Aquatic Medicinal Plants 1st Edition
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Aquatic Medicinal Plants
Edited by
Archana Bachheti, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti, and
Azamal Husen
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Bachheti, Archana, editor. | Bachheti, Rakesh Kumar, editor. | Husen, Azamal, editor.
Title: Aquatic medicinal plants / Edited by Archana Bachheti, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti, and Azamal Husen.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “The use of medicinal plants in herbal and modern medicine has gained popularity over the last few decades
due to consumers taking more natural approaches to medicine. Aquatic medicinal plants are rich in bioactive compounds
and demonstrate various commercial, nutraceutical, and biological applications. Aquatic Medicinal Plants offers the reader
a wealth of information on uses bioactive components of these plants, along with crucial references, and explains their
traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties. Features Provides information on aquatic and semiaquatic
medicinal plants and their uses globally. Discusses phytochemical components with the known active constituents and their
pharmaceutical applications. This volume in the Exploring Medicinal Plants series is appropriate for scientists, experts, and
consultants associated with the exploration of aquatic medicinal plant usage. This book is an essential tool for identifying
important aquatic medicinal plants and possibilities for the synthesis or preparation of modern drugs”– Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022058406 (print) | LCCN 2022058407 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032185408 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032188904 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003256830 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Medicinal plants. | Materia medica, Vegetable. | Botany, Medical. | Aquatic plants.
Classification: LCC QK99 .A88 2023 (print) | LCC QK99 (ebook) | DDC 581.6/34–dc23/eng/20230209
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022058406
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022058407
ISBN: 9781032185408 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032188904 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003256830 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003256830
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................vii
Editors................................................................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1 Phytochemicals and Medicinal Importance of Nelumbo nucifera................................ 1
Tuyelee Das, Sailky Sau, Samapika Nandy, Mimosa Ghorai, Sayanti Mandal,
Abdel Rahman Al-Tawaha, Ercan Bursal, Vartika Jain, Devendra Kumar Pandey,
Mallappa Kumara Swamy, Mahipal S. Shekhawat, Tabarak Malik,
Arabinda Ghosh, Rahul Bhattacharjee, and Abhijit Dey
Chapter 2 Traditional Uses, Important Phytochemicals, and Therapeutic
Profile of Persicaria hydropiper.................................................................................. 13
Alam Zeb and Muhammad Ayaz
Chapter 3 Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activity
of Marsilea minuta...................................................................................................... 37
Senjuti Banerjee, Kasturi Sarkar, and Parames C. Sil
Chapter 4 Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of
Hedychium coronarium............................................................................................... 49
Basudeba Kar, Jyotirmayee Lenka, Debasis Sahoo, Manaswini Dash,
Bhaskar Chandra Sahoo, and Suprava Sahoo
Chapter 5 Pharmacognostical, Phytochemical, and Ethnomedicinal Review of
Enhydra fluctuans Lour............................................................................................... 71
Khoshnur Jannat, Md Nasir Ahmed, Tridib K. Paul, Chowdhury Alfi Afroze,
Ommay Hany Rumi, Tohmina Afroze Bondhon, Anamul Hasan, Rownak Jahan,
and Mohammed Rahmatullah
Chapter 6 Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of
Acorus calamus........................................................................................................... 89
Muhammad Qamar, Naveed Ahmad, Tariq Ismail, Tuba Esatbeyoglu,
Saeed Akhtar, and Muhammad S. Mubarak
Chapter 7 Recent Update on Medicinal Properties of Rotula aquatica Lour............................ 107
Protha Biswas, Ikbal Hasan, Uttpal Anand, Mimosa Ghorai,
Abdel Rahman Al-Tawaha, Ercan Bursal, Vartika Jain,
Devendra Kumar Pandey, Mallappa Kumara Swamy,
Mahipal S. Shekhawat, Tabarak Malik, and Abhijit Dey
v
vi Contents
Chapter 8 An Overview of Traditional Uses and Pharmacological Profile of
Sphaeranthus indicus................................................................................................ 121
Prakash Chandra Gupta and Nisha Sharma
Chapter 9 Phytochemistry and Ethnopharmacological Importance of Pistia stratiotes
L. (Hemsl) A. Grey (Araceae)................................................................................... 133
Maan B. Rokaya, Saroj Bashyal, and Binu Timsina
Chapter 10 Biological Activities and Medicinal Uses of Arundo Donax L................................. 163
Pranchal Rajput and Kundan Kumar Chaubey
Chapter 11 Sagittaria sagittifolia: An Important Aquatic Medicinal Plant with
Numerous Applications............................................................................................. 175
Pranchal Rajput, Ambika Saxena, Kundan Kumar Chaubey,
and Sujata Hariharan
Chapter 12 Pharmacological and Phytochemical Potential of Laurencia obtusa
(Hudson) J.V. Lamouroux: A Red Marine Alga........................................................ 185
Varsha Nigam
Chapter 13 Brown Algae (Phaeophyta): A Source of Different Phytochemicals and
Their Medicinal Applications.................................................................................... 203
Shaza H. Aly, Esraa A. Elhawary, Ahmed M. Elissawy, Nada M. Mostafa,
Omayma A. Eldahshan, and Abdel Nasser B. Singab
Chapter 14 Phytochemical and Bioactive Compounds of Green Algae (Chlorophyta)
and Their Applications.............................................................................................. 227
Taruni Bajaj, Hina Alim, Ahmad Ali, and Nimisha Patel
Chapter 15 Chemical Composition and Biological Activity of Red Algae (Rhodophyta).......... 251
Limenew Abate, Archana Bachheti, Mesfin Getachew Tadesse,
D.P. Pandey, Azamal Husen, and Rakesh Kumar Bachheti
Index............................................................................................................................................... 265
Preface
The prevention and treatment of illnesses have always been accomplished with herbal medicine
in every culture. These herbs are made from various plant components, including leaves, stems,
blossoms, roots, seeds, and so on. Most of these plants grow inland, i.e. in the terrestrial ecosystem,
while some are grown in the aquatic ecosystem. Aquatic and semiaquatic medicinal plants are also
vital to human welfare since they provide many of our daily needs. They have shown commercial,
nutraceutical, medicinal, and numerous biological applications. Some of the important families of
aquatic and semiaquatic medicinal plants are Acanthaceae, Alismataceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae,
Araceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Hydrocharitaceae,
Lythraceae, Marsileaceae, Menyanthaceae, Nelumbonaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Onagraceae,
Plantaginaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Pontederiaceae, Primulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and
Zingiberaceae. Numerous plants growing in the aquatic ecosystem have a high potential to be used
as medicinal plants and are often used by indigenous people. For example, the coastal states in
Australia, America, Europe, Sri Lanka, and India utilize aquatic plants for their medicinal, orna-
mental, and nutritional value. At present, with the help of published data, many researchers have
established that numerous aquatic plants have a high medicinal value. They are rich in terms of
significant chemical compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics, saponins,
tannins, dietary fibre, glycosidic derivatives, carbohydrates, and proteins. These aquatic and semi-
aquatic medicinal plant-based phytochemicals have been used for their antimicrobial, antioxidant,
hepatoprotective, sedative, anticonvulsant, cytotoxic, antiparasitic, and antidiabetic activities.
Moreover, several parts of the plants are used as dietary supplements. Several aquatic and semi-
aquatic plants are used for the green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials, which have
shown significant applications. They are also known for their commercial value and are used as
ingredients in some pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
This book provides the reader with a wide spectrum of information on aquatic medicinal plants,
including important references. The book consists of 15 chapters, and the vast coverage of diverse
aspects of the subject reflects well in the table of contents. We hope that this compendium of chapters
will be very useful as a reference book for graduate and postgraduate students and researchers
working in the fields of medicinal plants, plant science, economic botany, ecology, chemistry, bio-
technology, pharmacognosy, pharmaceuticals, industrial chemistry, nanoscience, and many other
interdisciplinary subjects. This book will be helpful in identifying some important aquatic medicinal
plants and their future possible use in the synthesis or preparation of modern drugs. Additionally, it
will be useful for scientists, experts, and consultants associated with the exploration of medicinal
plants for various purposes.
We are highly thankful to all eminent authors who have contributed chapters and provided their
valuable time and knowledge for this edited book. We are also pleased to express our gratitude to
the reviewer who has contributed specifically to the screening and revision of the articles. We shall
be happy to receive comments and criticism, if any, from subject experts and general readers of
this book.
Archana Bachheti
Rakesh Kumar Bachheti
Azamal Husen
vii
Editors
Archana (Joshi) Bachheti completed her BSc in 1997 and MSc in
1999 at Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar,
India. She received her PhD from the Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun, India in 2006. She has carried out research projects and
consultancy work in the areas of eco-restoration/development of
wasteland and physicochemical properties of Jatropha curcus seed
oil and its relation with altitudinal variation, and has been a consultant
ecologist on a project funded by a government agency. Dr Bachheti
is currently a Professor at Graphic Era University, Dehradun,
India. She has also served in many capacities in academia within
India and provided expertise internationally for more than 15 years where she taught Ecology and
Environment, Environmental Science, Freshwater Ecology, Disaster Management, and Bryophytes
and Pteridophytes. Her major research interests encompass the broad, interdisciplinary field of plant
ecology, with focus on eco-restoration, green chemistry, especially the synthesis of nanomaterial,
and medicinal properties of plants. The breadth of her research spans from degraded land ecological
amelioration and physical and chemical properties of plant oil to plant-based nanomaterials. She
has guided one PhD student and is currently supervising three scholars as well as guiding graduate
and undergraduate students in their research projects. While it was the fascination with forest bio-
diversity that captured her interest, it has been her love for the exploration of values of biodiversity
and social upliftment through it that has maintained that passion. Dr Bachheti has published more
than 65 research articles in international and national journals along with ten book chapters. She has
organized several national seminars/conferences at Graphic Era University, India.
Rakesh Kumar Bachheti graduated from the Hemwati Nandan
Bahuguna University, Garhwal, India in 1996. He completed his
MSc in Organic Chemistry from Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna
University, Garhwal, India in 1998. He undertook a one-year Post
Graduate Diploma in Pulp and Paper Technology from the Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun, India in 2001. He obtained his PhD
in organic chemistry from Kumaun University, Nainital, India in
2007. He is presently working as an Associate Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the Department of Industrial Chemistry at the Addis
Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU) of Ethiopia,
where he teaches PhD, graduate, and undergraduate students. Before joining AASTU, Dr Bachheti
was Dean Project (Assistant) in Graphic Era University (accredited by the National Assessment
and Accreditation Council as ‘A’ grade), Dehradun, India. He has also presented papers at various
international (Malaysia, Thailand, and India) and national conferences and been a member of
various important committees such as the Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) and the Antiaging
Committee. His major research interests include natural products for industrial application, bio-
fuel and bioenergy, green synthesis of nanoparticles, their application, and pulp and paper tech-
nology. He retains a fundamental love for natural products, which permeates all of his research.
He has also successfully advised 30 MSc and three PhD students to completion and countless
undergraduates have performed research in his laboratory. Dr Bachheti is actively involved in cur-
riculum development for BSc/MSc/PhD programmes. He has over 76 publications dealing with
various aspects of natural product chemistry and nanotechnology and has eight book chapters
published by Springer, Elsevier, and Nova Science Publishers. He is currently supervising three
ix
newgenprepdf
x Editors
PhD students and three Master’s students and is also working on two research projects funded
by Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Ethiopia.
Azamal Husen served as Professor and Head of the Department of
Biology, University of Gondar, Ethiopia and is a Foreign Delegate
at Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita, Ethiopia. Previously, he was
a Visiting Faculty of the Forest Research Institute, and the Doon
College of Agriculture and Forest at Dehra Dun, India. His research
and teaching experience of 20 years involves studies of biogenic
nanomaterial fabrication and application, plant responses to envir-
onmental stresses and nanomaterials at the physiological, biochem-
ical, and molecular levels, herbal medicine, and clonal propagation
for improvement of tree species.
He has conducted several research projects sponsored by various
funding agencies, including the World Bank (FREEP), the National
Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR),
the Indian Council of Forest Research Education (ICFRE), and the Japan Bank for International
Cooperation (JBIC). He received four fellowships from India and a recognition award from the
University of Gondar, Ethiopia, for excellent teaching, research, and community service. Dr Husen
has been on the Editorial board and the panel of reviewers of several reputed journals published
by Elsevier, Frontiers Media, Taylor & Francis, Springer Nature, RSC, Oxford University Press,
Sciendo, The Royal Society, CSIRO, PLOS, MDPI, John Wiley & Sons, and UPM Journals. He is
on the advisory board of Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK. He is a Fellow of the Plantae group
of the American Society of Plant Biologists, and a Member of the International Society of Root
Research, Asian Council of Science Editors, and INPST. He has over 200 publications to his credit
and is Editor-in-Chief of the American Journal of Plant Physiology.
He is also working as Series Editor of Exploring Medicinal Plants, published by Taylor & Francis
Group, USA; Plant Biology, Sustainability, and Climate Change, published by Elsevier, USA; and
Smart Nanomaterials Technology, published by Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Singapore.
1 Phytochemicals and Medicinal
Importance of Nelumbo
nucifera
Tuyelee Das,1 Sailky Sau,1 Samapika Nandy,1 Mimosa
Ghorai,2 Sayanti Mandal,2 Abdel Rahman Al-Tawaha,3
Ercan Bursal,4 Vartika Jain,5 Devendra Kumar Pandey,6
Mallappa Kumara Swamy,7 Mahipal S. Shekhawat,8
Tabarak Malik,9 Arabinda Ghosh,10 Rahul Bhattacharjee,11
and Abhijit Dey1,*
1
Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India
2
Institute of Bioinformatics Biotechnology (IBB), Savitribai Phule Pune
University (SPPU), Pune, India
3
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
Maan, Jordon
4
Department of Biochemistry, Mus Alparslan University, Mus, Turkey
5
Department of Botany, Government Meera Girls’ College, Udaipur, India
6
Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University, Punjab,
India
7
Department of Biotechnology, East West First Grade College of Science
(Bangalore University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
8
Plant Biotechnology Unit, KM Government Institute for Postgraduate
Studies and Research, Puducherry, India
9
Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine & Health Science,
School of Medicine, University of Gondar, Ethiopia
10
Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati, Assam, India
11
Tel Aviv University, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology,
Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel
*
Corresponding author (Abhijit Dey):
[email protected]1.1 INTRODUCTION
The species Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. belongs to the monocotyledonous family Nelumbonaceae.
This is one of the most common aquatic plants distributed and cultivated in Asia, the Americas, and
Oceania. Its common parts include leaves, seedpods, rhizomes, flowers, plumules, and stalks. As an
ornamental plant, lotus flowers have beautiful colours and a pleasant fragrance. In India, the lotus is
normally called kamala or padma, depending on the region. There are two different types of kamalas.
In regard to the two varieties, the first one has white flowers and is often referred to as ‘pundarika’,
while the second variety has pink or reddish-pink flowers and is referred to as ‘rakta kamala’ (Chopra
1958, p.679; Arya et al. 2022). Numerous medicinal properties are associated with N. nucifera.
Among the main parts of the lotus plant, rhizome and seeds are the most edible. This plant has
gained considerable significance due to its high concentration of bioactive secondary metabolites. It
DOI: 10.1201/9781003256830-1 1
2 Aquatic Medicinal Plants
is traditionally used to treat pectoralgias, spermatorrhoeas, pharyngopathies, small poxes, dysentery,
coughs, haematemesis, epistaxis, haemoptysis, erythrocyturia, hypermenorrhoea, fevers, cholera, and
hyperdipsia. The Ayurvedic system of medicine uses this plant to treat leprosy, headaches, nausea,
vomiting, nervous exhaustion, and other ailments. China, India, and Egypt are the three countries
honouring this beautiful aquatic flowering plant throughout history. All of these cultures depict this
flower as a symbol of perfection, purity, and beauty (Harer 1985; Karki et al. 2012, 2013). In recent
years, the leaves of N. nucifera have received extensive attention due to them being a potential source
of bioactive components. The physicochemical properties of nuciferine have been studied concerning
its possible uses in food and bioproducts (Gao et al. 2020). In this chapter, we examine the phyto-
chemistry, bioactive compounds, and pharmacological properties of N. nucifera to facilitate its fur-
ther development and application in the food, health product, and medicine industries, among others.
1.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION
Nelumbo leaves are 20–90 cm in diameter and come in two varieties: aerial and floating. Unlike the
aerial leaves, which are cup-shaped and measure 24–30 cm in diameter, the floating leaves are flat
and measure 23–30 cm in diameter. These leaves are petiolate and orbicular. There are small brown
dots on the petioles of the aerial leaves, which are erect, smooth, greenish or greenish-brown, and
sometimes rough. Lotus plants have solitary, ovoid, smooth, bisexual flowers which range in colour
from white to rosy pink. Neolumbo’s floral arrangement is polysymmetric, with some organs emer-
ging spirally (petals) and others in parallel whorls (stamens and carpels) (Hayes et al. 2000; Bishayee
et al. 2022) (Figure 1.1). It is traditionally eaten as a vegetable and used for its medicinal properties.
It is known that the roots of tuberculous plants appear yellowish-white to yellowish-brown in colour.
The inner part of the roots contains several large air pockets (Paudel and Panth 2015). Fruits are hard,
FIGURE 1.1 Photographs of lotus (N. nucifera). (A) Flower, (B) leaves, (C) rhizomes, and (D) natural
habitat. (Adapted from Bishayee et al. (2022).)
Nelumbo nucifera 3
brown, one-seeded, aggregated, ovoid, round, or oblong. The seeds of this plant live longer than the
seeds of any other flowering plant species, despite its extraordinary dormancy (Loewer 2005).
1.3 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF NELUMBO NUCIFERA
The phytochemical analysis of N. nucifera revealed the presence of a range of phytochemicals such
as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, triterpenoids, vitamins, and minerals. The rhizome, seeds, and
leaves of lotus plants have received significant attention due to their medicinal properties in the
food and pharmaceutical industries over the past few decades. This aquatic sacred lotus medicinal
plant prompted chemists and pharmacologists around the globe to perform chemical and pharmaco-
logical studies, especially on alkaloids and flavonoids. By using (high-performance liquid chroma-
tography (HPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detection–electro-spray
ionization–mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS), high-performance thin-layer chromatog-
raphy (HPTLC), liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-
ESI-MS/MS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance,
many secondary metabolites have been characterized as well as authenticated. Essential secondary
metabolites (Figure 1.2) and their nutraceutical values are tabulated (Table 1.1).
In several Asian countries, lotus plants’ rhizomes are consumed as vegetables. Lotus plants’
rhizomes are considered healthy for various reasons, including their high mineral content. Lotus
rhizomes mainly consist of starch and various trace elements. Starch obtained from N. nucifera is
used as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets. The methanol extract of the rhizome yields triter-
penoid steroids and betulinic acid (Mukherjee et al. 1996a). A new triterpenoid ester, ursane triter-
pene, has been found in the rhizomes of this plant, along with many other compounds, including
linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and α-amyrin (Chaudhuri et al. 2009).
GC-MS has been used to examine the chemical composition of N. nucifera. Lotus receptacles
contain procyanidins as their main active ingredient (Zheng et al. 2010). The essential oil
components obtained from flowers of N. nucifera from Wuhan, Hubei province, China included
Z,Z-10,12-hexadecadienal and E-14-hexadecenal. Several different extraction methods were used
to extract the essential oil components from flowers, including headspace, steam distillation, and
solvent extraction. As a result of the study, the headspace method showed potential to be used as an
in situ and a simple method for extracting essential oil ingredients from raw materials (Zhang and
Guo et al. 2020). Nineteen chemical constituents isolated from N. nucifera seeds mainly comprised
oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The medicinally active constituents were 1,8- cineole, α-terpeneol,
α-asarone, borneol, and γ-gurjunene (Khan et al. 2016).
Among the most important secondary metabolites of lotus plumules are flavonoids. Lotus plumules
were analysed by HPLC combined with ESI-MS/MS to identify five flavonoid-O-glycosides, i.e.
isoquercitrin, kaempferol 3-O-robinobioside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, rutin, and hyperoside
(Chen et al. 2012). Zhu et al. (2017) demonstrated that flavonoid C-glycosides were more potent
antioxidants than flavonoid O-glycosides from different lotus extracts. Lotus flavonoids have been
relatively little studied for their biological activities due to C-glycosylation. A distinguishable diffe-
rence between flavonoid O-glycosides and C-glycosides in lotus is that flavonoid C-glycosides are
preferentially accumulated in the plumules (where more than 70% of total flavonoid content is
concentrated). In contrast, leaves accumulate high amounts of flavonoids but exclusively flavonoid
O-glycosides (Zhu et al. 2017). Among the flavonoids in lotus leaves, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, and
astragalin showed significant antioxidative and antiviral effects on rats’ visceral adipose tissue, and
some flavonoids, such as (+)-catechin, exhibited lipolytic activity, especially in rats’ visceral adipose
tissue (Ohkoshi et al. 2007). Flavonoids have been detected in the seed oil of lotus plants using
Soxhlet’s procedure (Arumugam et al. 2012). Zhu et al. (2015) analysed a mixture of flavonoids
extracted from lotus leaves by HPLC-MS/MS and bioactivity tests, following their selective enrich-
ment in a microporous resin column. Four new flavonoids and 14 flavonoid glycosides with five
4 Aquatic Medicinal Plants
FIGURE 1.2 Essential secondary metabolites of N. nucifera.
Nelumbo nucifera 5
TABLE 1.1
Identified Secondary Metabolites and Their Medicinal Properties
Plant part Phytochemicals Class of chemical Medicinal properties References
Embryo Nuciferine Aporphine alkaloids Anti-HIV activity Kashiwada et al. 2005
Isoliensinine Alkaloids Antiproliferative activity Xiao et al. 2006
Flower Z,Z-10,12-Hexadecadienal, Essential oil – Zhang and Guo 2020
E-14-hexadecenal
Leaf (+)-1(R)-Coclaurine and Alkaloids Anti-HIV activity Kashiwada et al. 2005
(−)-1(S)-Norcoclaurine
7-Hydroxydehydronuciferine Alkaloids Antiproliferative activity Liu et al. 2014
Quercetin, isoquercitrin, Flavonoids Anti-obesity activity Ohkoshi et al. 2007
catechin, hyperoside,
astragalin
Asimilobine, alirinidine Alkaloids Serotonin antagonists Shoji et al. 1987
Seed Liensinine Alkaloids Anti-arrhythmic activity Wang et al. 1992
Lucenin 2 Flavonoids Antibacterial activity Basile et al. 1999
Isoliensinine Benzylisoquinoline Inhibits pulmonary fibrosis Xiao et al. 2005
alkaloids Cytotoxic effect Zhang et al. 2015
(S)-Armepavine Alkaloids Prevents immune diseases Liu et al. 2007
Neferine Alkaloids Antifever effects Sugimoto et al. 2008
Lupeol Triterpenes Anticancer, antiprotozoal, Gallo and Sarachine
anti-inflammatory, 2009
antimicrobial activity
Stigmast-5-en-3-ol Phytosterols Antidiabetic property Sujatha et al. 2010
1,8-Cineole, α-terpeneol, – Inhibits acetylcholinesterase, Khan et al. 2016
α-asarone, borneol, butyrylcholinesterase
γ-gurjunene
Seed pod Procyanidin Condensed tannins Superoxide Ling et al. 2005
Radical scavenging activity
Stamen Myr-3-O-Glc, rutin, Flavonoids Anti-ageing activity Tungmunnithum et al.
quer-3-O-Glu 2022
different types of aglycones were found in lotus leaves via LC-MS/MS (Zhu et al. 2015). In addition,
the main active alkaloid in lotus leaves, nuciferine, can alleviate dyslipidaemia and liver steatosis
in hamsters by inhibiting the expression of hepatic genes involved in lipid metabolism (Guo et al.
2013). Flavonoids are abundant in lotus epicarps. Cheng et al. (2012) identified 11 flavonoids in
lotus epicarps (flavonoids). In different stages of ripening, catechins, epicatechins, hyperosides, and
isoquercitrin are present in the epicarps. Flavan-3-ol levels decreased, but quercetin glucoside levels
increased as the seeds matured (Liu et al. 2015). Recently, Zhu et al. (2019) performed metabolomic
analyses in lotus cultivars with yellow and white petals flowers at five stages of flower colouration.
They observed the formation of dihydroflavonols and flavonols opposing significantly between
cultivars (Zhu et al. 2019). The plant also possesses phenolics, alkaloids, polysaccharides, saponins,
and carbohydrates (Rai et al. 2006). 9-octadecadienoic acid and 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-(3,8,12,16-
tetramethyl-heptadeca-3,7,11,15-tetraenyl)-cyclohexanol were obtained from flower receptacles of
N. nucifera (Krubha et al. 2016). Seed polysaccharides were shown to contain mainly four types
of monosaccharides, including D- mannose, D- galactose, L- arabinose, and D- glucose, through
acid hydrolysis and methylation (Das et al. 1992). Nuciferine was the first alkaloid isolated from
N. nucifera leaves. As revealed by leaf extract analysis, the alkaloids identified can be classified into
6 Aquatic Medicinal Plants
three types: aporphine alkaloids, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids.
A number of aporphine alkaloids have been found to make up most of the active compounds in lotus
leaves, including nornuciferine, anonaine, nuciferine, and roemerine (Chen et al. 2013).
1.4 MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF NELUMBO NUCIFERA
1.4.1 Anti-ageing
The sacred lotus seed extract contains anti-ageing ingredients that can help alleviate symptoms
such as loss of pliability, fine lines, acne, pores, wrinkles, and flaws. This promotes the appearance
of younger skin. Water extract from N. nucifera leaf, flower, and the seed was tested for pos-
sible functional cosmetic agents and showed an anti-wrinkle effect by inhibiting elastase and
adenosine at a dose of 200 μg/ml (Kim et al. 2011). Using a non-invasive device called the
Visioscan VC and software to measure the skin surface, we investigated the efficacy of cosmetic
formulations containing green tea and lotus extract to reduce facial wrinkles in healthy Asian
individuals (Mahmood and Akhtar 2013). In comparison with its whole flower, an ethanolic
extract of N. nucifera stamens exhibited more significant inhibition of tyrosinase and collagenase
(Tungmunnithum et al. 2022).
1.4.2 Antidiabetic Activity
An ethanol extract of N. nucifera seed ash (200 mg/kg body weight, taken orally for 30 days)
inhibited streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. It has been reported that trace elements found in
considerable amounts in seeds may have a direct or indirect effect on insulin or act synergistically
with insulin (Mani et al. 2010). It has been shown that leaf extract can lower blood insulin levels
and glucose levels in pregnant rats with gestational diabetes mellitus (Zeng et al. 2017). Methanolic
extract from leaves regulates glucose levels in mice with a high-fat diet. Catechin in the extract
significantly enhanced insulin secretion and reversed the glucose intolerance in a dose-dependent
manner (Huang et al. 2011).
1.4.3 Anticancer Activity
There is evidence that the anticancer properties of the ethanolic extract of N. nucifera are probably
due to its ability to quench free radicals. Lisinine, isoliensinine, and neferine, the alkaloids found
in the leaves of N. nucifera, inhibit cancer cell growth by enhancing reactive oxygen species
(ROS) production, activating MAP kinases, and promoting autophagy and apoptosis (Arjun
et al. 2012). The ethanolic extract of N. nucifera stamens showed dose-dependent anticancer
activity (100, 200, and 400 g/ml) against human colon carcinoma HCT116 cells. Several factors
associated with apoptosis, including death receptors, fas ligands, caspases (3, 8, and 9), and
Bcl-2, also increased (Zhao et al. 2017). Neferine, derived from the embryos of N. nucifera,
has been reported to exhibit cytotoxicity against hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells by
downregulating c-Myc, cyclin D1, D3, CDK4, E2F-1 and upregulating Bim, Bid, Bax, Bak,
Puma, caspase-3, -6, -7, -8, and PARP, and the protein expression levels of Bip, calnexin, PDI,
calpain-2, and caspase-12 (Yoon et al. 2013).
1.4.4 Antidiarrhoeal Activity
In rats, ethanol extracts of N. nucifera rhizomes showed significant antidiarrhoeal proper-
ties. In addition, the extract significantly inhibited castor oil-induced diarrhoea and PGE2-
induced enteropooling; charcoal meal propulsive movements were also reduced (Mukherjee
et al. 1995).
Nelumbo nucifera 7
1.4.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity
Leaves, seeds, and seedpods of N. nucifera dramatically decreased the protein expression of pro-
inflammatory genes such as iNOS and COX-2 and it further inhibits inflammation in LPS-stimulated
RAW 264.7 cells via regulating MAPKs, NF-κB, and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways (Lee et al. 2019). The
methanolic rhizome extract of N. nucifera, at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, showed significant anti-
inflammatory activity in carrageenin and serotonin-induced rat paw oedema. The effect was com-
parable to that of the standard drugs phenylbutazone and dexamethasone (Mukherjee et al. 1996c).
Further, seed ethanol extract (200, 300, 400 mg/kg) was tested for anti-inflammatory activity
in carrageenan-induced male white rats. It seems that 400 mg/kg is the most effective dose for
inhibiting inflammation (Fitri et al. 2021).
1.4.6 Anti-obesity Activity
Based on Ono et al.’s (2006) study of leaf extracts, the effects of the extracts on digestion enzyme
inhibition and lipid metabolism were observed in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. The leaf extract
prevents increased liver triacylglycerol levels, body weight, and fat percentage. This was due to
higher UCP3 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle (Ono et al. 2006). The effectiveness of successive
ethanol extracts of the root of N. nucifera against obesity was investigated by You et al. (2014b). The
extracts were studied for their effects on adipogenes. There was a significant reduction in relative
body weights in rat fat tissues. This came about because cholesterol levels and triglycerides were
reduced significantly in rats with fatty diet (You et al. 2014a).
1.4.7 Diuretic Activity
Methanolic extracts of rhizome of N. nucifera induce a noteworthy diuresis in a dose-dependent
manner (300, 400, or 500 mg/kg) in rats. Na+, Cl−, and K+ excretion were associated with dose-
dependent increases in urinary volume. There was less increase in urine volume when using fur-
osemide (20 mg/kg) as a standard diuretic (Mukherjee et al. 1996b).
1.4.8 Hepatoprotective Activity
The administration of ethanol root extract at 300 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg for 15 days significantly
inhibited carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) hepatotoxicity in rats (Huang et al. 2010). A rat hepatocyte tox-
icity model using CCl4 and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced hepatocyte damage was shown to exhibit
antioxidant and antihepatotoxic effects by an ethanol extract with a dose-dependent manner ranging
from 10 to 500 mg/ml (Sohn et al. 2003). Lotus leaf extracts have hepatoprotective activity due to their
free radical scavenging and antioxidant properties. This may be due to some flavonoids and phenolic
compounds found in the leaves. The polyphenol-rich butanolic extract from lotus leaves contains phen-
olic compounds such as quercetin, catechin, ferulic acid, rutin, and protocatechuic acid, which were
tested for hepatoprotective effects, and was found to reduce lipid peroxidation, inhibit ROS formation,
and increase glutathione levels in cells when exposed to oxidative stress (Je et al. 2015). Rats were
significantly protected against CCl4 and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity by oral administration
of a 50% hydroalcoholic extract of N. nucifera flowers (200 and 400 mg/kg). Flower extracts possess
hepatoprotective effects because of the control of lipid peroxidation, inhibition of cytochrome P450
activity, stabilization of hepatocellular membranes, and enhanced protein synthesis (Rao et al. 2005).
1.4.9 Antimicrobial Activity
The ethanolic extract of N. nucifera flowers has significant antibacterial and antifungal activity
against five and two important strains with concentrations of 500 µg/ml and 1000 µg/ml, respectively.
