General characteristics of Microorganisms

Microorganisms are diverse and ubiquitous entities that play vital roles in nature, industry,
and human health. They include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, archaea, and viruses.
Despite their diversity, microorganisms share several general characteristics that distinguish
them from other life forms.
Microorganisms are highly diverse and play essential roles in nature, medicine, and industry.
Their small size, simple structure, rapid growth, metabolic diversity, adaptability, and
interactions with other organisms make them fundamental components of life on Earth.
While some microorganisms are pathogenic, many contribute positively to environmental
and industrial processes. Understanding their characteristics helps in disease control,
biotechnology advancements, and ecological conservation.
Characteristics:
Microscopic Size
Microorganisms are generally microscopic, meaning they are too small to be seen with the
naked eye. Their sizes range from nanometers (viruses) to micrometers (bacteria and fungi).
While some microorganisms, such as certain fungi and colonial bacteria, can be visible to the
naked eye, most require a microscope for observation.
 Bacteria: Typically 0.2–5 µm in size
 Viruses: Range from 20–300 nm
 Protozoa: Range from 10 µm to a few millimeters
 Fungi: Can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds), with hyphae visible under a
light microscope
Simple Cellular Organization
Microorganisms exhibit various levels of cellular organization:
 Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria & Archaea)
o Lack a nucleus; instead, their genetic material is in a nucleoid region.
o Lack membrane-bound organelles.
o Have a simpler internal structure compared to eukaryotes.
o Reproduce mainly through binary fission.
 Eukaryotic Cells (Fungi, Protozoa, Algae)
o Possess a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear membrane.
o Contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum.

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 o More complex than prokaryotes.
Rapid Growth and Reproduction
Microorganisms have short generation times, allowing them to multiply rapidly.
 Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, where one cell divides into two identical
daughter cells, often within minutes to hours.
 Fungi reproduce both sexually (spores) and asexually (budding in yeasts,
fragmentation in molds).
 Viruses replicate by hijacking host cells to produce more viral particles.
This rapid growth enables microorganisms to quickly adapt to environmental changes and
colonize new niches.
High Metabolic Diversity
Microorganisms exhibit a wide range of metabolic capabilities, allowing them to survive in
diverse environments.
 Autotrophs: Synthesize their own food from inorganic sources (e.g., cyanobacteria
using photosynthesis).
 Heterotrophs: Depend on organic compounds for nutrition (e.g., most bacteria, fungi,
and protozoa).
 Aerobes: Require oxygen for metabolism (e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
 Anaerobes: Do not require oxygen and may even be killed by it (e.g., Clostridium
species).
 Facultative Anaerobes: Can switch between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism (e.g.,
Escherichia coli).
This metabolic versatility allows microorganisms to inhabit extreme environments such as
hot springs, deep-sea vents, and acidic or alkaline conditions.
Genetic Adaptability and Evolution
Microorganisms exhibit genetic plasticity, which allows them to rapidly evolve and adapt to
new environments.
 Mutation: Spontaneous or induced changes in DNA that provide new traits.
 Horizontal Gene Transfer: The exchange of genetic material between organisms,
which enhances adaptability. Mechanisms include:
o Transformation: Uptake of foreign DNA from the environment.
o Conjugation: Transfer of plasmids between bacteria via pili.

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 o Transduction: Transfer of genetic material via bacteriophages.
This adaptability contributes to antibiotic resistance in bacteria and the emergence of new
viral strains.
Ability to Form Resistant Structures
Some microorganisms produce specialized structures that enhance survival under harsh
conditions.
 Endospores (Bacteria): Dormant, highly resistant structures formed by some bacteria
(e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium) to withstand extreme heat, radiation, and desiccation.
 Cysts (Protozoa): Protective structures that allow protozoa to survive in unfavorable
conditions (e.g., Entamoeba histolytica).
 Spores (Fungi): Reproductive and survival structures that help fungi spread and
endure adverse conditions.
These adaptations allow microorganisms to persist in the environment and cause infections
when favorable conditions return.
Ability to Interact with Other Organisms
Microorganisms engage in various interactions with other living organisms, which can be:
 Symbiotic (Mutualistic) Relationships: Beneficial associations, such as gut microbiota
aiding digestion in humans.
 Commensalism: One organism benefits while the other is unaffected (e.g., normal skin
flora).
 Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of the host (e.g., pathogenic
bacteria, viruses, protozoa).
 Competitive Interactions: Microbes compete for nutrients, sometimes producing
antibiotics to inhibit rivals (e.g., Penicillium producing penicillin).
These interactions play crucial roles in ecosystems, human health, and disease progression.
Ubiquity and Ecological Significance
Microorganisms are found everywhere, from extreme environments to the human body.
Their ecological roles include:
 Decomposers: Break down organic matter, recycling nutrients (e.g., fungi, bacteria).
 Producers: Photosynthetic microbes like cyanobacteria produce oxygen and
contribute to primary production.
 Biogeochemical Cycling: Microbes participate in nitrogen fixation (Rhizobium), carbon
cycling, and sulfur cycling.

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  Bioremediation: Some bacteria and fungi degrade pollutants (e.g., oil spills, plastic
degradation).
Microorganisms are essential for maintaining ecological balance and supporting life on Earth.
Pathogenicity and Role in Disease
While many microorganisms are beneficial, some cause infectious diseases.
 Bacteria: Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), Cholera (Vibrio cholerae).
 Viruses: HIV/AIDS, Influenza, COVID-19.
 Fungi: Candidiasis (Candida albicans), Ringworm (Dermatophytes).
 Protozoa: Malaria (Plasmodium spp.), Amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica).
Pathogenic microbes have evolved various mechanisms to evade the immune system, such as
antigenic variation and biofilm formation.
ndustrial and Medical Applications
Microorganisms are widely used in biotechnology, medicine, and industry.
 Food Industry: Fermentation in yogurt (Lactobacillus), bread (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae).
 Pharmaceuticals: Antibiotic production (Penicillium), vaccine development.
 Genetic Engineering: Recombinant DNA technology (e.g., insulin production using
Escherichia coli).
 Waste Treatment: Microbial degradation of organic waste in sewage treatment.
These applications demonstrate the beneficial aspects of microorganisms in human society.

Structures and Comparisons of prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Structures and Comparisons of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Cells are the basic units of life, and they are classified into two major types: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. While both share some structural similarities, they differ significantly in
complexity, organization, and function. This discussion provides a detailed examination of the
structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, followed by a comprehensive comparison.
1. Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells. They lack a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Examples of prokaryotic organisms include bacteria and
archaea.
Major Structures of a Prokaryotic Cell:

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A. External Structures
1. Cell Wall
o Provides shape, strength, and protection against osmotic pressure.
o Made of peptidoglycan in bacteria; archaea have different cell wall
compositions (e.g., pseudopeptidoglycan).
2. Plasma Membrane
o A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
o Controls the entry and exit of substances.
o In some bacteria, it contains enzymes for cellular respiration and
photosynthesis (e.g., cyanobacteria).
3. Capsule (Slime Layer)
o Found in some bacteria; provides protection against the immune system and
helps in attachment to surfaces.
4. Pili and Fimbriae
o Pili: Involved in gene transfer (conjugation).
o Fimbriae: Help in attachment to surfaces and host cells.
5. Flagella
o Used for motility (movement).
o Made of flagellin protein and rotates like a propeller.
B. Internal Structures
6. Cytoplasm
o A gel-like fluid containing all cell components.
7. Nucleoid (DNA region)
o Contains a single, circular DNA molecule (chromosome).
o Lacks a nuclear membrane.
8. Plasmids
o Small, circular extra-chromosomal DNA.
o Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance and other functions.
9. Ribosomes (70S type)
o Function in protein synthesis.
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 o Smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (70S vs. 80S).
10. Inclusion Bodies
 Store nutrients, such as glycogen, sulfur, or phosphate.
11. Endospores (in some bacteria)
 Highly resistant structures that allow survival in harsh conditions (e.g., Bacillus,
Clostridium).
2. Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Examples of eukaryotic organisms include animals, plants,
fungi, and protists.
Major Structures of a Eukaryotic Cell:
A. External Structures
1. Plasma Membrane
o A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and
cholesterol.
o Controls transport of substances.
o Involved in cell signaling and communication.
2. Cell Wall (in plants, fungi, and some protists)
o Provides structure and protection.
o Composed of cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi), or silica (diatoms).
3. Cilia and Flagella
o Used for movement and sensory functions.
o Made of microtubules (9+2 arrangement).
B. Internal Structures
4. Cytoplasm
o Contains organelles, cytoskeleton, and cytosol.
5. Nucleus
o Enclosed by a nuclear envelope with pores.
o Contains chromatin (DNA + proteins).
o Site of DNA replication and transcription.

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 6. Nucleolus
o Located inside the nucleus.
o Produces ribosomes.
7. Ribosomes (80S type)
o Larger than prokaryotic ribosomes.
o Function in protein synthesis.
o Found free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
C. Membrane-Bound Organelles
8. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis.
o Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
9. Golgi Apparatus
o Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport.
10. Mitochondria
 Powerhouse of the cell; generates ATP through cellular respiration.
 Contains its own DNA and ribosomes (evidence of endosymbiosis).
11. Chloroplasts (in plants and algae)
 Perform photosynthesis.
 Contain chlorophyll and their own DNA.
12. Lysosomes
 Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste and foreign materials.
13. Peroxisomes
 Involved in fat metabolism and detoxification.
14. Cytoskeleton
 Composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
 Maintains cell shape and movement.
15. Vacuoles
 Large in plant cells (storage and structural support).

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  Small in animal cells (used for storage).
3. Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Size Small (0.1–5 µm) Larger (10–100 µm)

No true nucleus (nucleoid True nucleus with nuclear

Nucleus
region) membrane

DNA Circular, single chromosome Linear, multiple chromosomes

Membrane-bound Present (nucleus, mitochondria, ER,

Absent
Organelles etc.)

Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis or meiosis

Ribosomes 70S (smaller) 80S (larger)

Cell Wall Composition Peptidoglycan (bacteria) Cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi)

Occurs on the plasma

Respiration and Energy Occurs in mitochondria
membrane

Mode of Reproduction Asexual (binary fission) Sexual or asexual

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists

Summary of Prokaryotic Structures

Structure Composition Function

Peptidoglycan (bacteria), various materials Protection, shape, osmotic

Cell Wall
in archaea resistance

Plasma Selective transport, energy

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins
Membrane production

Protection, adhesion, biofilm

Capsule Polysaccharides or proteins
formation

Fimbriae Protein filaments Adhesion to surfaces

Pili Protein tubes DNA transfer (conjugation)

Flagella Flagellin protein Motility

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Structure Composition Function

Cytoplasm Water, enzymes, biomolecules Site of metabolic reactions

Nucleoid Circular DNA Contains genetic material

Extra genes (e.g., antibiotic

Plasmids Small circular DNA
resistance)

Ribosomes (70S) RNA and proteins Protein synthesis

Inclusion Bodies Various storage materials Store nutrients and energy

Endospores Thick protective layers Survival under harsh conditions

Shapes of Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells exhibit diverse shapes and arrangements, which contribute to their
adaptation, motility, and survival in various environments. Understanding bacterial
morphology is crucial in microbiology, medicine, and biotechnology, aiding in the
identification, treatment, and control of bacterial infections.
Prokaryotic cells exhibit a variety of shapes, which are primarily determined by their cell wall
composition and cytoskeletal proteins. These shapes help bacteria adapt to different
environments, enhance mobility, and assist in nutrient acquisition.
The major shapes of prokaryotic cells include cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla
(spiral), vibrios (comma-shaped), and filamentous forms.

1. Major Shapes of Prokaryotic Cells

A. Cocci (Singular: Coccus) – Spherical Bacteria
 Description: Round or oval-shaped bacteria.
 Examples:
o Staphylococcus aureus (causes skin infections).
o Streptococcus pneumoniae (causes pneumonia).
 Arrangements of Cocci:
o Diplococci – Occur in pairs (Neisseria gonorrhoeae).
o Streptococci – Form chains (Streptococcus pyogenes).
o Staphylococci – Form grape-like clusters (Staphylococcus aureus).

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 o Tetrads – Groups of four (Micrococcus).
o Sarcinae – Cube-like packets of eight (Sarcina ventriculi).
B. Bacilli (Singular: Bacillus) – Rod-Shaped Bacteria
 Description: Cylindrical or rod-like bacteria.
 Examples:
o Escherichia coli (common gut bacteria).
o Bacillus anthracis (causes anthrax).
 Arrangements of Bacilli:
o Single bacillus – Individual rods (Escherichia coli).
o Diplobacilli – Pairs of bacilli (Klebsiella pneumoniae).
o Streptobacilli – Chains of rods (Streptobacillus moniliformis).
o Coccobacilli – Short, oval-shaped rods (Bordetella pertussis).
C. Spirilla (Singular: Spirillum) – Spiral-Shaped Bacteria
 Description: Rigid, helical, or corkscrew-shaped bacteria.
 Examples:
o Spirillum volutans (found in freshwater).
o Helicobacter pylori (causes stomach ulcers).
 Characteristics:
o Have external flagella for movement.
o More rigid compared to spirochetes.
D. Spirochetes – Flexible Spiral Bacteria
 Description: Thin, flexible, and tightly coiled bacteria.
 Examples:
o Treponema pallidum (causes syphilis).
o Borrelia burgdorferi (causes Lyme disease).
 Characteristics:
o Move using axial filaments (endoflagella).
o More flexible than spirilla.

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E. Vibrios – Comma-Shaped Bacteria
 Description: Curved, comma-like rods.
 Examples:
o Vibrio cholerae (causes cholera).
o Vibrio parahaemolyticus (causes foodborne infections).
 Characteristics:
o Have a single polar flagellum for movement.
o Found in aquatic environments.
F. Filamentous Bacteria
 Description: Long, thread-like bacteria that resemble fungi.
 Examples:
o Streptomyces (produce antibiotics).
o Nocardia (cause respiratory infections).
 Characteristics:
o Form branching filaments.
o Play a role in soil decomposition.
2. Unusual and Pleomorphic Bacteria
Some bacteria lack a fixed shape and can change forms under different conditions.
A. Pleomorphic Bacteria
 Description: Bacteria that can change shape depending on environmental conditions.
 Examples:
o Mycoplasma pneumoniae (lacks a cell wall, causing pneumonia).
o Corynebacterium diphtheriae (causes diphtheria, variable shapes).
 Characteristics:
o Lack a rigid cell wall (e.g., Mycoplasma).
o Can adjust shape based on growth conditions.
B. Star-Shaped and Rectangular Bacteria
 Uncommon shapes seen in extremophiles (bacteria in extreme environments).

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  Examples:
o Stella (star-shaped).
o Haloarcula (rectangular, found in high-salt environments).
3. Importance of Bacterial Shape
The shape of a bacterial cell is not random—it plays a significant role in survival and
adaptation.
Bacterial Shape Adaptation & Importance

Cocci Resist desiccation, survive in dry environments.

Bacilli High surface area for nutrient absorption, fast growth.

Spirilla & Spirochetes Move efficiently in viscous environments.

Vibrios Adapted for aquatic mobility, colonize surfaces easily.

Filamentous Form biofilms, aid in decomposition.

Pleomorphic Can survive extreme environments, evade immune response.

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