material is reused or recycled
3 Reuse after decontamination
or melting.
4 Recycling
5 Disposal

Metal can be
decontaminated
and recycled,
e.g. for the
production of
steel.

Concrete debris and

rubble can be reused,
e.g. for road construction.

Disposal options based on the class of radioactive waste

HLW

ILW

LLW

VLLW

Ground
level

Near surface repositories

Geological
repositories

Increasing isolation and containment

22 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

How is radioactive waste safely managed?

There have been

With multiple layers of protection, several decades of
the public and the environment research, development
are safe from hazards and risks and demonstration of
arising from the use of ionizing the safe disposal of
radiation — including from radioactive waste.
radioactive waste.

In accordance with strict procedures,

Access is strictly controlled to the safety of radioactive waste
the sites where radioactive management is the prime responsibility
waste is managed. of the operator and is overseen by
independent regulators.

Regulatory authorization of waste

Radioactive waste is management facilities and activities is
managed by qualified and based on a safety case and detailed safety
experienced personnel. assessments.

How does the safe management of radioactive waste contribute to the

UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?

Eco
ity
Safe management of radioactive
il no
ab
waste, environmental releases,
m
in i decommissioning and
remediation protects life on land
c
a

and life below water.

st

su
su

sta

Safe management of radioactive

stainable us
Suar science and techne
ial

waste, environmental releases,

ina

cle olo decommissioning and

Soc

nu gy
bility

remediation contributes to
of

recycling and reuse of materials,

Safe use objects and sites.
including safe management
of radioactive
waste, spent fuel,
environmental releases,
Nuclear technologies are
decommisioning sustainable when safe
and remediation throughout their lifetime
including safe management of
radioactive waste,
environmental releases and
decommissioning.

Sustainable use of nuclear

technologies contributes directly
to nine SDGs.
En y
vir b i lit
onm a
e ntal s u stain

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 23

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Nuclear decommissioning market

set to boom
By Joanne Burge and Emma Midgley

A s many nuclear power plants (NPPs)

around the world near the end of their
life cycle, a new industry based around
In order to retain knowledge and advance
the industry, the IAEA International
Decommissioning Network provides a forum
decommissioning nuclear facilities is for organizations and individuals involved
emerging. In addition to NPPs, many other in the decommissioning and dismantling of
facilities involved in the nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear facilities to share experiences and
such as research centres and facilities lessons learned. The IAEA assists countries
for reprocessing spent fuel or for waste in the planning and implementation of
treatment, will need to be decommissioned decommissioning by providing safety, legal
when they reach end of life. In total, it is and technical advice, and by supporting
likely that several hundred billion dollars knowledge sharing through training courses
will be spent on decommissioning worldwide and workshops. It plays an important role in
“[The IAEA International between now and 2050, and businesses and facilitating broad international collaboration,
Decommissioning Network] investors are already securing their positions. as well as conducting technical reviews to
establish good practices and to ensure that
helps disseminate
There are around 420 nuclear power reactors lessons are learned from experience.
information relevant to the currently in operation around the world.
decommissioning process, Around 200 nuclear reactors are expected to “The network brings together organizations
such as the sharing of best begin the decommissioning process by 2050. and individuals involved in the
In addition to the work of decommissioning decommissioning and dismantling of nuclear
practices and innovations,
the reactors (projects which may last facilities,” said Tetiana Kilochytska, a
to enhance cooperation 20 years or more from start to finish), Decommissioning Specialist at the IAEA.
and coordination in the decommissioning expertise is also required in “It helps disseminate information relevant
decommissioning industry the design of new nuclear facilities. There are to the decommissioning process, such as the
currently over 50 reactors under construction sharing of best practices and innovations, to
around the world.”
globally. Before they were constructed, each enhance cooperation and coordination in the
— Tetiana Kilochytska, of these required a decommissioning plan to decommissioning industry around the world.”
Decommissioning Specialist, IAEA be in place. The decommissioning industry,
therefore, looks to have strong long-term One of the oranizations sharing its expertise
prospects. for the benefit of others is the organization
responsible for the Sellafield site in the
Nuclear engineering, construction, demolition United Kingdom. The site has hosted a range
and waste management companies are of nuclear facilities, such as nuclear power
expected to be the main service providers reactors, fuel reprocessing facilities and
to the decommissioning industry. Their role waste treatment plants. When it opened in the
will be to decontaminate and dismantle 1950s, Calder Hall on the Sellafield site was
nuclear facilities and to rehabilitate sites the first commercial nuclear power station in
for a safe, useful future, taking into account the world. The large range of aged nuclear
sustainability and socio-economic factors. facilities on a compact footprint means the
Nuclear facilities must also be dismantled decommissioning professionals working site
and made safe in a way which considers has had to develop innovative and unique
environmental impacts, in line with solutions during decommissioning, including
circular economy principles, including digitalization and robotics.
by recycling recovered metals, wires and
cables, and segregating clean concrete from “It is a very complex nuclear
reinforcement steel concrete. At the same decommissioning challenge,” said Mike Guy
time, this complex task requires a highly of Sellafield Limited.
skilled nuclear workforce, which must be
expanded in order to avoid a nuclear skills “That is due to the large number and diverse
shortage in the future. nature of the facilities in close proximity on
a congested site. We must deal with a wide

24 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

range of waste challenges, including waste been launched for commercial power reactors
that has been stored in underwater ponds and in the United States of America aim to reduce
the removal of waste from very large and the duration of the main phase of dismantling
complex cells.” (not including activities related to licence
termination) to between five and seven years,
Decommissioning at the Sellafield site began which is about half the current global average
in the 1980s and is expected to continue duration for this phase of activity.
throughout this century, and even beyond.
This wealth of experience means that By optimizing the interaction between the
Sellafield is in an ideal position to share its main project activities and dismantling and
unique expertise and experiences with the waste management, it is possible to shorten
international decommissioning community. the length of time required for the completion
It has already implemented new processes of projects. Good project management and
to simplify and accelerate the treatment good relationships between the facility owner
of radioactive waste at legacy sites, and and the supply chain are vitally important.
shared its knowledge on the dismantling of Major programmes, such as that at Sellafield,
structures in order to help engineers design typically aim to develop long-term partnering
facilities which are easier to deconstruct. approaches with the supply chain, based on
contracts with durations of up to a decade.
In addition, investment in supply chains
that work with Sellafield Limited shows the Achieving early authorization for
potential financial benefits for companies decommissioning also helps to reduce the
entering the nuclear industry. In 2021, the length of time required to achieve the release
United Kingdom’s Nuclear Decommissioning of the facility from regulatory control. Recent
Authority, the public body which oversees programmes in Germany aim to obtain
decommissioning at the Sellafield site, decommissioning authorizations at about
spent around 55 per cent of its 4 billion US the same time as the permanent shutdown of
dollar annual budget on services provided by the facility. Such an approach requires that
partner companies. detailed planning activities and associated
safety assessments are undertaken prior to the
facility being permanently shut down.
Accelerated decommissioning
The experience gained from implementing Decommissioning projects produce extremely
decommissioning programmes over several large quantities of material that need to be
years is increasingly being used to shorten managed effectively. Having the opportunity
the duration of decommissioning projects. to recycle or reuse a large amount of this
Reducing the number of years spent on material and being able to quickly dispose
various projects can achieve significant of material that must be managed as waste Decommissioning at the
budget reductions, as labour costs account is also key to reducing overall costs, and is Sellafield site in the UK is
for a large proportion of the cost of a project. a significant contributory factor for future expected to last many decades.
Decommissioning projects that have recently accelerated decommissioning. (Photo: Sellafield Ltd.)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 25

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Applying nuclear safeguards during

decommissioning
By Jennifer Wagman

T he IAEA helps deter the spread of nuclear

weapons through a set of technical
measures known as safeguards, which work
“Safeguards by design is a timely and cost-
effective process of collaboration, where we
ensure that safeguards obligations are fully
by verifying that countries are honouring understood by all stakeholders well ahead
their international legal obligations not to of time,” said Jeremy Whitlock, a Senior
misuse nuclear material and technology. Technical Advisor in the IAEA Department
These obligations extend to decommissioning of Safeguards. Whitlock works with
projects. As of March 2023, a total of over industry, regulators and other stakeholders to
200 nuclear facilities had permanently incorporate safeguards in the design phase of
ceased to operate, either because they had new or modified nuclear facilities, including
reached the end of their natural life cycle or those undergoing decommissioning. “To
due to national policy decisions. Countries assist countries in decommissioning a nuclear
remain legally obligated to fulfill safeguards facility, we have developed guidelines
agreements throughout the process of outlining safeguards requirements and
decommissioning, and, in some cases, activities. These help countries and facility
afterwards too. operators understand the necessary steps, and
how to work with the IAEA to ensure that
Since decommissioning is a variable and decommissioning progresses on the desired
lengthy process, the IAEA has established timeline.”
guidelines to ensure that safeguards continue
to be applied until the facility has been As part of decommissioning a nuclear reactor,
determined to be decommissioned for IAEA safeguards should be followed during a
safeguards purposes. ‘campaign’ that transfers spent fuel to another
facility for storage or long-term disposal.
These IAEA guidelines require two main For such a campaign, additional safeguards
safeguards objectives to be met: the first surveillance and/or monitoring equipment is
is to verify that all nuclear material has typically installed, with regular reviews of the
been removed from the facility to a known recorded data.
location; the second is to ensure that all
essential equipment has either been removed “By verifying the movement of nuclear
from or made inoperable at the facility. material to a storage location, the IAEA
maintains continuity of knowledge of the
During decommissioning, countries are material at all times. This helps to provide
encouraged to work with the IAEA to credible assurance that the nuclear material
periodically submit plans for related is not diverted from peaceful use,” said Lai
activities and to update design information San Chew, a Nuclear Safeguards Inspector at
to reflect changes within the facility. As the IAEA. Chew is responsible for verifying
nuclear material and essential equipment are spent fuel items, observing transfers and
removed, the IAEA constantly reassesses reviewing updated design information during
the safeguards measures and activities spent fuel transfers in preparation for final
implemented at the facility, and revises them decommissioning.
as necessary in consultation with the country
concerned. Early engagement with countries Once all nuclear material has been removed,
on the details of this process is known as the operator of the facility will start
safeguards by design. dismantling essential equipment. Finally, the

26 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

operator removes the most important piece of been removed or made inoperable. Once the
essential equipment, the reactor core, which determination is made that a facility has been
is disposed of at a waste treatment facility. decommissioned for safeguards purposes, the
The country then sends the final updated IAEA discontinues routine inspection and
facility design information to the IAEA in design-verification activities at the facility.
order to formally notify it that the facility has
been decommissioned. “By working with the country and facility
operator to ensure a full understanding of
After the nuclear material is secured under the special needs of decommissioning a
appropriate safeguards in a storage or long- safeguarded facility, we help achieve a safe
term disposal facility, the IAEA verifies the and secure transition to closure of operations
absence of nuclear material at the original that meets all of the country’s international Safeguards Inspection at
facility being decommissioned, and also obligations,” says Kerrin Swan, a Safeguards URENCO, Almelo, Netherlands.
confirms that all essential equipment has Analyst at the IAEA. (Photo: D. Calma / IAEA)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 27

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Preparing 60 years in advance

The UAE’s first nuclear power plant and plans for
future decommissioning
By Artem Vlasov

S ince the discovery of oil and gas reserves

over half a century ago, the United Arab
Emirates (UAE) has undergone a remarkable
“Decommissioning is a multidisciplinary
process. Planning for decommissioning,
including the establishment of the necessary
economic transformation. In just a few finances, should begin at the early stages
“The UAE, which has decades, the country has transitioned from of the development of the nuclear facility
successfully launched its a small fishing and pearl trading economy and continue during the operational stage.
first nuclear power plant, to a global hub for tourism, trade, business Detailed planning of decommissioning
already has an initial and finance. With a view to sustaining this typically begins a few years before the
economic progress while reducing its carbon facility is permanently shut down; this
decommissioning plan for emissions, the UAE is diversifying its energy includes activities to ensure organizational
when the plant reaches its mix, including through the introduction of and technical preparedness, enabling
end of life.” nuclear energy. a smooth transition from operation to
decommissioning,” said Tetiana Kilochytska,
— Tetiana Kilochytska,
Decommissioning Specialist, IAEA
The Barakah nuclear power plant (NPP), Decommissioning Specialist at the IAEA.
the first in the UAE and the Arab world, “The UAE, which has successfully launched
began operating in 2020. Three reactors are its first nuclear power plant, already has an
currently in operation and one is close to initial decommissioning plan for when the
construction completion. The NPP is expected plant reaches its end of life.”
to provide up to 25 per cent of the country’s
electricity — with the capacity to power
more than half a million Emirati households The power of careful planning
— when it becomes fully operational in the The operator of the Barakah NPP, Nawah
coming years. However, as with any other Energy Company, submitted an initial
NPP, it will have to be disassembled at the decommissioning plan as part of its application
end of its useful life, in around 60-80 years. for an operating licence to the UAE’s nuclear
Today, every country embarking on a nuclear authority – the Federal Authority for Nuclear
programme is required, when designing a Regulation (FANR). The plan envisages
nuclear facility, to develop preliminary plans that decommissioning will be handled by
for decommissioning the facility so that the Nawah and will begin five years after the
site can be repurposed. final reactor is permanently shut down.

28 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

According to the Emirates Nuclear Energy for more efficient decommissioning by

Corporation (ENEC), which is responsible providing faster dismantling techniques,
for the UAE’s nuclear power programme, the higher decontamination efficacy and better
decommissioning process is forecasted last protection of workers.
around 13 years for each of the four units.

A recurring challenge in decommissioning Preparing today for a sustainable

is uncertainty regarding the total cost of the tomorrow
associated activities, including the cost of The IAEA assists countries in the planning
the long-term management of radioactive and implementation of decommissioning,
waste resulting from decommissioning and providing safety, legal and technical
of spent nuclear fuel. For example, the cost advice and supporting knowledge sharing
of establishing a geological repository for the through training courses and workshops.
disposal of long-lived radioactive waste and It plays an important role in facilitating
spent fuel can run to several billion dollars. broad international collaboration as well as
conducting technical reviews to establish
The UAE is prepared for this challenge best practices and to ensure that lessons are
and has taken steps to establish a learned from past examples.
‘Decommissioning Trust Fund’ that
is financed by annual contributions “The development of the UAE’s nuclear
and is responsible to cover the cost of energy policy took benefit of its ongoing
decommissioning of the NPP and related interaction with the IAEA,” said Kilochytska.
activities. To ensure that this fund is able The UAE collaborates with IAEA experts
to meet future expectations, it is intended to ensure strong nuclear safety, security and
that the annual contributions be reviewed transparency throughout the operation of
regularly and the NPP’s decommissioning the Barakah NPP, including in relation to its
plan be updated at least every three years plans for decommissioning.
over the course of the plant’s lifetime.
The Barakah NPP will play a key role in the
“One of the key elements of successful UAE’s 2050 ‘net zero’ strategy, which aims to
decommissioning is adequate access drastically increase the country’s production
to expertise and technology when the of clean energy. It will prevent the release of
decommissioning takes place,” Kilochytska over 22 million tonnes of greenhouse gases
said. The UAE is taking steps to ensure per year — equivalent to the emissions of
the timely availability of qualified and nearly five million cars — constituting a
competent staff for decommissioning, quarter of the UAE’s emission reduction The UAE’s first nuclear power
radioactive waste disposal and the radiation commitments under the Paris Agreement, the plant is not yet fully operational,
protection of people and the environment international treaty on climate change to that but the country is already
during this process. As technology, such effect. The Barakah NPP is already the largest carefully planning future
as robotics and artificial intelligence, is single generator of electricity and the largest decommissioning.
constantly evolving, new advancements source of clean electricity in the region. (Photo: ENEC)
are expected to offer greater opportunities

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 29

 Nuclear Decommissioning

Encouraging the next generation to

pursue careers in decommissioning
By Annie Engstroem

O ne of the major challenges currently

facing the decommissioning industry is
attracting young professionals to the field.
power plants or fuel cycle facilities, and
little consideration was given to ensuring
the availability of an appropriately skilled
The need for a new generation to enter the workforce when these facilities reached
workforce is being driven by two factors. the end of life,” said Patrick O’Sullivan,
On the one hand, there is an immediate need Decommissioning Specialist at the
to have an increased workforce in place IAEA. “Today, attracting young nuclear
to decommission the growing number of professionals to decommissioning and
ageing reactors now reaching the end of associated waste management activities
their life spans. On the other, the industry has become a major priority in most
needs to prepare for the future, when the programmes.”
“Young professionals, decommissioning sector is expected to boom
such as myself, are eager and create even greater demand for science To decarbonize the economy countries are
and engineering professionals. also investing in advanced nuclear reactors,
to use our skills to help such as small modular reactors, which
advance decommissioning It is estimated that between 12 and 15 per are expected to be easier and cheaper to
programmes and increase cent of nuclear power reactors currently decommission from a technical standpoint, as
public trust in the nuclear in operation will be retired by 2030, and they can be transported back to the factory for
decommissioning them will require a range dismantling and recycling.
field.” of professionals from various disciplines to
— Simona Šandalová, Nuclear ensure that they are dismantled safely, in a “If countries are going to exert efforts and
Chemist and recipient of cost-effective manner and with consideration include nuclear energy in their energy mix,
the IAEA Marie Skłodowska- for their future use. At the same time, new they really need to position themselves well
Curie Fellowship Programme nuclear facilities that will also eventually in terms of developing essential skills to
scholarship have to be decommissioned are being built consider the dismantling of nuclear power
worldwide. plants from the beginning,” said Marorisang
Makututsa, Deputy President of African
“Young professionals, such as myself, are Young Generation in Nuclear (AYGN).
eager to use our skills to help advance The AYGN is a non-profit organization
decommissioning programmes and increase which aims to mobilize and empower young
public trust in the nuclear field,” said Simona nuclear professionals in Africa by organizing
Šandalová, a 25-year-old nuclear chemist and training and national networking events.
recipient of the IAEA Marie Skłodowska- Currently, South Africa operates two nuclear
Curie Fellowship Programme scholarship. power reactors, while Egypt is building its
first reactors and Ghana, along with around
The complex challenges involved in ten other countries on the continent, is
decommissioning nuclear sites mean that considering introducing nuclear power into
there is a range of career opportunities for its energy mix.
younger people in this field. These include
roles involving emerging technologies such
as artificial intelligence, data science and Opportunities for young people
robotics, as well as opportunities for those Decommissioning is the final step in
wishing to specialize in careers in physics, the nuclear life cycle; however, the
chemistry, engineering, project management, multidisciplinary process of dismantling a
waste management or environmental nuclear power plant requires insight into
remediation. In short, the decommissioning the whole nuclear life cycle. Engineers,
sector will offer both job security and career scientists and other professionals specialized
opportunities for people entering the industry in decommissioning, therefore, possess
now, and for the foreseeable future. competencies that are transferable to other
parts of the nuclear life cycle, including the
“Forty years ago, decommissioning was not design, construction and operation of the
a priority concern for developers of nuclear nuclear installation.

30 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning

“Young people with expertise and experience The IAEA actively cooperates with
in decommissioning have many opportunities universities around the world — in the
in other industries as well,” said Lisa Lande, Czech Republic, France, the Republic of
a Nuclear Human Resource Development Korea, Slovakia and the United Kingdom,
Specialist at the IAEA. “The ability to among others — to conduct research and
manage projects, obtain the technical exchange technical information, experiences
expertise required for waste management, and best practices in decommissioning
and understand the impact of pollutants and environmental remediation. At Florida
on the environment is invaluable in the International University (FIU) in the
environmental sector and within various United States of America, this cooperation
domains in the technology industry.” has enabled the IAEA to offer training
and internship programmes to students
In France, the National Institute for Nuclear with backgrounds in science, technology,
Science and Technology (INSTN) is actively engineering and mathematics, and to integrate
encouraging students to explore new, the IAEA’s material on decommissioning into
innovative solutions to decommissioning. FIU’s curricula.
Florent Lemont is Research Director at the
CEA and head of INSTN - Marcoule. In In September 2022, the IAEA organized the
2022 he organized a challenge in France IAEA Challenge: Innovations in Nuclear
called “Hackadem”, in which 600 high Facility Decommissioning 2022, inviting
school and university students competed students and young professionals to submit
in teams by pitching creative solutions original essays on dismantling nuclear
for decommissioning nuclear facilities in facilities. Topics included how to make
the future. “Many participants were not decommissioning more effective, how to
aware that decommissioning is a cross- plan and carry out decommissioning using
cutting innovative area involving high-tech a circular economy model, and how to
technology, digitalization, chemistry, and incorporate a decommissioning strategy into
more,” Florent Lemont said. “Through the a nuclear power plant’s design.
challenge, they gained insights about the
future opportunities in the decommissioning “Decommissioning is a future challenge
field and the value of obtaining experience in that needs a future workforce with relevant
this area.” skills,” said O’Sullivan. “That’s why
the IAEA organizes and implements a
range of initiatives — both directly and
IAEA initiatives to engage through its Collaborating Centres — to
students and young professionals promote the involvement of young people
The IAEA organizes a range of initiatives in decommissioning, including university Workers taking part in
to highlight career opportunities in the partnerships, training and fellowship decommissioning activities at a
decommissioning field and to support nuclear programmes, as well as encouraging nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in
capacity building in its Member States. involvement by young people in its specialist La Hague in France.
workshops and conferences.” (Photo: M. Klingenboeck/IAEA)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 31

 Nuclear Decommissioning Ι Q&A

Expert insights on decommissioning

France’s spent fuel reprocessing facility
By Michael Amdi Madsen
Today, around 70 per cent of France’s electricity is generated from 56 nuclear power plants (NPPs).
All of the spent fuel from these reactors, and some from other countries, is reprocessed and partially
recycled at La Hague, a site in the country’s northern Cotentin Peninsula.

After 35 years of operation, La Hague’s first reprocessing facility, UP2-400, was shut down in 2003
and is being decommissioned — a project which is expected to take decades. To better understand
how this project is progressing and the challenges involved in decommissioning a facility like
UP2-400, we spoke with Eric Delaunay, Senior Vice President of End-of-Lifecycle Operations at
Orano, the majority French state-owned company tasked with ensuring that the site is safe and
suitable for future uses.

Q: What are some of the implementation

challenges faced by the UP2-400
decommissioning project and how do they
compare to the decommissioning of other
major nuclear facilities, such as NPPs?

A: The main challenge faced by the UP2-400

decommissioning project is the presence of
radioactive deposits and contamination in a
vast proportion of the shut-down facilities.
In an NPP, the removal of spent fuel and a
full system decontamination removes more
than 99 per cent of the initial radioactivity
present in the NPP. Only the reactor pressure
vessel and its internal equipment are still
significantly radioactive. In a reprocessing
plant such as UP2-400, it is a little different.
Each piece of equipment and each room is
contaminated with a level of radioactivity,
and these components need to be retrieved
and conditioned before dismantling can
take place. This means that the reprocessing
plant’s safety functions need to be preserved “In the future, robotics will
during most of the decommissioning project,
increase productivity, enhance
whereas in NPPs, safety classes and systems
can be reduced once defuelling is complete safety for workers, and improve
and the spent fuel pool has been emptied. working conditions and motivation
for our staff.”
Q: What are the main operational and ­— Eric Delaunay, Senior Vice President,
strategic decommissioning risks facing End-of-Lifecycle Operations, Orano, France
the project and what is being done to
manage them?
A: The main strategic risks are cost overruns
and delays in completing the project, since
delays generate additional costs. Delays
can be caused by a variety of operational condition of the high activity cells and
risks covering all aspects of the project. The equipment; and, secondly, challenges related
two most significant are, firstly, a lack of to career development and staff retention. To
knowledge concerning the initial radiological mitigate the first risk, we have pursued a very

32 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning Ι Q&A

comprehensive characterization programme liberating disused buildings for future

that significantly reduces uncertainty reuse for 15 years. We also focus on the
concerning the condition of the reprocessing minimization of waste generation at all stages
plant and its cells for several years. In the of the decommissioning process, and we
meantime, we have tried to manage the increasingly reuse equipment and recycle
human resources challenge with a range of materials. Recent regulatory changes in
actions, including involvement in regional France have also opened the door to recycling
and national training programmes, a proactive metal from decommissioned nuclear facilities
recruitment policy, the continuous training for reuse within the nuclear industry.
of our staff to facilitate versatility and
mobility in the organization, and innovation Q: What are the main socio-economic
in decommissioning practices to improve the impacts of the decommissioning work
working environment.
at La Hague and how do you see your
responsibility to the local community?
Q: The UP2-400 decommissioning project
A: Decommissioning activities represent
began some 20 years ago and may be roughly 20 per cent of the overall activity
expected to continue for several more and socio-economic impact of the La Hague
years. How has innovation in technology site, which also hosts two operating spent
affected the project over time and what fuel recycling plants. Orano’s Normandy
future technological developments do you sites are major employers and sources of
think will create the greatest impact? revenue for the local community. Orano’s
annual spending represents over €850 million
A: Over the past 20 years, the most per year, of which more than 70 per cent
significant technological changes have stays in the region of Normandy. Orano la
been related to digitalization at all levels Hague has also established a partnership
of the project. Digital technologies have with the Chamber of Commerce and Industry
evolved in three ways, in relation to power of Cherbourg Cotentin to train and employ
and efficiency, cost, and diversity. Twenty local workers. In 2023, Orano’s sites in the
years ago, virtual models were complex and Cotentin area will recruit 500 people, 20 per
costly to develop, virtual reality technology cent of whom will work on decommissioning.
was limited, and smartphones and tablets Furthermore, 200 work-study trainees will be
did not exist. In the past few years, these hired for periods of one to three years.
technologies have evolved to such an extent
that they now bring real and measurable
Q: How does the IAEA’s work support the
benefits to our activities and have completely
transformed and improved processes in our decommissioning activity at La Hague
organization. In the future, robotics will and how can international collaborative
increase productivity, enhance safety for activities better support decommissioning
workers, and improve working conditions and projects?
motivation for our staff.
A: Our decommissioning project is very
intensive and requires us to focus on
Q: Sustainability and circular economy
project delivery. However, it is also a long-
principles are of growing importance running endeavour that benefits from the
in the nuclear industry. What impact do innovations and experiences of others.
these principles have on decommissioning The IAEA’s support on decommissioning
activities at La Hague? and environmental remediation provides a
unique forum to exchange and learn from
A: A challenge for us when considering others, including trends and innovations
circular economy principles is that we that could support our activities, such as
are decommissioning facilities that were digital technologies, robotics, training and
built forty to fifty years ago and that were competence development. For example,
not designed with any circular economy ongoing developments in the Technical
considerations. However, since creating an Meeting on New and Emerging Technologies
entire division in our company dedicated to to Advance Decommissioning Projects is of
the decommissioning of our own nuclear particular interest to us and we expect that
facilities in 2008, Orano has been engaged such initiatives will prevent the duplication of
in closing the nuclear industrial cycle and development efforts.

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 33

 Nuclear Decommissioning Ι World View

A new business model for

decommissioning nuclear power plant
By Bruce A. Watson

A s a long-standing pioneer of nuclear

technology, the USA now operates one
of the world’s oldest and largest nuclear
opened the field for a new way of carrying
out decommissioning projects. In the first
instance, a US operator agreed to transfer
power programmes. As fleets of reactors age a temporary licence to a decommissioning
out of service, increasingly large numbers company. After decommissioning had been
of decommissioning projects are being completed, the licence for the land and the
created. Currently, the NRC oversees 17 spent fuel dry storage facility would transfer
nuclear power plants (NPPs) that are in back to the original operator. The NRC
active decommissioning, and eight NPPs in approved this, and also approved a similar
safe storage, as well as the decommissioning process between another operator and a
of two research reactors and several other decommissioning company shortly afterwards.
nuclear sites. In addition, several defence-
related sites that fall under the regulatory
powers of the Department of Energy are Opportunities and challenges
also being decommissioned. This demand is These agreements materialized only after years
driving innovation, with companies finding of negotiations. The prospective licensees
Bruce A. Watson is the Special creative ways of meeting this challenge. had to weigh up both the opportunities and
Assistant in the Division of the challenges thoroughly. On the one hand,
Decommissioning Uranium Recovery
In 2010, a completely new business model such a licence transfer would provide the
and Waste Programs in the Office of
for decommissioning emerged in the USA. decommissioning company with full access
Nuclear Material Safety and
Safeguards at the United States
Prior to this, all decommissioning projects to the NPP’s decommissioning trust fund. On
Nuclear Regulatory Commission involving NRC-licensed reactors used a the other hand, they would also become fully
(NRC). A former nuclear operator, he similar business model. The operator of the responsible and liable for all financial and
gathered extensive experience in NPP continued to hold full responsibility regulatory risks resulting from the operation.
decommissioning reactors and for the duration of the decommissioning Ultimately, the deals went ahead despite these
materials at sites as the technical lead process. The operators would either choose risks. Three years later, in 2013, the first
for the licence termination of United to implement all decommissioning work companies agreed to a permanent, rather than
States (US) nuclear power reactors. themselves or contract a company to do temporary, licence transfer as part of the sale
Bruce also has extensive international the work for them. In the early 1990s, ten of the facility.
decommissioning experience with the
NRC-licensed reactors were shut down and
IAEA, helping to develop
their decommissioning was completed by In many ways, 2013 was a landmark year.
decommissioning Safety Guides and
training programmes. He has served
2009, all using this traditional model. It was the first time a decommissioning
as an expert on several IAEA peer company spoke to the operator of an NPP
review and advisory missions. However, by the end of 2010, lengthy that was about to shut down and offered to
discussions between decommissioning buy the plant in order to decommission it. A
companies and operators had borne fruit and sales agreement was then negotiated for an

34 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 Nuclear Decommissioning Ι World View

NPP that shut down that year. The operator decommissioned. Nonetheless, the traditional
and the decommissioning company applied business model of operators continuing
to transfer the licence permanently to the with plant decommissioning persists and
decommissioning company. still provides the basis for many ongoing
decommissioning projects.
Decommissioning companies that acquired
such licences could often integrate these Also, it quite unlikely that other countries
activities into their established businesses, will be inspired to follow the USA’s model
as they might already operate nuclear waste for decommissioning. The main reason is
disposal sites or be certified to provide spent that, in contrast to most other countries, US
fuel storage services. NPPs are commercially independent. As a
result, the US business model is different
from most other countries.
Significant acceleration in
planning timelines
One remarkable result of this 2013 licensing Speed up similar projects around
transfer was a significant acceleration in the the world
planning timelines for decommissioning However, the accelerated decommissioning
activities. The plant’s licence termination was processes that are being implemented in the
initially planned for 2073. This meant that, USA could help to speed up similar projects
originally, the operator would take advantage around the world. We share our lessons
of the NRC regulations that require that learned with other countries, which is enabled
the licence termination be completed in 60 by international organizations and through
years. For licence termination, the plant IAEA safety standards, workshops, forums,
had to be fully decommissioned, including missions and publications. The IAEA does
the environmental remediation of the land, essential work to promote consistency in
which would enable it to be repurposed for how decommissioning is conducted, ensuring
other uses. A new licensee plans to finish the that it is implemented safely and carried out
same process by 2030, with the spent fuel within solid regulatory frameworks.
dry storage facility remaining a licensed and
inspected facility. The IAEA plays an important role in
providing information on consistent
Some other operators whose older approaches to decommissioning, such as dose
NPPs in safe storage are nearing a 2030 limits, to ensure that there is wide agreement
decommissioning deadline might also want on when a site is successfully cleaned up
to consider such a licence transfer to switch and enhance safety for local communities.
to a more accelerated process. One important The IAEA’s documents are highly useful in
consideration is that, in the USA, an NPP must this area. There is a real thirst for knowledge
be decommissioned and the licence terminated across the international community in the
within 60 years of ceasing operations. decommissioning sector on how to perform
decommissioning safely and effectively.
Licence transfers have now become
quite common in the USA and apply
to a significant number of NPPs being

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 35

 IAEA Updates Ι News

Climate-Smart Agriculture Shows Promise in Improving

Azerbaijan’s Cotton Productivity

Isotopic techniques help Azerbaijani researchers and farmers to obtain key information on how to optimize fertilizer use and
increase the efficiency of cotton production while maintaining soil health.
(Photo: M. Zaman/IAEA)

In Azerbaijan, researchers and climate-smart agricultural practices, and Technical Officer of the project.
farmers implementing climate- and designing on-farm demonstration “It’s about the right amount, in the
smart agricultural practices based on trials. A further project, initiated in right way, at the right growth stage.”
nuclear and related techniques have 2022 and focusing on strengthening
been able to more than double their best practices in agricultural practices Climate-smart agricultural practices
cotton production yields in a project related to soil, nutrient and water involve the use of isotopic techniques
supported by the IAEA in partnership management for cotton production, to obtain essential information on
with the Food and Agriculture aims to help improve cotton how to optimize fertilizer use and
Organization of the United Nations productivity, as Azerbaijan’s land increase the efficiency of agricultural
(FAO). Through the use of a new is particularly vulnerable to climate production while maintaining soil
variety called ‘cotton super’, combined change and soil degradation. The health.
with carefully-implemented climate- country’s average annual temperature
smart agriculture (CSA) practices has risen by 0.4 degrees Celsius “When we started, Azerbaijan’s soils
which provide insights into how since 1991, with Azerbaijan also were heavily degraded, the fertility
to sustainably increase agricultural experiencing decreasing rainfall and was very poor, and so the soil did
productivity, the pilot project has seen more frequent extreme weather events, not have the capacity to provide all
yields increase from the country’s such as floods, droughts and heat the essential nutrients required for
average of three tonnes per hectare to waves. the cotton growth,” Zaman said. To
eight tonnes per hectare. address this, IAEA experts developed
“Generally speaking, 60 per cent of a complete package of nuclear and
The pilot project, which is part of an improvement in crop productivity related farming techniques, from
IAEA technical cooperation project comes from capitalizing on the preparing soil and selecting the best
and which was implemented in 2021, strategic application of soil nutrients cotton varieties to applying nutrients
focused on developing climate-smart and water management,” said and irrigation to cotton fields and
agricultural guidelines for cotton Mohammad Zaman, a soil scientist at ensuring weed, pest and disease
production, training Azerbaijani the Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear control.
researchers and progressive farmers in Techniques in Food and Agriculture

36 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 IAEA Updates Ι News

“Applying improved soil, nutrient and Zaman said. “Taking advantage practices in this project provides an
water management practices, along of isotopic techniques, such as the exciting indication and tremendous
with using the ‘cotton super’ variety, use of N-15, can help adapt to this promise on how it can help Azerbaijan
has led us to increase our cotton situation, making the cotton sector to increase their cotton production
productivity, quality and profit,” said more competitive as well as ensuring significantly and, thus, greatly impact
Sakhavat Mammadov, a farmer from employment and improving the the Azerbaijani economy.”
Azerbaijan who took part in the pilot welfare of the rural population.”
project and who has been using CSA The IAEA, through its technical
practices on his farm for the last two In the past, Azerbaijan was a leading cooperation programme and through
years. producer and major exporter of the Joint FAO/IAEA Centre, assists
cotton, harvesting more than 830 000 countries in applying climate-smart
Nuclear and related techniques help tonnes, which provided up to a agricultural methods to increase
not only in increasing agricultural quarter of the country’s income, in productivity, adapting agricultural
productivity but also in building the the 1980s. However, the transition to systems to climate change and
resilience of agricultural systems to a free market and the rapid growth reducing their impact on the
climate change. In Azerbaijan, the of other industries in the 1990s environment. The Joint FAO/IAEA
researchers used a technique involving contributed to cotton losing its key Centre also supports research in this
nitrogen-15 (N-15), a stable isotope. role in Azerbaijan’s economy, with area. In a coordinated research project
Nitrogen plays an important role in production falling to a record low of focused on the use of climate-smart
plant growth and photosynthesis — 31 000 tonnes in 2009. nuclear solutions to help minimize
the process whereby plants convert the impacts of farming on climate,
carbon dioxide and sunlight into plant The project outcome shows the scientists from Brazil, Chile, Costa
food. Zaman explained that a lack of significant potential of climate-smart Rica, the Islamic Republic of Iran
nutrients in the soil, such as nitrogen, practices in increasing agricultural and Pakistan reported a 50 per cent
leads to low and less nutritious yields. productivity. “Considering the total reduction in greenhouse gases. Other
The excessive or incorrect application cotton growing areas of 105 000 climate-smart agricultural practices
of nitrogen fertilizers, on the other hectares in Azerbaijan, a 10 per cent are helping to develop balanced diet
hand, contributes to greenhouse gas adoption of the IAEA climate-smart solutions for livestock amid recurring
emissions and the pollution of surface agricultural practices would produce droughts in Angola, to improve the
and groundwater. 84 000 tonnes of cotton compared water use and nutrient management
to 31 500 tonnes, representing a 166 of soils in Kenya, and to combat soil
“Cotton in Azerbaijan is expected to per cent increase over conventional erosion in Tunisia.
be one of the crops experiencing the cotton farming practices,” Zaman said.
greatest yield decline due to climate “Seeing the extraordinary success in — By Artem Vlasov
change and rapid soil degradation,” applying climate-smart agricultural

Using the stable isotope nitrogen-15, scientists collect quantitative data about how much nitrogen fertilizers cotton needs and
how effectively they are taken up by the plant.
(Photo: M. Zaman/IAEA)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 37

 IAEA Updates Ι News

Using Nuclear Techniques to Respond to Natural Disasters in

Latin America and the Caribbean

Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques provide reliable data on the strength and integrity of materials without interfering with
potentially weakened or hazardous structures.
(Photo: Regional Co-operation Agreement for the Promotion of Nuclear Science and Technology in Latin America and the Caribbean (ARCAL))

Latin America and the Caribbean is NDT techniques provide reliable development of the response centres,
the second-most disaster-prone region data on the strength and integrity the region has become self-sufficient
in the world. Its unique tectonic of materials without interfering in mitigating the effects of disasters,”
structure and weather patterns make with structures that are potentially said Gerardo Maghella, an Associate
it vulnerable to natural events like already weakened or hazardous, Industrial Technologist at the IAEA.
earthquakes, floods and hurricanes. using different types of radiation to
Owing to the exacerbation of these detect defects in concrete, pipes and As part of establishing the centres,
vulnerabilities by climate change, the welding. The techniques are safe and the IAEA organized the training
region urgently needed the capacity to quick, contributing to the protection of and certification of experts in NDT
assess the safety and integrity of built civilians. techniques in Buenos Aires, from
structures following natural disasters, 7 to 18 November 2018, through
particularly in urban areas. With the The four response centres were the ongoing regional TC project.
IAEA’s help, the region has achieved established through an IAEA technical Nine participants from Argentina,
self-reliance in this capacity. cooperation (TC) project that was Brazil, Costa Rica and Mexico were
initiated in 2018 to enhance the either newly certified or recertified
Four response centres, capable of using assessment of city structures and in advanced methods of digital
nuclear non-destructive testing (NDT) improve the quality of industrial goods radiography using X-rays and gamma
techniques to evaluate the integrity and services in Latin America and the rays. They are now qualified to inspect
of civil structures, such as roads and Caribbean using nuclear techniques. civil engineering structures using the
bridges, in their own and neighbouring latest NDT techniques.
countries, have been established in “Recent earthquakes in the region
Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Peru, dramatically highlight the importance A further 24 participants from ten
with IAEA assistance. These centres of networks that improve the countries — Argentina, Chile, Costa
will support a coordinated regional coordination of emergency response in Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic,
response in cases of emergency. the disaster-prone region. Through the Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and

38 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

 IAEA Updates Ι News

the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela international standards ISO 9712, capability. As one of the four response
— qualified in civil methods of on non-destructive testing, and ISO centres, we intend to share the vast
NDT, including visual inspection and 17024, on general requirements for amount of knowledge we have gained
ultrasonic testing, which uses sound certification bodies, enabling the in NDT techniques where it’s needed
waves to detect flaws in a material and experts to train others. in Latin America and the Caribbean.”
measure its thickness.
Hernán Xargay, Head of Division Non-destructive testing is a quality
“The certification represents a very at the Argentinian National Atomic control method that uses nuclear
important boost to the promotion Energy Commission and coordinator at techniques to examine materials
of NDT methodologies in the civil the new response centre in Argentina, without damaging them. The
engineering field in our respective said: “The training and certification at IAEA supports the use of NDT
countries,” said Eduardo Robles, the ISO level organized by the IAEA technology to maintain the stringent
Project Head at Mexico’s National creates confidence that international quality control necessary for the
Institute for Nuclear Research, one requirements are met and supports safe operation of nuclear and other
of the newly certified experts and the harmonization of methodologies industrial installations. This support
representative of Mexico’s NDA throughout the region.” is expressed through the provision of
response. equipment and assistance to Member
Mario Barrera Méndez, Quality States, including training local staff in
The training and certification were Control Coordinator at the Chilean applying the technology. Read more
provided by the non-profit Italian Nuclear Energy Commission, who about the IAEA’s work on NDT.
Society for Non-Destructive Testing leads the new response centre in Chile,
Monitoring Diagnostics (AIPnD) agreed: “The network established by — By Pauline Sophie Hennings
under Practical Arrangements with the IAEA is the cornerstone of the
the IAEA and in accordance with the region’s new emergency response

NDT is a quality control method that uses nuclear techniques to examine materials without damaging them.
(Photo: ARCAL)

IAEA Bulletin, April 2023 | 39

 IAEA Updates Ι Publications

Decommissioning of Particle Accelerators

This publication presents information on experience and lessons learned from implementation of
decommissioning projects for particle accelerators. Based on this information, and highlighting
typical issues and concerns, the publication provides practical information for all those having a role
in this process. The publication is written for operators of accelerator facilities, particularly those
approaching the decommissioning stage, or maintaining a facility in a deferred dismantling state,
as well as for regulators, waste managers, decision makers at government level, local authorities,
decommissioning contractors and designers of accelerators. It is anticipated that the lessons learned
described in this publication will contribute to decommissioning planning during the design stage of
new facilities, hence minimizing the generation of radioactive waste without compromising structural
characteristics and the effectiveness of the construction.
ISBN: 978-92-0-102419-0

Data Analysis and Collection for Costing of Research Reactor Decommissioning:

Final Report of the DACCORD Collaborative Project
This publication reports on the DACCORD project, which supports Member States in preparing
preliminary cost estimates for the decommissioning of research reactors. The report is of
particular benefit to programmes with limited decommissioning experience. Costing projects for
the decommissioning of research reactors can be broad in scope with many possible inputs and
influences that require due consideration in developing the estimate. The publication provides
information on unit factors for research reactor decommissioning and a basis for estimating
uncertainties and contingencies and for assessing the impact of decommissioning planning and
characterization activities. It also addresses the use of the CERREX-D2 (Cost Estimate for Research
Reactors in Excel) software code, developed by the IAEA to enable non-specialist users to develop
preliminary cost estimates for decommissioning.
ISBN: 978-92-0-108621-1

Managing the Decommissioning and Remediation of Damaged Nuclear Facilities

As part of the Action Plan on Nuclear Safety, the IAEA led the International Project on Managing the
Decommissioning and Remediation of Damaged Nuclear Facilities (DAROD Project). The DAROD
Project focuses on providing practical guidance for the decommissioning and remediation of accident
damaged nuclear facilities based on case studies of actual damaged facilities and lessons learned.
This publication summarizes the outcomes of the DAROD Project. It is intended for regulatory bodies,
operating organizations, technical support organizations and governmental officials who are involved
in the decommissioning and remediation of nuclear facilities damaged after an accident or owing to a
legacy deterioration.
ISBN: 978-92-0-142621-5

Decommissioning at a Multifacility Site

In recent years, several Member States have completed the decommissioning of multifacility nuclear
sites. This publication consolidates their technical and organizational experience, and provides
information and practical guidance that promotes safe, timely and cost effective implementation. All
phases of decommissioning are discussed, from planning and dismantling to waste management and
site release, as well as organizational schemes and funding. This publication is intended for decision
makers, plant operators, contractors and regulators involved in planning, management, authorization
and execution of decommissioning activities. It is particularly relevant for multifacility site operators
with nuclear facilities approaching the end of their foreseen lifetime. The publication will also be
of interest for the designers and builders of new nuclear installations in order to facilitate eventual
decommissioning.
ISBN: 978-92-0-119522-7

For additional information, or to order a book, please contact:

Marketing and Sales Unit
International Atomic Energy Agency
Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
Email: [email protected]

40 | IAEA Bulletin, April 2023

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