CHAPTER: CARBON IN LIFE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to;

• Recognize that there is a diversity of carbon of carbon compounds in living things and
materials derived from living things, and that these may be classified into groups
• Understand that crude oil is a mixture of different alkanes which can be separated by
fractional distillation, that these products are used in fuels and to make other useful
products.
• Know and appreciate that natural gas deposits are found worldwide, that their main
constituent is methane and that gas deposits are useful source of fuels and chemical
feedstock.
• Appreciate that biogas is a carbon-based fuel useful for cooking and lighting
• Know some common synthetic and natural polymers and how their properties relate to
the uses.
• Understand and appreciate that alcohols form a group of compounds of which ethanol
is a typical member and has many uses.
• Understand how ethanol is made naturally by fermentation of sugars and other
organic substances, and be aware of the dangers of abuse of ethanol.
• Know the process of making soapy detergents from natural fats and oils, and
appreciate that soaps are effective in removing oily stains.
• Know that soapless detergents are made from crude oil and that soapless detergents
are better cleaning agents in hard water than the soapy detergents but have a more
deleterious effect on the environment.
• Understand how organic compounds can be grouped into homologous series, each of
which has similarities in structure and properties.

COMPETENCY

• The learner appreciates the diversity of organic compounds including alkanes,

alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids.

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Introduction

Carbon is part of many useful substances including foodstuffs, fuels, synthetic materials that
we use in our homes like plastics and cleansing agents like soap and detergents.

Carbon forms a group of compound s called organic compounds which include alkanes
alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids.

CRUDE OIL

Kerosene, petrol and diesel are carbon compounds that are used as fuel and these compounds
are products of crude oil.

crude oil is a natural resource that is found many meters below the earth.

Crude oil is formed from the remains of living things that lived many million years ago. The
organic matter of the decaying bodies of these organisms was slowly converted by heat and
pressure into crude oil.

ACTIVITY 1.1: Researching on fractional distillation of crude oil

1. Look at the figure 1.1 showing how crude oil is removed from deep below the earth.
The drilling machines have to be used to remove the crude oil from the ground.
Identify the type of rocks labeled X.
• Sedimentary rocks

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2. (i) What is the colour of crude oil?
• Crude oil is a thick, dark brown or black liquid
ii) what is another name for crude oil?
• Petroleum
3. Why is crude oil known as a fossil fuel
• Crude oil is known as fossil fuel because it was formed from the remains of living
things that lived many million years ago.
4. By what process was crude oil formed?
• Decay or decomposition
5. Figure 1.3 shows fractional distillation of crude oil. Copy it in your book, and study it
to help you understand how the process takes place.

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 Figure 1.3: fractional distillation of crude oil
a) Crude oil contains mixture of compounds called hydrocarbons. What is a
hydrocarbon?
• A hydrocarbon is a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen.
b) (i) Why is it possible to separate crude oil using fractional distillation method?
• Because hydrocarbons have different boiling points
ii) Give another word used to describe the separation of crude oil.
• Refining
iii) Crude oil contains complex hydrocarbons that have long chain molecules. In order
to obtain useful substances like petrol, these long chain molecules have to be broken
down into shorter chain molecules. What is process called?
• Cracking
c) Identify the two products of crude oil labelled A, B and C.
• A-naphtha, B-kerosene and C-diesel.
i) Which of these products has a higher boiling point? give a reason for your
answer.
• C or diesel oil has a higher boiling point because it is condensed in the lower trays.
d) Outline how fractional distillation of crude oil takes place.

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• Fractional distillation column tall and cylindrical.
• Column contains many trays at different heights.
• Each tray collects a different component of crude oil depending on its boiling point
• Each component of crude oil cools and condenses at a different temperature.
• As each component condenses, the liquid is collected in the trays.
• Components with higher boiling points condense on the lower trays in the column and
components with lower boiling points condense on the higher trays.
Note: crude oil is known as petroleum. It is removed from the ground using special
drilling machines which can cut through the layers of sedimentary rocks.
Crude oil is a thick dark coloured liquid which was formed from the remains of living
things that lived many million years ago.
Crude oil contains a mixture of different hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is a
compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
The molecules of some of these hydrocarbons have few carbon atoms and have
shorter chains while others have a big number of carbon atoms and are complex with
long chains.
The long chain molecules can be broken down into shorter chain molecules in the
process known as Cracking.
The different components obtained from crude oil are called fractions. Examples
include naphtha, kerosene, diesel and petrol.

Process of fractional distillation of crude oil

➢ Fractional distillation of crude oil takes place in tall and cylindrical containers or
columns.
➢ Each of these fractional columns has many plates that look like trays positioned at
different heights. Each tray collects a different component of crude oil depending on
its boiling point.
➢ The crude oil is heated at a very high temperature of about 3500C to produce a
gaseous mixture of components which moves up the columns. As it rises to the top of
the column, each component of crude oil cools and condenses at a different
temperature and is collected in the trays.

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 ➢ The components with higher boiling points condense on the lower trays in the column
and components with lower boiling points condense in the trays positioned higher up
the column.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is formed in the same way as crude oil and is found together with crude oil, and
the main gas found in natural gas is mainly methane.

Natural gas is a fossil fuel, which is found deep under the eath, between the two layers of
impervious rocks, either above or along with petroleum deposits. It is produced abundantly in
marshy areas. It consists of a mixture of methane and ethane. It is stored under high pressure
as Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).

It is an efficient and convenient fuel because it does not any ash or smoke on burning.

The composition of natural gas consists of 95% methane and 5% of a mixture of ethane,
propane and ethylene.

CNG is highly inflammable and it is supplied through pipelines.

EXERCISE

1. Complete the following passage by filling in the missing words.

a) Crude oil or ……………………..is separated into different components by a
process called ………………… . The process of breaking down or converting
long chain hydrocarbons into molecules with shorter chains is called ……….
b) The different hydrocarbons in crude oil can be separated because they have ……
c) Hydrocarbons with shorter chains have ………………boiling points than
hydrocarbons with longer chains.
d) The gaseous products formed from crude oil contain between …………carbon
atoms.
2. What is the main gas found in natural gas?
3. Describe how petroleum is refined.

BIOGAS

Biogas is a gas that is produces by decomposition of plant and animal waste products.

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Biogas is a mixture of different gases which include methane (60-80%), carbon dioxide (35-
40%), hydrogen (2-7%), hydrogen sulphide (2%), ammonia and nitrogen (0-0.2%).

The ability of biogas to burn is due to methane which constitutes the biggest percentage.
Methane gas is an inflammable gas and this shows one of the properties of alkanes. When
alkanes burn, a lot of heat is produced.

Therefore, biogas is used as a fuel in cooking and lighting in homes and industries.

Activity 1.2: Finding out how biogas is made

Discussion questions

1. What is the colour and chemical composition of bio gas?

• Biogas is a colourless gas. It is composed of a mixture of gases, mainly of methane
and small amounts of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen
2. What other products are produced during the production of biogas?
• Sludge (which is used as manure and making animal feeds)
3. Study figure 1.5 showing stages in the preparation and use it to help you describe the
steps involved in the preparation of biogas.
Waste mixing, biogas produced, waste collection, anaerobic digestion.
The words above describe what happens at each stage of biogas production. Use them
to identify the processes labelled A, B, C and D.

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• A: waste collection
• B: waste mixing
• C: anaerobic digestion
• D: biogas produced

b) Describe another natural process by which biogas is produced

• The biogas is produced by anaerobic micro-organisms living in the digestive

system of ruminant animals like cows, goats and elephants. The faeces of these
animals contain micro-organisms that breakdown wastes into biogas.

HOW BIOGAS CAN BE MADE AT HOME

• The waste is collected and mixed with specific proportion of water.

• This mixture is passed into another tank or chamber where bacteria breakdown the
organic substances like carbohydrates, proteins and fats into sugars, amino acids
and fatty acids.
• The sugars, amino acids and fatty acids are then passed into an anaerobic chamber
where micro-organisms convert them into carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen
sulphide, ammonia and methane.

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 • Biogas is used for cooking and lighting. It is a renewable gas because can be used
continuously without getting exhausted or used up.
• The residue that remains is called is called bio-slurry which can be used as an
organic fertilizer and for producing animal feeds.
Activity 1.3 : Finding out the uses of biogas
Questions
1. Give disadvantages of using charcoal and wood as sources of fuel energy
• It is expensive
• They cause a lot of air pollution
• Their use leads to deforestation resulting in soil erosion, flooding,
climate change, less yields of crops and many other problems
2. Give uses of biogas.
• For cooking
• For lighting
• Can be used in instruments used for water heating.
• Production of biogas produces a very useful dry solid byproduct which
is used as manure.
3. What is the advantage of using biogas as a source of energy?
• It does not cause air pollution
• It is not expensive
• It does not lead to climate change
4. What other product is produced during biogas production and what are its
uses?
………………………………………………
5. Why biogas described as a clean energy?
• Because it does not pollute the air or does not produce smoke and
dangerous gases
6. Why is biogas considered as a clean energy?
• Because it can be used continuously without getting exhausted
7. How has biogas benefitted people in rural areas?
……………………………………………………………..

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 8. Write a report on the chemical nature of biogas, how it is made and its
importance. Your report should include a chemical nature of biogas, diagram
of how biogas is prepared with a flow chart and benefits of biogas.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Carbon forms many important compounds that form the food of living organisms, bodies of
living organisms, fuels and synthetic materials that we use daily in our homes. However, man
has discovered even more uses carbon compounds.

Compounds containing carbon that form long chains in their structure are called organic
compounds.

Compounds like carbonates and oxides are not organic compounds because they do not form
long chains with carbon.

Organic compounds are studied in a separate branch of chemistry called organic chemistry.

Organic compounds are formed when carbon atoms form bonds with other carbon atoms.

Organic compounds can be grouped into different groups or families. Each group of organic
compounds forms a family called a homologous series.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

A homologous series is defined as a group/a family of organic compounds with regular

structural pattern having similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the
successive members differ in the molecular formula by a -CH2 group

A carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and therefore can share them with
four other atoms. This means that the carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with four other
atoms. The bonds formed between carbon atoms are strong bonds because of the strong
forces of attraction between the carbon atoms. The carbon to carbon bonds may be single,
double or triple as shown in the figure 1.7.

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The common homologous series include alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids.

The chemical properties of each homologous series are determined by its functional group.

1. ALKANES

Alkanes are the simplest organic compounds that have single carbon to carbon bonds. The
general formula of an alkane is CnH2n+2, where n is the number of atoms.

Alkanes are described as saturated compounds.

Some products of compounds of alkanes you see and use everyday are as seen in the
figure 1.8

The simplest alkane is formed when one atom of carbon combines with four atoms of
hydrogen. This is called methane and it is the first member of alkanes. It is represented by
the molecular formula CH4

Structural formula of methane is as shown in figure 1.9 below

Prepared by [email protected] (CHEM DEPT SPEBOK 2023)

0786667080/0708331280
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A Structural formula shows arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

A molecular formula is a way of representing the number and type of atoms in a

molecule.

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 • Alkanes have a single bond between their carbon atoms.
• The carbon to carbon single bond is the functional group of alkanes
• Their names end with the suffix-ane.
• The numbers of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms have a
mathematical relationship between them. If the number of carbon
atoms is known, the number of carbon atoms can be calculated by
multiplying the number of carbon atoms by two and adding two. This
written as (2X + 2) where x is the number of carbon atoms.
• All members conform to a general molecular formula e.g.
CnH2n+2 for alkanes. If n=2, C2H6(ethane); if n=4, C4H10 (butane)
• The first four alkanes are gases at room temperature, pentane is a
liquid.
• Alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like
ethanol.
• Alkanes burn in excess air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and
heat.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + heat

• In limited supply of air, alkanes burn to form carbon monoxide, water

vapour, heat and sometimes carbon
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l) + heat
Or
CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 2H2O(g) + Heat.

• Alkanes produce a lot of heat when burnt. This is why alkanes like
methane and propane are used as fuels in cooking gas and industries,
and butane is used in cigarette lighters.
• Alkanes also produce carbon monoxide and soot and so they cause air
pollution.

Prepared by [email protected] (CHEM DEPT SPEBOK 2023)

0786667080/0708331280
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 Properties of alkanes
• The first four members are gases at room temperature while pentane is
a liquid
• They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like ethanol
• They have carbon to carbon single bond
• They burn in air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and heat. In
limited supply of air , alkanes burn to form carbon monoxide, water
vapour, heat and soot or unburnt carbon.

Uses of alkanes in our daily lives

• Alkanes are used as raw materials to manufacture materials like plastic, bottles,
jerrycans, as fuels in gas cookers.

ALKENES

Most of the plastics we use everyday are made from alkenes as shown in figure 1.10 below.

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a general formula of CnH2n. where n=2
or more. They are characterized by possession of a double bond between carbon
atoms.

Alkenes are described as unsaturated hydrocarbons because the combining

capacity of the carbon atoms is not fully used. For example, in ethene only two
hydrogen atoms are attached to a carbon atom instead of four.

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Nomenclature and structure
Alkenes are named as alkanes except that their names end with suffix –ene.
Consider the table below.

The functional group of alkenes is a carbon-carbon double bond.

Uses of alkenes e.g ethene

- it is used in the manufacture of ethanol
- it is used in the ripening of fruits
- it is used in the manufacture of plastics (synthetic polymers e.g. polythene)
- it is also used in preparing other solvents
-used as raw materials for manufacturing PVC pipes

Properties of alkenes

• They have double bonds between carbon atoms.

• Alkenes exist naturally in all three states.
• Alkenes are insoluble in water but alkenes are soluble in organic solvents.
• The boiling points of alkenes depend on their molecular structure.

Qn. What is the difference in structure between an alkene and an alkane?

• An alkane has a single bond between its carbon atoms while an alkene has a
double bond between its carbon atoms.

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Properties of ethene
Physical properties
- Is a colourless gas with a faint sweet smell
- It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents eg benzene and
methylbenzene
- It is slightly less dense than air

Chemical properties
Alkenes are generally more reactive than corresponding alkanes. They undergo the
following reaction
Combustion
Alkenes burn in air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour, heat and soot.
Ethene burns in excess oxygen with a smoky flame since it contains a relatively high
percentage of carbon forming carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Write equation for combustion of ethene
………………………………………………………………………………………

ALCOHOLS
These are organic compounds with hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to the hydro carbon.
Alcohols have a general formula of CnH2n+1OH.
Alcohols are named by placing –ol in the place of –e in the corresponding alkane
members.

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Properties of alcohols
Physical properties of alcohols
• They are colourless liquids with a characteristic smell
• Alcohols are soluble in water
• They have higher boiling points of corresponding alkanes.
Chemical properties of alcohols
• They are inflammable.
• They burn to produce water and carbon dioxide eg ethanol burns in air to produce
water and carbon dioxide.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
• They can be dehydrated to form alkenes by reacting with strong acid such as
concentrated sulphuric acid.
They can be oxidized to form carboxylic acids when exposed to air or by reacting
with oxidizing agents. E.g CH3CH2OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(g)
• They react with carboxylic acids to form sweet smelling substances called esters.
Qn what is the colour and smell of ethanol?
• Ethanol is colourless and has a sweet smell.
What is the physical state of ethanol?
• Liquid
Note:
o When ethanol is mixed with water, a uniform mixture/homogeneous mixture
is formed, this shows that Ethanol is soluble in water.
o The reaction between concentrated sulphuric acid and ethanol produces toxic
and corrosive gases like Sulphur dioxide.
o When concentrated sulphuric acid is heated with ethanol, it produces
ethene.
CH3CH2OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(g)
Qn: When ethanol is exposed ti the air for many hours. What do you observe?
➢ Ethanol absorbs water from air. Ethanol turns to acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
when exposed to air due to action of bacteria in the air.

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 MANUFACTURE OF ETHANOL
Preparation of ethanol
Ethanol is manufactured/ prepared by the process of fermentation of carbohydrates such as
starch and sugars.
Fermentation
This is a process in which carbohydrates like starch and sugars are converted to alcohol by
enzymes. The enzymatic break down of glucose yields simple compounds like ethanol and
carbon dioxide. Some heat is as well generated. Fermentation takes place in the absence of
oxygen (anaerobic process).
Preparation from starch
Starch is heated with malt at a temperature of 60˚C. Malt contains an enzyme
diastase which hydrolyses starch to maltose.

2C6H10O5(aq) + H2O(l) C12H22O11(aq)

(Starch) (maltose)

Yeast is added at room temperature to the mixture and left to ferment for 2-3
days. Yeast contains two enzymes, maltase and zymase. Maltase catalyses the
hydrolysis of maltose to glucose as below.

C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) 2C6H12O6

(Maltose) ( Glucose

Zymase catalyses the breakdown of glucose into ethanol, carbon dioxide,

producing heat in the process.

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g) + Heat

(Glucose) (Ethanol

The crude ethanol produced can then be concentrated or purified by

fractional distillation.

Preparation of ethanol from millet

- Millet flour is mixed with little water to form paste. The mixture is then
put underground for about 8 days.
- It is then removed, roasted and dried under the sun.

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- The dried material is then mixed with germinated millet flour (yeast).
- Water is added and the mixture allowed to ferment for about 3 days in a
warm place. This forms a local drink known as ―Malwa.

Preparation of ethanol from ripe bananas

- Ripe bananas are squeezed to obtain the juice.
- The juice is filtered to remove the solid particle.
- The juice is mixed with roasted sorghum flour and the mixture allowed
to ferment for 1-3 days in a warm place. A crude form of ethanol locally
known as ―Tonto‖ is obtained.

Beer is made by the fermentation of the starch in barley; wine by the

fermentation of sugars in grapes. Spirits are obtained by distillation of
dilute solutions produced by fermentation and there fore have an increased
alcoholic content.

Uses of ethanol
- It is used as an alcoholic beverage e.g. beers, wines and spirits.
- It is used as a solvent for paints, varnishes e.t.c
- It is used as a fuel in food warmers.
- It is used to sterilize medical equipment.

-used as a solvent
- It is used as a thermometric liquid especially in minimum and maximum thermometers.

-It is for making anaesthetic ether used in surgical theatres.

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 ACTIVITY:
AIM: Debating whether ethanol is useful or harmful
Carry out the debate to enable you find out whether ethanol is useful or harmful. Use
this debate to help you explain why excessive intake of ethanol is dangerous. Agree and
share the uses of ethanol as a class.

Note the following

• Ethanol is found in alcohol drinks like beer, wine, brandy, whiskey, gin, local beer or
malwa and sanitizers used against COVID-19.
• One of the reasons why people take alcohol is because they think it helps them to
‘forget’ their problems.
• People get drunk because of the effect ethanol has on the nervous system. The effects
of these alcoholic drinks are due to ethanol.
• Abuse of ethanol refers to the habit of misusing ethanol. This includes overusing or
excessive consumption of ethanol. This is also referred to as addiction.
• Although ethanol may seem to provide benefits like energy, its continuous intake can
make a person become addicted to it. This means that person feels he/she cannot do
without it. This habit is hard to stop.
• Besides this, ethanol has many other negative effects on the body. When ethanol is
taken into the body, it is taken as an impurity which must be removed from the body as
quickly as possible. This function is carried out by liver in a process called
detoxication. Too much consumption of alcohol can result in liver damage.
• The removal of ethanol from the body causes the heart to pump blood at a high rate,
which results in high blood pressure.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are compounds that we meet everyday at home, market, in shops and
medical centres. For example, carboxylic acids are contained in most compounds like citrus

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 fruits eg oranges and lemons, sour milk or yoghut, vinegar and aspirin tablets, all contain
naturally occurring carboxylic acids.

Activity

AIM: Studying the properties of carboxylic acids

What you need

Red and blue litmus paper, test tubes, beaker, glass rod, lime water, sodium hydrogen
carbonate or baking powder, oranges

Part 1

What to do:

1. Use the materials provided to enable you find out characteristics of carboxylic acids.
2. Squeeze a little orange juice into a beaker. Transfer equal amounts of the orange juice
into three clean test tubes.
3. To the first test tube of orange juice, dip red and blue litmus. Note any colour changes
4. Using a clean glass rod, get a small sample of orange juice from the second test tube,
taste. What do you notice?
5. Add a little amount of sodium hydrogen carbonate to orange juice in the third test
tube. Notice the changes.

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 Discussion questions
1. Which acid do you think makes orange juice have this taste?
2. From your observation, state three characteristics of carboxylic acids
3. (a) Mention the sources of carboxylic acids you know
(b) Mention the carboxylic acid contained or produced in each of the sources you
have mentioned in (a) above
• Oranges-Ascorbic acid
• Vinegar- Ethanoic acid or acetic acid
• Yoghurt- Lactic acid
• Aspirin tablets - Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)

Part 2: The table showing molecular and structural formula of the first three carboxylic
acids

What are the properties of carboxylic acids?

• Carboxylic acids have\ higher boiling points than corresponding alcohols

• Carboxylic acids are acidic having pH ranges from 2 to 3
• Carboxylic acids have pleasant odours/smell.

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 Uses of carboxylic acids in our day today life
• Citric acids in fruits, malic acid in grapes and apples provides a good source of nutrients
like vitamin C
• Lactic acid in sour milk helps boost our immune system and prevent certain types of
cancer.
• Citric acid and sodium benzoate from benzoic acid are used as preservatives.
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is used as an antioxidant and an anti-aging agent
• Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents
• Hexanedioic acid for the manufacture of nylon-6,6, a commercially important polymer
• Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating industries
• Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)(Aspirin) is used in the alleviation of pain and fever and to
reduce cholesterol in the blood.
• Citric acid, tartaric, lactic are used in cosmetics to help improve skin health by retention
of moisture, unblocking skin pores, improving skin texture, removing skin wrinkles.
They are used to add flavors and fragrances to perfumes and cosmetics.

EXERCISE
1. Below is a list of some organic compounds. Use it to enable you to answer the questions
that follow.
Pentanoic acid, Butene, hexanol, benzoic acid, ethanoic avid, methanol, pent-2-ene,
octane, hexane.
a) Which of the organic compounds are hydrocarbons?
b) Classify the organic compounds into their groups giving one reason why you have
classified each one into its group.
2. Identify the homologous series in which each of the following organic compounds is
classified.
a) C2H5COOH (b) C3H7OH (c) C4H10 (d) C2H4 (e) C2H2

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 POLYMERS

Polymerization
Is the combination of many molecules of the same compound with relatively small
molecular masses to form one complex molecule with very large molecular mass.
The complex molecule with a large molecular mass formed by the combination of
many molecules of relatively small molecular masses is called the polymer. The
small molecules from which a polymer is built are called monomers

How do we define a polymer?

• A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules composed of

of many repeating subunits.
Methane is used as a starting raw material for making some of these polymers.
Polymers are classified into natural and synthetic polymers.

Qn. Distinguish between natural and synthetic polymers

ACTIVITY: classifying natural and synthetic polymers

Critically observe the pictures in figure 1.19. identify the pictures and classify them as natural
or synthetic polymers

Discussion questions:

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1. Distinguish between natural and synthetic polymers
• Natural polymers are naturally occurring polymers not made by man while synthetic
polymers are man-made polymers.
2. From the activity you have just done, write down the natural and synthetic polymers.
Use a table to present your findings.
Natural polymers Synthetic polymers
Starch, cellulose, proteins, natural Polyethene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon,
rubber, wool, cotton, silk synthetic rubbers, Perspex, melamine

3. Give two examples of natural and synthetic polymers.

Natural polymers
……………………………………
Synthetic polymers
…………………………………………………
4. From the following list of substances, identify the organic compound or polymer they
contain.
Cotton, latex, silk, tyres, chapatti, wood, eggs, PVC pipes, non-stick frying pan, cake
pans, wool from sheep.
Substance Organic compound or polymer

Cotton Cellulose or polysaccharide

Latex Natural rubber or polyisoprene
Silk Protein or fibroin
Tyres Vulcanized rubber
Chapatti Starch or polysaccharide
Wood Cellulose or polysaccharide
Eggs Protein
PVC pipes Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
polychloroethene
Non-stick frying pan Polytetrafluoroethene
Cake pans Thermosetting plastic

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 Wool from sheep Protein or keratin

5. Find out how the structure of the polymer you have named in 3 is related its uses.
Substance or material Structure of polymer in relation to use
Cotton Cotton is made up of long chains of glucose units that are not closely packed and
so can be used in fibre form to make cloth.
Latex The polymers in latex are flexible and tough and used for making rubber
materials like rubber bands, balloons, gloves, tyres and gum boots.
Silk Silk is made up of long and stretched chains of protein that are held together by
strong hydrogen bonds and so can be used to make clothes, beddings etc
Tyres Tyres are made up of chains of vulcanized rubber which has long polymer chains
Chapatti Wheat flour is made up of polymers of protein which in turn are made up of
different amino acids. Proteins can be broken down into amino acids that are
useful nutrients in the body.
Wood Wood is hard and strong because it is made of long chains of glucose units that
are closely packed and the bonds holding these chains together are strong and so
hold the chains of the polymer together.
Eggs Eggs are made up of polymers of protein which in turn are made up of different
amino acids. Proteins can be broken into amino acids that are useful nutrients
PVC pipes PVC is hard and rigid because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between chlorine and carbon atoms or carbo-chlorine bonds and has a high
melting point and so is used for making PVC pipes and electrical appliances.
Wool Wool is made long, slender and elastic fibres of protein that are coiled and
closely packed. This makes wool soft and useful for providing warmth.
Cake pans Polytetrafluoroethene has high melting point of 3270C, resistant to chemicals,
thermosetting substance and so used for coating cooking utensils
Non-stick frying pan Polytetrafluoroethene has high melting point of 3270C, resistant to chemicals,
thermosetting substance and so used for coating cooking utensils

6. Classify each of the following substances into natural and synthetic polymers:
(a) Cellulose (c) Polythene (e) rubber (f) plastic (g) Polyvinyl chloride

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 (b) Starch (d) Nylon (h) fats (i) proteins

Natural polymers
Polymer Monomer Use
Manufacture of ethanol,
Starch Glucose
as animal food etc
Repair of worn out
Proteins Amino acids
tissues
Cellulose Glucose Cell walls
Glycogen Glucose Source of energy
Lipids (fats and oil) Fatty acids and glycerol Source of energy,
Making foot wears
Natural rubber Isoprene Making car tyres
Making golf balls etc
Making clothes, bed
cotton cellulose
sheets, paper etc
Making clothings,
Wool Amino acids
blankets, woolen carpets.

Synthetic (artificial) polymers

Polymer Monomer Use

-Making containers, eg plastics bowls
Polyethene ethene and dust bins
-used as wrapping materials
-Making rain coats
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Chloroethene - making insulator for cables
-making pipes
-making packing materials
- making house hold items such as
Polystyrene styrene
combs, plastic cups and a common
lining in refrigerator
perspex Making lenses, aeroplane windows etc
Nylon Making ropes, bottles, fishing nets

Plastics
A plastic is a substance which when soft can be formed into different shapes.
Plastics are minor products formed by cracking of crude oil eg poly ethene, Polyvinyl
chloride, Melamine
All synthetic polymers are plastics in nature
Advantages of plastics
-They are good thermal and electrical insulators

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- They can easily be shaped and moulded (they are ductile)
- They resistant to acids and alkalis and they do not rust
-plastics can be coloured when they are being manufactured and they do not need repainting
- They are light and therefore portable
-They are cheap

Disadvantages
- Produce poisonous fumes when they are burnt
- They are non biodegradable i.e they do not decay naturally
- Where serious fire hazards occur, molten plastics can inflict very severe burn

SOAP

Qn. Define the term soap

• Soap is sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.

Structure of soap
Soap has two ends. One end is made up of the sodium of potassium ion. This side
easily combines with water and is sometimes called hydrophilic or water loving.

The other end is made up of the hydrocarbon chain. This end does not easily combine with
water but combines more easily with oil, and is called hydrophobic or water repelling or
water fearing. This can be represented using the formula StCOO-Na+ where St represents the
hydrocarbon chain.

Note: Qn. Distinguish between fats and oils

• Fats are solids at room temperature whereas oils are liquids at room temperature.

QN. Give sources of oils and fats

✓ Vegetable oils; Ground nuts, castor seeds, cotton seeds, simsim seeds, sunflower,
coconut seeds.

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 ✓ Fats: mutton, beef, butter, pork.

Qn: Give examples of fats and oils

……………………………………………………………………….

MAKING OF SOAP

Soap is prepared by the process called Saponification.

ACTIVITY 1: MAKING SOAP FROM ASH

What you need

• Ash from wood or charcoal -Steel or plastic or glass containers like beakers
• Rain or distilled water - Animal fat or plant oil

What to do:

1. Mix ash with rain water in a glass beaker and boil for about 15 to 20 minutes.
2. Allow the ash mixture to cool and settle so that the solid particles settle at the bottom.
(alternatively, you may also separate the big particles from the powder ash by sieving)
3. Decant the top clear ash liquid layer or filter using filter paper or cloth, and boil again
4. Heat the animal fat in another glass beaker until it all melts. Then, add about an equal
volume of the boiling ash liquid to the melted fat. Add little salt
5. Heat the mixture of ash liquid and animal fat while stirring continuously until it looks
like thick porridge. Allow the mixture to cool. This is soap
Note:
Qn: Explain why aluminium saucepans or containers made of aluminium should note
be used for making soap.
• Aluminium is an amphoteric metal, so it will behave like an acid and reacts with
sodium hydroxide to form a complex salt called sodium aluminate and hydrogen
gas is formed as shown in the reaction.
2NaOH (aq) + 2Al(s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaAlO2(aq) + 2H2(g)

Why rain water is used instead of tap water?

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 • Rain water is soft or does not contain dissolved ions like calcium, magnesium
or iron unlike tap water.
❖ In the absence of animal fats, plant or vegetable oil may be used. Common salt contains
sodium which reacts with fatty acid ion to form a precipitate which makes the soap
harden.

Activity 2: Making soap from coconut oil

What you need:

Apparatus:- filter funnel - weighing balance

-measuring cylinder - stirring rod

-glass beaker - soap mould like petri dish or evaporating dish

Chemicals

• 20% Sodium hydroxide solution - Coconut oil

• Sodium chloride
What to do:
1. Measure accurate quantities of the materials ie 25cm3 of coconut oil, 30cm3 of 20%
sodium hydroxide and 15g of salt.
2. Heat the coconut oil in the glass beaker until it melts.
3. Add the sodium hydroxide to the coconut oil in the beaker and stir well with a stirring
rod. Make observations.
• A suspension or emulsion is formed

4. Add the salt to the mixture and stir. What do you observe?
• A white precipitate is formed.
5. Continue stirring the mixture for about 10-15 minutes. What do you observe?
• The mixture becomes thick and forms a uniform solution
6. Pour the mixture into your soap moulds which may be a petri dish or evaporating dish.
7. Allow the mold to cool and set.

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General preparation of soap

• The vegetable oil/ animal fat is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
while stirring until the vegetable oil/ fat completely dissolves.
• The solution is cooled and concentrated sodium chloride is added to precipitate the
soap. The soap floats and skimmed off. It can then be processed into bars or soap
powder.

Note: Sodium hydroxide behaves like potassium hydroxide. Salt is added to harden the
mixture. The sodium ions from the sodium chloride forms bonds with the fatty acids/
carboxylic acid forming an insoluble salt.

Discussion question

An incomplete flow chart representing the different stages of formation of soap. Use the
following words to complete the flow chart:

Precipitate, solution and suspension

EXERCISE

1. Write a word equation to show how soap is formed is formed. name the alkali, acid
and salt
❖ Fatty acid or carboxylic acid + potassium hydroxide Soap
Acid is …………………….
Alkali is …………………………..
Salt is …………………………..
2. What happens to the sodium ions from the alkali?

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 ❖ The sodium ions from the alkali take up the position of hydrogen ions in the fatty acid
to form sodium salt.
3. Why is soap called a salt?
❖ Because it is formed by the reaction between an acid and an alkali.
4. Give advantages and disadvantage of using soap
Advantages of using soap
• Soaps are biodegradable hence do not cause water pollution

Disadvantages of using soap

• Soap forms scum with hard water leading to soap wastage

DETERGENTS/ SOAPLESS DETERGENTS

A non-soapy detergent is a sodium or potassium salt of a long chain sulphonic acid.

A detergent is a substance made from synthetic or man-made materials and is more effective
than soap.

These detergents contain the sulphonate group as the polar hydrophilic part, while the non-
polar hydrophobic part is the alkyl group or the hydrocarbon chain.

Detergents may be in solid or powder or liquid form

Qn: Give examples of detergents you know.

Both soap and detergents remove dirt

ACTIVITY: Comparing effectiveness of soaps and detergents

What you need:

- Piece of washing soap - Detergent powder - Water

- 2 white clothes with same stains - Dish or basin

What to do:

1. Dissolve the soap and detergent in the same amount of water in different basins
2. Put the dirty white clothes of the same size separately into the soap/ detergent water in
the basin.

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 3. Wash the two pieces of cloth for the same amount of time and observe which cloth
becomes whiter ( has its satins disappear).

Discussion questions

1. Which cloth took a shorter time to become clean?

2. Explain why the cloth you have mentioned in 1 above took a shorter time?
3. Which cleaning agent is more effective?
4. What makes detergents more effective than soap in removing dirt?
• Because they form soluble products when used with hard water.in other words, the
calcium and magnesium ions in the hard water react with the anions in the detergent to
form soluble products.
5. Give reasons why detergents do not form scum with hard water
• This is because they form soluble calcium and magnesium salts in water.

How do soap and detergents work?

Soap and detergents help us to remove dirt and disease-causing germs from our bodies and

clothes

Soap is a kind of molecule in which both the ends have different properties. The first one is the
hydrophilic end which dissolves water and is attracted to it whereas the second one is the
hydrophobic end that is dissolved in hydrocarbons and is water repulsive in nature.

When soap is added or mixed with water, the hydrophobic ends of the soap molecules move to
the water surface. They end up facing away from the layer of water molecules on the water
surface. This separates the water molecules and reduces the surface tension of water.

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Air bubbles form in the thin spherical layers of soap molecules, and float on the water surface
forming lather.

The soap molecules arrange themselves into tiny bunches as shown in the figure below.

The dirt is removed from clothes and the skin by chemical reactions and mechanical action or
rubbing. Mechanical action breaks up the oily or greasy dirt into tiny droplets to form a
suspension called emulsion. These dirt droplets are then removed by rinsing.

QN. Describe the cleansing action of soap.

• Soap has a high affinity for both dirt and water.

• Soap contains the water-soluble end of soap (hydrophilic end) which is attracted to the
water while long hydrocarbon end (hydrophobic) which is attracted to the dirt hence
dissolving it, with agitation, dirt particles are removed and suspended in water
(emulsified).

Advantages of using detergents over soap

• Do not form scum with soap

• Cheap since they are made from by-products of oil refining
• Are neutral in solution since they do not hydrolyze in water

Disadvantages of detergents

• Are non-biodegradable hence cause water pollution.

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 • Detergents contain phosphates, when poured in water bodies, those phosphates act as
nutrients /food for certain algae. The algae will increase in water and use up all the
oxygen in the water hence the aquatic plants and animals will eventually die.

QN: Explain why is not advisable to dispose detergents in water bodies.

EXERCISE

1. Study figure 1.23 illustrating what happens when soap is added or mixed with water

a) Describe what happens to the soap molecules and water molecules?

• The soap molecules arrange themselves into tiny bunches. The hydrophilic side will
point outwards and the hydrophobic side will end up facing inwards.
b) Explain why the soap molecules and water molecules behave in the way you have
describe in (a ) above.
• The hydrophilic side point outwards because it is attracted to the water molecules.
The hydrophobic side faces inwards because it is attracted to the dirt and because it
repels water, it faces away from the layer of water molecules on the water surface.

2 . Surface tension of water is caused by attractive forces between the water molecules. These
forces pull the water molecules inwards making the water molecules on the surface to resist
being stretched or broken. Figure 1.25 below show how the surface tension of water in a drop
can be affected when soap is added to it.

a) Describe what happens to the water drop when soap is added to it.
• The water drop spreads out and covers a wider surface area of the cloth.

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 ACTIVITY: Investigating how soap and detergents form lather

What you need

- 4 pieces of dirty clothes of the same size

- 4 beakers or plastic dishes
- Soft water
- Hard water
- Soap
- Detergents
What to do:
1. Pour equal volumes of soft water and hard water two clean beakers
2. Put soap into each of the beakers
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the detergent.
4. Put one piece of dirty cloth into each of the four beakers
5. Wash by rubbing the cloth materials
6. What do you observe?
Discussion questions
1. Write a conclusion of your investigation
……………………………………………………..
2. Explain why detergents are more effective than soap when used for washing
hands and clothes.
❖ Soft water contains no dissolved calcium and magnesium salts unlike hard water.
❖ Both soap and detergents work effectively in soft water. However, detergents are more
effective than soap in hard water.
❖ This is because hard water contains dissolved calcium and magnesium salts which form
scum with soap. Scum is an insoluble precipitate formed when calcium and magnesium
ions in the hard water react with wih the anions in the soap as in the reactions below.
RCOO- (aq) + Ca2+(aq) (RCOO)2Ca(s)
RCOO- (aq) + Mg2+(aq) (RCOO)2Mg(s)
Soap ions in hard water scum (insoluble salt)
❖ The scum prevents soap from reacting with the dirt. The soap first reacts with all the
calcium and magnesium ions in the hard water before it reacts with the dirt.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF SOAPLESS DETERGENTS
Soapless detergents are not friendly to the environment because they take long
or cannot be easily broken down by micro-organisms, in other words, they are
non-biodegradable.

ACTIVITY: Researching on the effects of soapless detergents on the environment.

What to do:

Figure below shows activities and their effects on the environment

Discussion questions

1. Identify the activities shown in the figure above.

………………………………………….
2. Discuss the effects of soapless detergents on the environment
………………………………………………………….
3. (a) what natural resource shown?
b) What is the colour of this resource?
c) Is this the natural colour of this resource?
d) (i) Explain what has caused the natural resource you have mentioned in (a) above
to get the colour you have mentioned in (b) above.
ii. What is the danger of having the resource affected as you have explained in (d)
(i) above?
❖ It can suffocate fish and other aquatic plant life (prevent aquatic organisms from getting
oxygen)
Note:

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 - Other effects of detergents come from the chemicals added as perfumes and
antibacterial agents like zinc, cadmium, and lead. These are carcinogenic or cause
cancer.
- Pollutants from detergents cause illness such as skin irritation, sore throat, nausea,
stomach pains and liver damage.
- In many cases, these effects lead to complications and death.
- Finally, such contaminated water is expensive to purify for domestic use.

CROSSWORD PUZZLE
AIM: to learn vocabulary related to carbon in life

6 . A formula showing the number of atoms in a molecule

8 . Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms in their molecules

9 . A formula showing the way atoms are arranged in a molecule

10 . A cleaning agent made by reacting an alkali and carboxylic acid or oil or animal fat

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12 . A substance made from synthetic or man-made materials and is used more effective than
soap

Down

1. A family of organic compounds with the chemical properties and general formula
2. An inflammable gas produced by anaerobic decomposition of plant or animal material

4 . A family of organic compounds containing the hydroxyl group as their functional group.

5 . A substance or material that can be used for producing energy

7 . Another name for crude oil

11 . Hydrocarbons that have a double bond between carbon atoms in their molecules

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 ACTIVITY OF INTEGRATION

All the time people interact with various materials in their homes. These materials are used
for different purposes. It has been found that many people have a limited understanding of
the chemical nature of the materials that they use. And yet in order to benefit more from
these materials, people need to understand their chemical nature and properties. This
situation is the same in the community around your school.

As a senior three student, you have been selected by the district leaders to give a presentation
to the community members near your school to help them understand more about the materials
they use in their day-to-day lives, and so enable them to put the materials to proper use for
maximum benefit.
Prepare a presentation to enable you explain to the community members the nature of various
materials so that they can benefit more from them.

END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS WILL BE SENT IN THE NEXT DOCUMENT

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