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33 views44 pages

(Ebook PDF) Oxford International AQA Examinations: International A2 Level Mathematics Pure and Statistics Instant Download

The document provides information about various educational eBooks available for download, primarily focusing on mathematics and related subjects for international A-level examinations. It includes links to specific titles such as 'International A2 Level Mathematics Pure and Statistics' and 'Edexcel International A Level Mathematics'. Additionally, it contains a section on functions, discussing concepts like domain, range, composite functions, and inverse functions with examples and exercises.

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Published for
OXFORD INTERNATIONAL
AQA EXAMINATIONS

International A2 Level
MATHEMATICS
Pure and Statistics

avv

Sue Chandler
Janet Crawshaw
Joan Chambers
2
1 Functions

Introduction Objectives
This chapter extends the work on functions introduced at AS-level and By the end of this chapter,
gives various methods for expressing algebraic fractions in simpler you should know how to…
forms. These methods are needed later in the course for integrating and ▶ Define a function,
differentiating fractions. range of a function
and domain of a
function.
▶ Introduce inverse
Recap functions, composite
You will need to remember... functions and
▶ The properties and the shapes of the graphs of linear, quadratic, modulus functions.
exponential and trigonometric functions. ▶ Use combinations of
▶ The effect of simple transformations on a graph, including transformations to
translations, one-way stretches and reflections in the x- and y-axes. help to sketch graphs.
▶ The Cartesian equation of a curve gives the relationship between the ▶ Simplify an algebraic
x- and y-coordinates of points on the curve. fraction by dividing
▶ How to complete the square for a quadratic function. by common factors.
▶ How to factorise quadratic expressions. ▶ Decompose algebraic
▶ The remainder theorem. fractions into simpler
fractions.

1.1 Functions
When you substitute any number for x in the expression x2 − 2x, you get
a single answer.
For example when x = 3, x2 − 2x = 3.
However, when you substitute a positive number for x in the expression ± x ,
you have two possible answers.
For example when x = 4, ± x = −2 or 2.

A function of one variable is such that when a number


is substituted for the variable, there is only one answer.
Therefore x2 − 2x is an example of a function f and can be written as f(x) = x2 − 2x.
However, ± x is not a function of x because any positive value of x gives two
answers.

Domain and range


The set of values which the variable in a function
can take is called the domain of the function.

2 Functions
P2 1

The domain does not have to contain all possible values of the variable; it can
be as wide, or as restricted, as needed. Therefore to define a function fully, the
domain must be stated.
If the domain is not stated, assume that it is the set of all real numbers (the set
of real numbers is denoted by ℝ).

For each domain, there is a corresponding set of values of f(x).


These are values which the function can take for values of x in that
particular domain. This set is called the range of the function.
Look at the expression x2 + 3.
A function f for this expression can be defined over any domain.
Some examples, with their graphs are given.
1 f(x) = x2 + 3 for x ∈ ℝ f(x )
(the symbol ∈ means ‘is a member of’).
The range is f(x) ≥ 3.

O x Note
The point on the curve where
2 f(x) = x2 + 3 for x ≥ 0. f(x)
x = 0 is included and this is
The range is also f(x) ≥ 3.
denoted this by a solid dot.
If the domain were x > 0,
3 then the point would not be
part of the curve and this is
O x
indicated by a hollow dot.

3 f(x) = x2 + 3 for x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. f(x )


The range is the set of numbers 4, 7, 12, 19, 28. Note
This time the graphical
representation consists of just
five separate points.
O x

Example 1
The function, f, is defined by f(x) = x2 for x≤0
and f(x) = x for x > 0.
Question

a Find f(4) and f(−4).


b Sketch the graph of f(x).
c Give the range of f.

a For x > 0, f(x) = x,


Answer

therefore f(4) = 4.
For x ≤ 0, f(x) = x2,
therefore f(−4) = (−4)2 = 16.
(continued)

Functions 3
(continued)
b To sketch the graph of a function, use what you know about lines and curves f(x)
in the xy-plane.
Answer

So f(x) = x for x > 0 is the part of the line y = x which corresponds to positive
values of x, and f(x) = x2 for x ≤ 0 is the part of the parabola y = x2 that
corresponds to negative values of x. O x

c The range of f is f(x) ≥ 0.

Exercise 1
1 Find the range of f in each of the following cases.
a f(x) = 2x − 3 for x≥0
b f(x) = x − 5
2
for x≤0
c f(x) = 1 − x for x ≤ 1
1
d f(x) = for x ≥ 2
x
2 Sketch the graph of each function given in question 1.

3 The function f is such that f(x) = −x for x<0


and f(x) = x for x ≥ 0.
a Find the value of f(5), f(−4), f(−2) and f(0).
b Sketch the graph of the function.

4 The function f is such that f(x) = x for 0≤x≤5


and f(x) = 5 for x > 5.
a Find the value of f(0), f(2), f(4), f(5) and f(7).
b Sketch the graph of the function.
c Give the range of the function.

1.2 Composite functions


1
Look at the two functions f and g given by f(x) = x2 and g(x) =for x ≠ 0.
x
When g(x) replaces x in f(x) this gives the composite function
 1 1
f[g( x )] = f   = 2 for x ≠ 0
 x x
A composite function formed this way is also called a function of a function
and it is denoted by fg.
For example, if f(x) = 3x and g(x) = 1 − x then gf(x) means the function g of f(x).
⇒ gf(x) = g(3x) = 1 − 3 x
Also fg(x) = f(l − x) = 3(1 − x)
This example shows that gf(x) is not always the same as fg(x).

4 Functions
P2 1

Exercise 2
1
1 The functions f, g and h are defined by f(x) = x2, g(x) = for x ≠ 0 and h(x) = 1 − x.
x
Find
a fg(x) b f h(x) c hg(x) d hf(x) e gf(x)

2 When f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = x3 find the value of


a gf(3) b fg(2) c fg(0) d gf(0)

3 Given that f(x) = 2x, g(x) = 1 + x and h(x) = x2, find


a hg(x) b gh(x) c gf(x)

4 When f(x) = sin x and g(x) = 3x − 4 find


a fg(x) b gf(x)

1.3 Inverse functions


Look at the function f where f(x) = 2x for x = 2, 3, 4.
The domain of f is {2, 3, 4} and the range of f is {4, 6, 8}. The relationship between
the domain and range is shown in the arrow diagram.

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f(x)

x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

It is possible to reverse this process, so that each member of the range can be
mapped back to the corresponding member of the domain by halving each
member of the range.

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x

f(x )
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

This process can be expressed algebraically.


1
When x = 4, 6, 8, then x → x maps 4 to 2, 6 to 3 and 8 to 4.
2
This reverse mapping is a function in its own right and it is called the inverse
function of f where f(x) = 2x.
1
Denoting this inverse function by f−1 we can write f−1 (x) = x for x = 4, 6, 8.
2 1
The function f(x) = 2x for x ∈ ℝ also has an inverse function, given by f−1(x) = x
2
which also has domain x ∈ ℝ.

If a function g exists that maps the range of f back to its domain,


then g is called the inverse of f and it is denoted by f−1.

Functions 5
The graph of a function and its inverse y

Consider the curve g(x) that is obtained by reflecting y = f(x) in


the line y = x (see graph). y = f(x)

A point A(a, b) on the curve y = f(x) is reflected onto a point A′


on the curve y = g(x), whose coordinates are (b, a). Hence, A(a, b)
interchanging the x- and y-coordinates of A gives the
coordinates of A′.

The equation of y = g(x) is found by


x
interchanging x and y in the equation y = f(x). y = g(x)
A′(b, a)
The coordinates of A on y = f(x) are [a, f(a)].
Therefore the coordinates of A′ on y = g(x) are [f(a), a].
So the range of y = f(x) becomes the domain of y = g(x).

When the equation of the reflected curve is y = g(x)


then g is the inverse of f, so g = f−1.
Any curve whose equation can be written in the form y = f(x) can be reflected in y
y = x2
the line y = x. However this reflected curve may not have an equation that can
be written in the form y = f−1(x).
For example, look at the curve y = x2 and its reflection in the line y = x (see graph).
y2 = x
The equation of the reflected curve is x = y2, giving y = ± x and ± x
is not a function. O
x
Therefore the function f where f(x) = x does not have an inverse. You can also
2

see this from the diagram, because on the reflected curve, one value of x maps
to two values of y. So in this case y cannot be written as a function of x.

Not every function has an inverse.


However, by changing the definition of f to f(x) = x2 for x ≥ 0, then the reflected y
y = x 2, x > 0
curve is y = x for x ≥ 0, and x is a function for positive real numbers. You can
see this in the graph. Therefore f−1 (x) = x for x ≥ 0.
To summarise:
▶ The inverse of a function undoes the function, i.e. it maps the range of a y = √x , x > 0
function to its domain. O
x
▶ The inverse of the function f is written f−1.

▶ Not all functions have an inverse.

▶ When the curve whose equation is y = f(x) is reflected in the line y = x, the
equation of the reflected curve is x = f(y).

▶ If this equation can be written in the form y = g(x) then g is the inverse of f,
so g(x) = f−1 (x), and the domain of g is the range of f.

6 Functions
P2 1

Example 2
Question

1
Determine whether there is an inverse of the function f given by f(x) = 2 + , x ≠ 0
x
If f−1 exists, express it as a function of x and give its domain.

1 y
The sketch of f(x) = 2 + shows that one value of f(x) maps to one value of x,
x
therefore the reverse mapping is a function.
Answer

1 1 1
The equation of the reflection of y = 2 + can be written as x = 2 + ⇒ y=
x y x −2
1 −1 1
Therefore when f ( x ) = 2 + , f ( x ) = for x ∈ ℝ, provided that x ≠ 2. 2
x x −2
x
Example 3 O

The function f is given by f(x) = 5x − 1.


Question

a Find f−1(4).
b Solve the equation f−1(x) = x.

a Let y = f(x), that is y = 5x − 1.


The equation of the reflected line is
1
x = 5y − 1 ⇒ y = ( x + 1)
5
1
So f−1(x) = ( x + 1)
Answer

5
1
Therefore f−1(4) = (4 + 1) = 1
5
1
b f−1(x) = x ⇒ ( x + 1) = x
5
⇒ x + 1 = 5x
1
Therefore x = .
4
Exercise 3
1 Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f−1 (x) on the same axes.
a f(x) = 3x − 1
b f(x) = (x − 1)3
c f(x) = 2 − x
1
d f(x) =
x−3
1
e f(x) =
x

2 Determine whether f has an inverse function and, if it does, find it.


a f(x) = x + 1
b f(x) = x2 + 1
c f(x) = x3 + 1
Functions 7
d f(x) = x2 − 4, x ≥ 0
e f(x) = (x + 1)4, x ≥ −1
1
3 The function f is given by f(x) = 1 − for x ≠ 0.
x
a Find f−1(4).
b Solve the equation f−1(x) = 2.
2
4 The function f is given by f(x) = 3 x − 2 for x ≥ .
3
a Find f−1 (x).
b Solve the equation f−1 (x) = 4.
c Solve the equation f−1 (x) = x.
5 The functions f and g are defined as f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 1 − x for all values
of x < 1.
a Find fg(x) and show that the inverse of fg exists.
b Find gf(x) and explain why gf does not have an inverse.

1.4 Modulus functions


The modulus of x is written as | x | and it equals the positive value of x,
whether x itself is positive or negative.
y y
For example, | 2 | = 2 and | −2 | = 2.
Therefore the graph of y = | x | can be found from the graph
of y = x by reflecting the part of the graph where y is
negative in the x-axis.
x
In general, the curve C1 whose equation is y = | f(x) | is
y = ⎜x ⎢
obtained from the curve C2 with equation y = f(x), by y=x
x
reflecting in the x-axis the parts of C2 for which f(x) is
negative. The remaining sections of C1 are not changed.

Example 4
Question

Sketch the curve y = |(x − 1)(x − 2)|.

Start by sketching the curve y = (x − 1)(x − 2).


Then reflect in the x-axis the part of this curve which is below the x-axis.
y y
Answer

y = (x − 1)(x − 2) y = ⎜(x − 1)(x − 2)⎢

1 2 x 1 2 x

8 Functions
P2 1

Exercise 4
Sketch the following graphs.
1 y = | 2x − 1| 2 y = | x(x − 1)(x − 2) |

3 y = | x2 − 1| 4 y = | x2 + 1|

5 y = | sin x | for 0 < x < 2π 6 y = |3 − 6x |

7 y = |cos x | for 0 < x < 2π 8 y = |1 − x2 |

9 y = | x3| 10 y = | x2 − x − 20|

11 y = |2 − x2 | 12 y = | tan x | for 0<x<π

The Cartesian equation of a modulus function y

When a section of the curve y = f(x) is reflected in the y-axis,


the equation of that part of the curve becomes y = −f(x)
y = −x y=x
For example, when y = | x | we can write this equation as
O x
 y = x for x ≥ 0

 y = − x for x < 0

Intersection and solving equations


To find the points of intersection between two graphs whose equations involve
a modulus, first sketch the graphs to locate the points roughly. Then identify the
equations in Cartesian form for each part of the graph. Write these equations
on the sketch to identify the correct pair of equations to solve simultaneously.

Example 5
Question

Find the exact values of the coordinates of the points of intersection of y = x − 1


and y = | x2 − 3|.

The sketch shows the points common to y = x − 1 and y = | x2 − 3|. y

The sketch also shows that the coordinates of A satisfy the equations
y = x2 − 3
y = x − 1 and y = x2 − 3 [1]
and the coordinates of B satisfy the equations
y=x −1
y = x − 1 and y = 3 − x2 [2]
y = −(x 2 − 3) B A
Solving equations [1] gives x2 − x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or 2
Answer

O x
The sketch shows that x ≠ −1, so A is the point (2, 1).
Similarly, solving equations [2] gives x2 + x − 4 = 0


1
x=
2
(
−1 ± 17 )
The sketch also shows that the x-coordinate of B is positive, so at B,

x=
1
2
(−1 + 17 )
(continued)

Functions 9
(continued)
Then using y = x − 1 gives y =
1
2
(
−3 + 17 . )
Answer

1
2 ( 1 
Therefore the coordinates of B are  −1 + 17 , −3 + 17 
2 ) ( )
This example again shows how important it is to check solutions to see if they fit
the given problem.

An equation such |2x − 1| = 3x can be solved by sketching the graphs of


y = | 2x − 1| and y = 3x and finding the values of x at their points of intersection.

Example 6
Question

Solve |2x − 1| = 3x.

y
y = 3x
4
First sketch the graphs of y = |2x − 1| and y = 3x. 3

This shows that there is just one point of intersection of the two graphs, and the 2
y = −(2x − 1) y = 2x − 1
value of x at this point is the solution of the equation |2x − 1| = 3x. 1
Answer

The graphs y = |2x − 1| and y = 3x intersect where −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x


−1
−(2x − 1) = 3x
1
⇒ x=
5
Exercise 5
Find exact values of the co-ordinates of the points of intersection of these
graphs.
1 y = | x | and y = 1 − x 2 y = x and y = |x2 − 2x|
1
3 y = 2| x | and y = 3 + 2x − x2 4 y= and y = | x |
x
5 y = | x2 − 4| and y = 2x + 1
Solve these equations. Give your answers as exact values.
6 | x2 − 1| = 3x − 1 7 | x + 1| = |4x − 3|

8 2|1 − x | = x 9 |2 − x2 | + 2x + 1 = 0

10 | x + 2| = | x | 11 | x2 − 1| + 2x = 0

Inequalities involving a modulus


Inequalities that involve a modulus function can also be solved by first
sketching a graph. Then the points where the graphs intersect can be found.

Example 7
Question

Find the set of values of x for which | x + 3| < | x |.

10 Functions
P2 1

Start by sketching the graphs y = | x + 3| and y = | x | on the same y y=x +3


y = −x
set of axes. 10

The sketch shows that the lines intersect where 8


Answer

(x + 3) = −x 6
4
3 y=x
⇒ x=− 2
2 y = −(x + 3)
3
The sketch also shows that | x + 3| < | x | for x<− . −10 −5 O 5 10 x
2
Exercise 6
In questions 1–7 solve the given inequality. Give your answers in exact form.
1 | x − 1| < | x + 2| 2 |x| < |1 − x|

3 | x + 1| < 2x 4 3x − 1 < 1 + | x |

5 | 3x + 2 | > 2 − | x + 1| 6 1 + x2 > | 2x + 1 |

7 | 1 − x2 | < 2x + 1

8 Find the set of values of x between 0 and 2π for which | sin x | < | cos x |.

1.5 Combinations of transformations


The graphs of many functions can be obtained from transformations of the
curves representing basic functions.
The basic transformations are:
 a 
The curve y = f(x − a) + b is a translation of the curve y = f(x) by the vector  .
 b 
The curve y = −f(x) is the reflection of the curve y = f(x) in the x-axis.
The curve y = f(−x) is the reflection of the curve y = f(x) in the y-axis.
The curve y = af(x) is a one-way stretch of the curve y = f(x) by a scale factor a
parallel to the y-axis.
1
The curve y = f(ax) is a one-way stretch of the curve y = f(x) by a factor parallel
a
to the x-axis.

Example 8 y
10
Question

Sketch the graph of y = 3 − 2x


5
y = 2x

−4 −2 O 2 4 x
The diagram shows how the shape of the curve is found by y = 3 − 2x
−5
combining transformations.
Answer

y = −2x
Start with the graph of y = 2x.
−10
Then y = −2x is the reflection of y = 2x in the x-axis
 0 
y = 3 − 2x is the translation of y = −2x by  .
 3 

Functions 11
Example 9
Question

Describe a sequence of two transformations that map the graph of


y = sin x to the graph of y = 3 sin (x − π).

 
 π 
A translation by the vector   maps y = sin x to y = sin (x − π).
 0 
 
A one-way stretch by a factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis maps
Answer

y = sin (x − π) to y = 3 sin (x − π).


 
 π 
The sequence of transformations is a translation by the vector   followed
 0 
by a one-way stretch by a factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis.  

Example 10
Question

Describe a sequence of two transformations that maps the graph of y = x2


to the graph of y = (2x − 3)2.
y
12
There are two possible combinations: 11
either y = x is mapped to y = (x − 3) by the
2 2 10
9
 3 
translation   , then y = (x − 3) is mapped
2
8
 0  7
to y = (2x − 3)2 by a one-way stretch parallel 6
1 x2 (x − 3)2
to the x-axis by a factor . 5
2 4
3
(2x − 3)2
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1
Answer

y
12
or y = x is mapped to y = (2x) (= 4x ) by a one-way
2 2 2
11
stretch parallel to the y-axis by a factor 4, then y = (2x)2
10
2
 3 9
is mapped to y = (2x − 3)2 (= 4  x −  2x 2
 2 8

 3  7
 2  6
by the translation  . 5
 0 
4
x2
3
2 (2x − 3)2

−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
−1

12 Functions
P2 1

Exercise 7
In questions 1 to 5, sketch the graph of the equation.
1
1 y = 3 − |x| 2 y = 2 + (x − 1)2 3 y = 2 cos (x + π)
2
4 y = 1 − 2(x − 1) 5 y = 3(2−x)
In questions 6 to 11, describe a sequence of transformations that maps the
graph of the first equation to the graph of the second equation.
6 y = sin x to y = sin (2x + π) 7 y = |x| to y = |2x − 1|

8 y = x2 to y = (1 − x2) 9 y = cos x to y = cos (π − x)

10 y = x to y = 2 x − 3 11 y = 4| x | to y = | 1
x|
2

12 a Express x2 − 4x − 6 in the form (x − a)2 + b


b Hence describe a sequence of transformations that maps
y = x2 to y = 2(x2 − 4x − 6).

1.6 Simplification of rational functions


A rational function is a fraction where both numerator and
denominator are polynomials.
The value of a fraction is unaltered when both the numerator and the
denominator are multiplied or divided by the same number.

3 1 2 7 ax x 3 x x ( a + b )
For example = = = = ... and = = = = ...
6 2 4 14 ay y 3 y y ( a + b )

A fraction can be simplified by multiplying or dividing both numerator and


denominator by the same factor.

Example 11
Question

2 a 2 − 2 ab
Simplify
6 ab − 6b 2

First factorise the numerator and the denominator, then divide them by any
common factors.

2 a 2 − 2 ab 2 a ( a − b )
Answer

=
6 ab − 6b 2 3 6 b (a − b)

a
=
3b

Example 12
Question

1
2 x2 − 2
Simplify 1
4 y2 + 3

Functions 13
Remove the fractions in the numerator and the denominator by multiplying
them both by 4.
1
x2 − 2 2x2 − 8
2
= 2
4 y +3 y + 12
1 2

2( x 2 − 4 ) Note
=
Answer

y 2 + 12
Factorise where possible
2 ( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) because there might be a
=
y 2 + 12 factor that will cancel.
There are no common factors between numerator and denominator which
might allow you to simplify further, so the simplest form of the fraction is
(
2 x2 − 4
.
)
y 2 + 12

Exercise 8
Simplify, where possible.

x −2 6 x + 12 2a + 8
1 2 3
4x − 8 3x − 6 3a + 12
3 p − 3q x 2 + xy x +2
4 5 6
5 p − 5q xy + y 2 x2 − 4
a2 − 4 x 2 y + xy 2 1
3a−b
7 8 9
a−2 y 2 + 25 xy a + 16 b

2 x (b − 4 ) ( x − 4 )( x − 3 ) 4y2 + 3
10 11 12
6 x 2 (b + 4 ) x − 16
2
y2 − 9
1
3 ( x − 3) x2 − x − 6 ( x − 2 )( x + 2 )
13 14 15
x −9
2
2 x 2 − 5x − 3 x2 + x − 2
1
2 ( a + 5) 3 p + 9q a 2 + 2a + 4
16 17 18
a 2 − 25 p + 6 pq + 9q 2
2
a 2 + 7 a + 10

4( x − 3)
2
x2 + 2x +1
19 20
3 x 2 + 12 x + 9 ( x + 1)( x 2 − 2 x − 3)

1.7 Algebraic division


A fraction where both the numerator and the denominator are polynomials in
the same variable is proper if the highest power of x in the numerator is less
x +1
than the highest power of x in the denominator, for example .
x + x +2
2

When the fraction is improper the numerator can be divided by the


denominator using long division. This will give a quotient plus a proper fraction.

14 Functions
P2 1

The process of long division is covered at AS-level. This section gives other
methods for expressing an improper fraction as the sum of proper fractions.
One method uses the remainder theorem (also covered at AS-level), which
states that

when a polynomial is divided by (x − a) then


the polynomial is equal to (quotient)(x − a) + remainder.
Hence, the remainder is equal to the value of the polynomial
when a is substituted for x.
Using f(x) to represent the polynomial, the remainder theorem can be
expressed as
f (x) f (a )
= quotient +
x−a x−a
f (a )
where is a proper fraction and the highest power in the quotient is less
x−a
than the highest power in f(x).
x +5
For example, look at the fraction .
x−3
When you divide f(x) = x + 5 by x − 3, the remainder is given by f(3) = 8 and
the quotient is a constant.
x +5 8
Therefore =A+ where A is a constant.
x−3 x−3
8
You can find the value of A by expressing A + as a single fraction:
x−3
8 A( x − 3) + 8 Ax − 3 A + 8
A+ = =
x−3 x−3 x−3
x + 5 Ax − 3 A + 8
As = then x + 5 = Ax − 3A + 8.
x−3 x−3
Comparing coefficients of x (or the constant) shows that
x = Ax (and −3A + 8 = 5) ⇒ A = 1
x +5 8
Therefore =1+ .
x−3 x−3
Another method uses a rearrangement of the numerator so that part of it is
equal to the denominator.
x +5
Using again, subtracting 3 from x and adding 3 to 5 gives
x−3
x −3+5+3 x −3 8 8
= + =1+
x−3 x−3 x−3 x−3
This method works well with simple fractions.

Example 13
Question

Express 2 x − x + 5 as a quadratic expression plus a proper fraction.


3

x+3

Functions 15
f(x) = 2x3 − x + 5 ⇒ f(−3) = 2(−27) + 3 + 5 = −46 and the quotient is of
the form Ax 2 + Bx + C .

2x3 − x + 5 46
Therefore = Ax 2 + Bx + C −
x+3 x+3
( Ax 2 + Bx + C )( x + 3) − 46
=
x+3
Ax 3 + ( B + 3 A) x 2 + (3 B + C ) x + (3C − 46)
=
Answer

x+3
⇒ 2 x 3 − x + 5 = Ax 3 + ( B + 3 A) x 2 + (3 B + C ) x + (3C − 46)

Comparing coefficients of x3, x2 and x gives


Note
A=2
Check: comparing constants
B + 3A = 0 ⇒ B = −6
gives 3C − 46 = 5 ⇒ C = 17
3B + C = −1 ⇒ C = 17
2x − x + 5
3
46
Therefore = 2 x 2 − 6 x + 17 − .
x+3 x+3

Exercise 9
x −2 B
1 Express in the form A + .
x +2 x +2
2x + 5 B
2 Express in the form A + .
x −2 x −2
2 x 2 + 5x − 3 C
3 Express in the form Ax + B + .
x +2 x +2
x2 − x + 4 C
4 Express in the form Ax + B + .
x +1 x +1
4x3 + x −1 D
5 Express in the form Ax2 + Bx + C + .
x −1 x −1
2x3 − x2 + 2 D
6 Express in the form Ax2 + Bx + C + .
x −2 x −2
7 Express these fractions as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
2x x2 + 3 x2
a b c
x −2 x −1
2
x −2

1.8 Partial fractions


You can add two fractions together to give a single fraction. For example
3 2 3( x + 2) + 2( x − 1) 5x + 4
+ = =
x −1 x + 2 ( x − 1)( x + 2) ( x − 1)( x + 2)
This sections shows how to reverse this process – that is, how an expression
x−2
such as can be expressed as the sum of two separate fractions.
( x + 3)( x − 4)
This process is called decomposing an expression into partial fractions.
x−2
Look again at .
( x + 3)( x − 4)

16 Functions
P2 1

This fraction is a proper fraction because the highest power of x in the


numerator (1 in this case) is less than the highest power of x in the denominator
(2 in this case, after the brackets have been expanded).
Therefore its separate (or partial) fractions also will be proper.
x−2 A B
can be expressed as x + 3 + x − 4 where A and B are numbers.
( x + 3)( x − 4)
Example 14 shows how you can find the values of A and B.

Example 14
Question

x −2
Express in partial fractions.
x − x − 12
2

First factorise the denominator and express as two separate fractions.


x −2 x −2 A B
= = +
x − x − 12 ( x + 3)( x − 4) x + 3 x − 4
2

Express the separate fractions on the right-hand side as a single fraction over a
common denominator.
x −2 A( x − 4) + B ( x + 3)
=
( x + 3)( x − 4) ( x + 3)( x − 4)
The denominators are identical so the numerators also are identical.
⇒ x − 2 ≡ A(x − 4) + B(x + 3)
This is not an equation but two ways of writing the same expression, so it
Answer

follows that the two sides are equal for any value of x.
Choosing to substitute 4 for x (to eliminate A) gives
2
2 = A (0) + B (7) ⇒ B=
7
Choosing to substitute −3 for x (to eliminate B) gives
−5 = A(−7) + B(0)
5
⇒ A=
7 5 2
x −2 7
Therefore = + 7
( x + 3)( x − 4) x + 3 x − 4
5 2
= +
7( x + 3) 7( x − 4)

Exercise 10
Decompose these expressions into partial fractions.
x −2 2x −1 4
1 2 3
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x − 1)( x − 7) ( x + 3)( x − 2)

7x 2 2x −1
4 5 6
(2 x − 1)( x + 4) x ( x − 2) x − 3x + 2
2

Functions 17
3 6x + 7
7 8
x2 − 9 3 x ( x + 1)

9 x +1
9 10
2x2 + x 3x 2 − x − 2

A repeated factor in the denominator


2x −1
Look at the fraction .
( x − 2)2
This is a proper fraction, and can be expressed as two fractions with numerical
numerators by rearranging the numerator.
2 x − 1 2( x − 2) − 1 + 4 2 3
= = +
( x − 2)2 ( x − 2)2 x − 2 ( x − 2)2
Any fraction whose denominator is a repeated linear factor can be expressed as
separate fractions with numerical numerators.

Example 15
Question

x −1
Express in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 2)2

x −1 A B C
= + +
( x + 1)( x − 2)2 x + 1 ( x − 2) ( x − 2)2
⇒ x − 1 = ( A )( x − 2)2 + B ( x + 1)( x − 2) + C ( x + 1)
1
x = 2 gives C = .
Answer

3
−2
x = −1 gives A =
9
−2 2
Comparing coefficients of x2 gives 0 = +B ⇒ B=
9 9
x −1 2 2 1
Therefore =− + +
( x + 1)( x − 2)2 9( x + 1) 9( x − 2) 3( x − 2)2

To summarise, you can decompose a proper fraction into partial fractions. The
form of the partial fractions depends on the form of the factors in the
denominator, so that
A
a linear factor in the denominator gives a partial fraction of the form
ax + b
a repeated factor in the denominator gives two partial fractions of the
A B
form +
ax + b (ax + b) 2
To decompose an improper fraction into partial fractions, you must first express
the improper fraction as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.

18 Functions
P2 1

Example 16
Question

x3
Express in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 3)

This fraction is improper and it must be rearranged or divided out to obtain a


mixed fraction before it can be expressed in partial fractions. The division
method is used here but the method given in section 1.7 can also be used.
x +2
x 2 − 2x − 3 x 3 + 0x 2 + 0x + 0
x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x
2x 2 + 3x
2x 2 − 4x − 6
Answer

7x + 6

x3 7x + 6
Therefore = x +2+
( x + 1)( x − 3) ( x + 1)( x − 3)

7x + 6
Next express in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 3)
7x + 6 A B A( x − 3) + B ( x + 1) 1 27
= + = ⇒ A= and B =
( x + 1)( x − 3) x + 1 x − 3 ( x + 1)( x − 3) 4 4
x3 1 27
Therefore = x +2+ + .
( x + 1)( x − 3) 4( x + 1) 4( x − 3)

Exercise 11
Express these as partial fractions.
2 2x2 + x +1 x
1 2 3
( x − 1)( x + 1)2 ( x − 3)( x + 1)2 ( x − 1)( x − 2)2
( x 2 − 1) x2 − 2 ( x − 1)
4 5 6
x 2 (2 x + 1) ( x + 3)( x − 1)2 ( x + 1)( x + 2)2
2 5 3x
7 8 9
( x − 2)( x − 1) ( x − 1)( x + 2)2 (2 x − 1)( x − 3)
x x 5x
10 11 12
( x − 2)2 ( x + 1) ( x + 2)( x − 4) (2 x − 1)( x − 2)2
5 3 x
13 14 15
( x + 2)( x − 3) ( x − 1) ( x − 4)
2
(2 x + 3)( x + 1)
3 3 x2
16 17 18
(3 x − 1)( x − 1) x 2 (2 x − 3) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
x3 + 3 x2 − 2
19 20
( x − 1)( x + 1) ( x + 3)( x − 1)

Functions 19
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
prosperity—the very prosperity that you lost. Are not His ways
strange to us?"
"This is not at all strange to me," replied Marion. "What I lost would
have ruined me; what Helen has gained will have no effect upon her,
except to make her more kind and more charitable. She is one of the
people whom prosperity cannot harm. Therefore it is given her in full
measure. But it certainly would have been singular if I could have
foreseen that after I had gained my fortune it would pass into
Helen's hands, and that by a simple process of retribution. For if
matters had remained as they were between Rathborne and herself,
there could have been no question of this. And they would have so
remained but for me."
"You should be very grateful," said Claire, "that you have been
allowed to atone so fully for a fault that you might have had to
regret always. Now it can be forgotten. Helen says she will be
married in April, does she not?"
Marion turned to the letter. "Yes, in April—just after Easter. Claire, let
us beg her to come abroad for her wedding journey, and join us?"
"With all my heart," said Claire. "They can come here for a little
time, and then we can go with them to Switzerland, or the Italian
lakes, or wherever they wish to go for the summer. It will be
pleasant for us to be together once more—for the last time."
"Claire, you break my heart when you talk so!"
"Oh! no," said Claire, gently, "I am very sure that I do not break
your heart; and if I sadden you a little, that is necessary; but it will
not last long. There is no need to think of it now, however; only
think that you and Helen and I will pass a few happy days together
—for I suppose Mr. Singleton will not be much of a drawback—
before we start on another and a different beginning of life from that
on which we entered when we left our dear convent."
EPILOGUE.
A YEAR from the summer day when three girls had stood together
on the eve of parting in their convent school-room, the same three
were seated together on the shores of the Lago di Como. The
garden of the hotel in which they were staying extended to the
verge of the lake, and they had found a lovely leafy nook,
surrounded by oleander and myrtle, with an unobstructed view over
the blue sparkling water and the beautiful shores, framed by
mountains.
"A year ago to-day!" said Marion, meditatively, after a pause of some
length. "Do you remember how we wondered when and where we
should be together again? And here we are, with an experience
behind us which is full of dramatic changes and full of instructions—
at least for me."
"Certainly for me also," observed Helen. "Looking back on what I
passed through, I realize clearly how foolish we are to regret the
loss of things that seem to us desirable, but which God knows to be
just the reverse. How miserable I was for a time! Yet that very
misery was paving the way for my present happiness."
"Very directly," said Marion, "yet it is something I do not like to think
of; for it might all have ended so differently but for the mercy of God
—and yours too, Helen. You deserve happiness, because you were
so gentle and generous under unhappiness. As for me, I deserve
nothing good, yet I have gained a great deal—the gift of faith, relief
from self-reproach, and the great pleasure of being here with you
and Claire."
Claire looked at the speaker with a smile. "The pleasure of being
together is one that we all share," she said; "and also, I think, the
sense of great gratitude to God. How much have I, for instance, to
be grateful for—I who a year ago went forth into the world with so
much reluctance—that the way has been made so clear to my feet;
that I have now such a sense of peace, such a conviction of being in
the right path!"
The others did not answer. It was hard for them—particularly hard
for Marion—to give full sympathy on this point; for the pain of
impending separation was hanging over them, and not even their
recognition of the peace of which Claire spoke could make them
altogether willing to see her pass out of their lives forever. There is
the irrrevocableness and therefore the pain of death in such
partings, intensified by the fact that just in proportion as a character
is fitted for the religious life does it possess the virtues to endear it
most to those associated with it in the world. In such cases
renunciation is not altogether on one side; and although Marion had
struggled for the strength to make this renunciation, she could not
yet control herself sufficiently to speak of it. Her own future looked
very blank to her, although it had been decided that she should
remain with Helen, at least for a time, when Claire left them.
"I will stay with you until after your return to America," she had said
to Helen when her plans were discussed; "but then I must find
something to do—some occupation with which to fill my life."
Helen shook her head. "I am sure that George will never consent to
that," she answered.
"And what has George to do with it?" asked Marion, amused by the
calm, positive tone of Helen's speech. "I am really not aware that he
has any control over me."
"Control—no," answered Helen; "but he feels that he owes you so
much—the recovery of his father's fortune without any expense or
division—that he is anxious to find something he can do for you, and
he has said again and again how much he wished that you would
allow him to make you independent."
"He could not make me independent of the need to fill my life with
some work worth the doing," said Marion. "I do not yet perceive
what it is to be, but no doubt I shall find out."
"Of course you will find out," said Claire, with her gentle,
unquestioning faith. "God never fails to show the way to one who is
willing to see it."
The way, however, had not yet been made clear to Marion as the
three sat together on this anniversary of their first parting. She felt
the difference between herself and her companions very keenly. To
them life showed itself as a clear path, which they had only to follow
to be certain that they were in the way of duty. All doubts and
perplexities were at an end for them, whereas for her they seemed
only beginning. What, indeed, was she to do with her life? She could
as yet see no answer to that question, and could only trust that in
God's time the way would be made clear to her.
The silence after Claire's last speech lasted some time; for there
seemed little to be said, though much to be felt, on the events of
the past year. At length Helen observed, looking around toward the
hotel, "How long George is in coming! He promised to follow us
almost immediately, and I think we must have been here almost an
hour."
"Oh! no," said Claire, smiling, "not so long as that. But certainly he
has not fulfilled his promise of coming soon."
"And it is a pity," continued Helen; "for just now is the most
delightful time to be on the water. I believe I will go and look for
him. Will any one else come?"
Claire, who was always in readiness to do anything asked of her,
assented and rose. But Marion kept her seat. "I think this is almost
as pleasant as being on the water," she said. "But when you have
found George, and he has found a boat, and all is in readiness, you
may summon me. Meanwhile I am very comfortable where I am."
"We will summon you, then, when we are ready," said Helen. And
the two walked away toward the hotel.
Marion, who had still, as of old, a great liking for solitude, settled
herself, after the others left, in a corner of the bench on which they
had been seated, and looked at the lovely scene before her eyes
which saw its beauty as in a dream. She was living over her life of
the past year while she gazed at the distant, glittering Alpine
summits; and although she had spoken truly in saying that she was
deeply conscious of gratitude for many dangers escaped, and chiefly
for the wonderful gift of faith, there nevertheless remained a sharp
recollection of failure and pain dominating all her thoughts of the
past.
Her face was very grave, therefore, and her brows knitted with an
expression of thought or suffering, when a man presently came
around a bend of the path, and paused an instant, unobserved, to
regard her. He saw, or fancied that he saw, many changes in that
face since it had fascinated him first; but they were not changes
which detracted from its charm. The beauty was as striking as ever,
but the expression had altered much. There was no longer a curve
of disdain on the perfect lips, nor a light of mockery in the brilliant
eyes. The countenance had softened even while it had grown more
serious, and its intellectual character was more manifest than ever.
These things struck Brian Earle during the minute in which he
paused. Then, fearing to be observed, he came forward.
His step on the path roused Marion's attention, and, turning her eyes
quickly from the distant scene, she was amazed to see before her
the man who was just then most clearly in her thoughts.
Startled almost beyond the power of self-control, she said nothing. It
was he who advanced and spoke. "Forgive me if I intrude, Miss
Lynde—but I was told that I should find you here; and—and I hoped
that you would not object to seeing me."
Marion, who had now recovered herself, held out her hand to meet
his, saying, quietly, "Why should I object? But it is a great surprise. I
had no idea that you were in this part of the world at all."
"My arrival here is very recent," he said, sitting down beside her;
"and you may fancy my surprise when, an hour after my arrival, I
met George Singleton, and heard the extraordinary news of his
marriage to your cousin."
"That must have astonished you very much. We first heard of it after
you left Rome."
"It astonished me the more," he said with some hesitation, "because
I had fancied it likely that in the end you would marry him."
"I!" she said, coloring quickly and vividly. Then after a moment she
added, with a tinge of bitterness in her tone, "Such an idea was
natural, perhaps, considering your opinion of me. But it was a great
mistake."
"So I have learned," he answered. "But when you speak of my
opinion of you, may I ask what you conceive it to be?"
"Is it necessary that we should discuss it?" she asked with a touch of
her old haughtiness. "It is not of importance—to me."
"I am sure of that," he said, with something of humility. "But, believe
me, your opinion of it is of importance to me. Therefore I should
very much like to know what you believe that I think of you."
Her straight brows grew closer together. She spoke with the air of
one who wishes to end a disagreeable subject. "This seems to me
very unnecessary, Mr. Earle; but, since you insist, I suppose that you
think me altogether mercenary and ready, if the opportunity had
been given me, to marry your cousin for his fortune."
"Thank you," he answered when she ceased speaking. "I am much
obliged by your frankness. I feared that you did me just such
injustice; and yet, Miss Lynde, how can you? In the first place, do
you suppose that I am unaware that you gave his father's fortune
intact to my cousin? And in the second place, have I not heard that
you refused it when he offered it to you again, with himself? If I had
ever fancied you mercenary, could I continue so to mistake you after
hearing these things? But indeed I never did think you mercenary,
not even in the days when we differed most on the question which
finally divided us. I did not think then that you desired wealth for
itself, or that you would have done anything unworthy to gain it; but
I thought you exaggerated its value for the sake of the things it
could purchase, and I believed then (what I know now) that you did
injustice to the nobleness of your own nature in setting before
yourself worldly prosperity as your ideal of happiness."
She shook her head a little sadly. "The less said of the nobleness of
my nature the better," she answered; "but I soon found that the
ideal was a very poor one, and one which could not satisfy me. I am
glad your cousin came to claim that fortune, which might else have
weighed me down with its responsibility to the end."
"And do you forgive me," he said, leaning toward her and lowering
his voice, "for having refused that fortune?"
"Does it matter," she answered, somewhat nervously, "whether I
forgive you or not? It would have ended in the same way. You, too,
would have had to give it up when your cousin appeared."
"But, putting that aside, can you not now realize a little better my
motives, and forgive whatever seemed harsh or dictatorial in my
conduct?"
Marion had grown very pale. "I have no right to judge your
conduct," she said.
"You had a right then, and you exercised it severely. Perhaps I was
too presumptuous, too decided in my opinion and refusal. I have
thought so since, and I should like to hear you say that you forgive
it."
"I cannot imagine," she said, with a marked lack of her usual self-
possession, "why you should attach any importance to my
forgiveness—granting that I have anything to forgive."
"Can you not? Then I will tell you why I attach importance to it.
Because during these months of absence I have learned that my
attachment to you is as great as it ever was—as great, do I say?
Nay, it is much greater, since I know you better now, and the
nobleness in which I formerly believed has been proved. I can hardly
venture to hope for so much happiness, but if it is possible that you
can think of me again, that you can forgive and trust me, I should
try, by God's help, to deserve your trust better."
"Do not speak in that manner," said Marion, with trembling lips. "It is
I who should ask forgiveness, if there is to be any question of it at
all. But I thought you had forgotten me—it was surely natural
enough,—and that when you went away it was because—on account
of—Claire."
"You were right," he answered, quietly. "I meant to tell you that. In
the reaction of my disappointment about you, I thought of your
friend; because I admired her so much, I fancied I was in love with
her. But when she put an end to such fancies by telling me gently
and kindly of her intention to enter the religious life, I learned my
mistake. The thought of her passed away like a dream—like a
shadow that has crossed a mirror,—and I found that you, Marion,
had been in my heart all the time. I tested myself by absence, and I
returned with the intention of seeking you wherever you were to be
found, and asking you if there is no hope for me—no hope of
winning your heart and your trust again."
There was a moment's pause, and then she held out her hand to
him.
"You have never lost either," she said.
(The End.)

Transcribers note:
The authors use of "woful" instead of
"woeful" is legitimate and deliberate.
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