Computer Science 478 Notes ‘24

★​ Data Representation

1.1 Number Systems

Analogue data is a continuous stream of data that is processed by humans.
Digital data is discrete data that only uses values 0 and 1 (aka binary).
Denary is a base-10 number system that uses values 0-9.

-​ Computers CANNOT process hexadecimal or denary numbers, so they must

be converted to binary.

Hexadecimal is a base-16 number system that uses values 0-9 and characters A-F.
Denary - 0, 1-9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Hexademical - 0, 1-9, A, B, C, D, E, F

-> Hexademical is a more concise number system, it's easier to write, read, and
understand. Debugging and locating are also easier with Hexadecimal.

Converting Binary to Denary

-​ To calculate a binary number like 10101000, place it in columns of base 2
numbers
-​ Add from left to right, writing 1 if the base-2 number is less than or equal to
your denary number
-​ Then add all the base 2 numbers

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

128 + 32 + 8 + 1 = 168

Converting Denary to Binary

-​ To calculate a denary number like 84, set up the columns of base 2 numbers.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

01010100

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

 -​ Separate into two nibbles (4 bits)
-​ Convery nibbles to denary
-​ Change denary numbers to hex if needed (e.g. 10 = A)

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
​ =6 ​​ ​ ​ =1

Hexadecimal value is 61

Binary addition rules

-> 0 + 0 = 0
-> 1 + 0 = 1
-> 1 + 1 = 10 (10 is 2 in binary)
-> 1 + 1 + 1 = 11 (11 in binary is 3)

What is an overflow error? It is a type of error that occurs when a number larger
than a register can store is generated.

Logical binary shifts

<< A logical shift to the left multiplies the number by 2​
>> A logical binary shift to the right divides the number by 2

-​ A problem with logical shifts is that data can lose its integrity as vital bits can
be removed from the register.

Negative binary numbers (Two’s complement)

* The leftmost bit represents the sign of the number (0 for positive and 1 for
negative)

E.x. -43
-> Start by representing 43 in 8-bit binary form
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

-> Invert all the bits

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

-> Add 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 1.2 Text, Sound and Images
Character sets contain all the characters that are in the character set and the binary
value that is assigned to each character.
ASCII? American standard code for information interchange

Metadata? Additional data that is stored with an image can provide information
such as the dimensions of the image and the time and date the image was taken.

Text is converted to binary using a character set such as ASCII or Unicode.

Images are converted to binary by taking each pixel and providing it with a colour
code that is converted to a binary value. The larger the resolution and the colour
depth of an image, the greater the amount of data that will need to be stored.
Increases the quality of the image.

Sound is converted to binary by sampling the sound at a set time interval. The value
of each sound sample is converted to binary. The greater the sample rate and
resolution of the sound, the greater the amount of data that will need to be stored in
the sound file. This also increases the accuracy of the recording.

1.3 Data storage and compression

Unit Description

Bit Smallest measurement

Nibble 4 bits in a nibble

Byte 8 bits in a byte

KibiByte {KiB} 1024 bytes in a KiB

MebiByte {MiB} 1024 KiB in a MiB

GigiByte {GiB} 1024 MiB in a GiB

TebiByte {TiB} 1024 GiB in a TiB

PebiByte {PiB} 1024 TiB in a PiB

ExbiByte {EiB} 1024 PiB in an Eib

Calculating the size of a file

-​ Number of images
-​ Resolution of the image
-​ Colour depth of the image
 -> Width of image x Height of image x Colour depth of image x No. of files in the
image

Calculating the size of a sound file

-​ Length of audio
-​ Sample rate of the audio
-​ Sample resolution of the audio

-> Sample rate x Sample resolution x Length of soundtrack

Data compression
-> Less storage space needed to store files, takes less time to transmit the files,
download and upload the file and less bandwidth is needed to transmit the file over
the internet

Lossy Lossless

A compression method that reduces the size A compression method that reduces the size
of a file by permanently removing data. of a file by permanently removing data.

Used for images and sound files. Finds repeating data and groups it. Used in
text, images and sound files.

For images, it reduces colour depth and Data is no longer stored individually,
resolution. instead, it is stored in lookup tables (p.28)
For sound files, it removes sounds that
cannot be heard by a human and reduces
sample rate/resolution.

Perpetual Music Shaping is a process that is Run Length Encoding (RLE): An algorithm
used in lossy compression that removes that groups repeating patterns and indexes
sounds that are not normally heard by the them.
human ear.

★​ Data transmission
2.1 Types and methods of data transmission
Packets are small units of data. Each packet contains three different sections:

Packet header Section of the packet of data that contains information about the
contents of the packet and its destination.
-> Destination address, packet number and originator address (IP)

Payload The actual data that the user is sending to the receiver.

Trailer Section of the packet of data that contains information about any
error-checking methods that may be used.
 Packet switching is a method of transmitting data across a network. Each data
packet can take an individual pathway across the network. ​

-> A router is a network component that

examines a data packet to obtain its
destination address and then forwards the
packet to this address.

Methods of data transmission

Method Explanation Example

Serial A transmission method where data is sent Connecting an external hard drive to
one bit at a time, down a single wire. a computer.
-> Data arrives sequentially, is less likely to
have errors and is cheap as the cost of wire
is inexpensive.
-> Transmission is slow, serial transmission
over very long distances is expensive as the
cost of wire dramatically increases.

Parallel A transmission method where data is sent Transmitting data from a computer
multiple bits at a time, down multiple wires. to a printer using a multi-wire
-> Parallel transmission is fast as large connector.
quantities of data are transmitted
-> Expensive as multiple wires are needed,
delays can be caused as data may arrive
asynchronously.

Simplex A transmission method where data is Transmitting data from a computer

transmitted in a single direction only. to a printer.
-> Cheap
-> Slow and requires two sets of wires for
bidirectional transmission, increasing the
cost

Half-duplex A transmission method where data is Phone conversations where only one
transmitted in both directions, but only one person needs to speak at a time (like
direction at a time. a walkie-talkie)
-> Cheaper than simplex for bidirectional
transmission.
-> Transmission is slow as data only travels
one bit at a time, in one direction

Full-duplex A transmission method where data is Phone conversations where both

transmitted in both directions at the same people can talk and be heard at the
time. same time allowing them to interrupt
-> Faster, as data is transmitted at the same each other.
time, both directions
 -> Expensive as the wire technology is
harder to implement

USB (universal serial bus) is an industry standard used to transmit data.

-​ USB ports are sockets that are a part of a device or computer that enables
you to insert a USB cable.
-​ USB cable is a type of transmission media that uses the USB port to transfer
data.
-​ USB connections are a collective name for using a USB cable plugged into a
USB port to transfer data from one device to another.
-​ USB devices plug into a USB port on a computer.

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple interface = fewer errors The length of the cable is limited to 5

Very high speed allowing data to be meters
transferred fast Transmission speeds for USBs are high but
The universal standard for connecting not as high as connections like Ethernet.
different devices
Can be used to power the device
Automatically detected

2.2 Methods of error detection

Check digit
Parity check, checksum, echo
ARQ

In the process of transmitting data, interference can occur. This causes data to be
lost, gained, or changed.

Parity check
A type of error detection that adds an additional bit to each byte to create an odd
or even sum.
-​ Every byte transmitted has one of its bits allocated as a parity bit
-​ The sender and receiver must agree before transmission whether they are
using odd or even parity
-​ If odd parity is used then there must be an odd number of 1’s in the
byte, including the parity bit

Odd Byte
parity bit

1 0010001
 -​ If even parity is used then there must be an even number of 1’s in the
byte, including the parity bit

The value of the parity bit is determined by counting the number of 1’s in the byte,
including the parity bit. If the number of 1’s does not match the agreed parity then
an error has occurred (won’t reveal where the error is).

Checksum
A type of error detection that performs a calculation on the data to create a
checksum value. Checksum values are compared after transmission to see if they
match.
-​ A value is calculated from the data that will be transmitted (e.g modulus 11)
-​ It is added to the data to be transmitted.
-​ After transmission, the receiving device uses the same method to calculate a
value from the received data. If the values match, there are no errors. If they
don’t match, an error has occurred.

Echocheck
A type of error detection that sends a copy of the transmitted data back to the
sender to be compared with the original data sent.
-​ Echo checks involve transmitting the received data back to the sender. The
sender then checks the data to see if any errors occurred during transmission.
-​ This method isn’t reliable as an error could have occurred when the sender
transmits the data or when the receiver transmits the data. Neither will know
when the error occurred.
-​ If an error does occur the sender will retransmit the data

Check digit
A type of error detection that is used for data entry. A calculation is performed on
the data entered to create a value. Check digit values are compared to see if the
data entered is correct.
-​ Data is sent in blocks and an additional check digit value is added at the end
of the block
-​ Check Digits are custom user-created algorithms that perform mathematical
calculations on data

An example of a check digit is the ISBN value on books:

-​ Each book has a unique ISBN that identifies the book
-​ A standard ISBN may be ten digits, for example, 965-448-765-9
-​ The check digit value is the final digit (9 in this example). This number is
chosen specifically so that when the algorithm is completed the result is a
whole number (an integer) with no remainder parts
 -​ A check digit algorithm is performed on the ISBN. If the result is a whole
number then the ISBN is valid

ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)

A type of error detection that uses acknowledgement and timeout to see if data has
arrived correctly after transmission.
When the receiver receives transmitted data it must check for the presence of any
errors. Errors can usually be detected but not always pinpointed.
-​ If an error is detected the receiver sends a negative acknowledgement
transmission to indicate the data is corrupted.
-​ If no error is detected the receiver sends a positive acknowledgement
transmission meaning the data is correct.
-​ If the receiver does not send any acknowledgement transmission then the
sender waits for a certain time period known as a time-out before
automatically resending the data.
This process is repeated until all data has been received and acknowledged.

2.3 Encryption
Encryption is a method of securing data for storage or transmission that scrambles
it and makes it meaningless.
-> Encryption does not stop hackers from stealing data that is transmitted, it only
makes the data meaningless.
Symmetric Asymmetric

Symmetric encryption uses the same key to Asymmetric encryption uses two
encrypt and decrypt different keys to encrypt and decrypt data.

- Plain text is encrypted into cipher text - Plain text is encrypted into cipher text
using an encryption key. using the public key.
- The cipher text and key are sent - The cipher text is transmitted to the
separately to the receiving device. receiving device
- The same key is used then to decrypt the - The cipher text is decrypted using the
cipher text back into its plain text form. private key (cannot be decrypted using
public key)
The simplest method of encryption is used
for low-profile data. When we use this algorithm, we will have
-> Many people were worried that it was far both a private key and a public key. Anyone
too easy for hackers to intercept both who wants to send you encrypted data will
packets and get access to the key and use your public key. This encrypted data
cipher, hence this method of encryption is can only be decrypted using your private
not as widely used. key.
-> Can work in reverse as well
 ★​ Hardware
3.1 Computer architecture
Von Neumann architechture
The CPU is a component in a computer system that processes data and instructions.
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that can perform many of the functions of
a CPU.

​ Fetch - Decode - Execute

The cycle through which data and instructions are processed.
1.​ Fetch
-​ This is the stage where the instruction
is fetched into the CPU. The memory
address of the instruction to be
fetched is stored in the Memory
Address Register and is sent down the
address bus. The data/instruction at
the memory address is transferred
back to the CPU, via the data bus,
where it is stored in the Memory Data
Register. The instruction is copied into the Current Instruction Register
and the Program Counter increments.

2.​ Decode
-​ This is the stage where the instruction are decoded within the CPU.
This begins when the instructions are received by the CU. The control
unit is the component of the CPU that controls all the operations in the
CPU. To decode an instruiction the CU uses an instruction set. This is a
set of all the commands that are understood and can be processed by
the CPU. They are in machine code.
3.​ Execute
-​ This is the stage where the instruction is executed by the CPU. The
instruction is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the opcode is
performed upon the operand. The result is stored in the accumulator or
written to a memory location within memory.

Special purpose register Definition

Program Counter (PC) Stores the address of the next instruction to

be fetched from memory
Memory Address Registers (MAR)

Memory Address Registers (MAR) Stores the address of the instruction or data
to be fetched from or written to memory
Memory Data Register (MDR) Stores the data that has been fetched from
memory or being written to memory
Data from MDR is sent to ALU to be
executed

Current Instruction Register (CIR) Stores the instruction the CPU is currently
decoding or executing

Accumulator Temporarily stores the results of the

calculations performed by the arithmetic
and logic unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Performs all mathematical and logical

questions when processing

[RAM -> CPU -{PC -> MAR}> RAM -{MDR -> CIR}>] [CU] -> [{ALU -> ACC} -> Execute]
​ ​ Address bus​ ​ Data bus ​ ​ Control bus

Performance factors
There are three main factors that can affect the performance of a CPU and this is
the number of cores it contains, the clock speed and the size of the cache.
The core is the part of the CPU that contains all the components that are used to
perform the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Clock speed is the number of FDE cycles
that can be performed in a second. Lastly, cache is a type of storage that is built
into the CPU to store the most frequently used data and instruction. The more cores,
the higher clock speed, and the bigger cache; the better performance.

Speed is measured in Hz = cycles per second (cycle = time between two)

3.2 Input and output devices

An input device is any device that allows data to be entered into a computer system.
-​ Cameras, keyboards, QR code scanners.
Human data entry devices - require data to be entered manually into the computer
(using keyboards, etc.)
Source entry data devices - these devices enter the source directly into the
computer (audio, video, scanner, etc.).

An output device is any device that allows the result of the data processing to be
seen or heard. A device that can be used to obtain the results of data that has been
processed.
-​ Printers, LED screens, speakers
Hard copy devices - outputted in tangible form can be used without a computer.
Soft copy devices - intangible output allows corrections to be made, stored and sent
digitally.
A sensor is a type of input device that is used to capture data from its immediate
environment.
An automated system is a system designed to operate without the need for any
human intervention.

3.3 Data storage

Primary storage - a type of storage that is directly accessed by the CPU

RAM (random access memory) ROM (read-only memory)

It is volatile/temporary storage. This means It is non-volatile/permanent storage. This

that it requires power to store data. If the means that if power is removed, the
power is turned off, the contents of the RAM contents of the ROM are retained.
are lost.

Stores data and programs that are Stores programs that initially boot the
currently in use by the computer. computer, such as the bootstrap and the
BIOS.

Contents are constantly being changed as Contents are fixed and do not normally
data is processed by the CPU. change. It is possible to reprogram, but not
normally attempted and is complex.

Possible to increase the amount of RAM a It is not easy to alter the ROM available in a
computer has by adding further RAM computer system.
components.

Secondary storage - a type of storage that is designed to store data permanently,

until it is deleted by the user.
Save my exams further explanation
-​ Magnetic storage uses the properties of magnetism to store data.
-​ Circular plates that spin allowing data to be read. Magnetised ->
1, demagnetised -> 0
-​ Optical storage uses lasers to store data, the lasers read and write data (CDs
and DVDs), and pits are burned into it and arranged in a spiral form)
-​ Solid-state storage uses transistors to store data. Uses logic gates to control
flow of electrons.

Virtual Memory is a part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when RAM is full.
Data that needs to be accessed by the CPU directly is switched by the operating
system from virtual memory into RAM and an inactive page from RAM replaces it in
virtual memory. This is called page switching.
-​ Segmentation is a second approach that uses segments not in use in memory.
These are moved to virtual memory space on the hard drive.
Cloud storage is the concept of storing data on remote servers, that can be
accessed via the internet, instead of on a local storage device. Data is owned by a
third party and accessed by the user using the internet.
-​ No hardware costs, less responsibility, travel friendly and inc/dec the amount
of storage with ease.

3.4 Network Hardware

NIC(Network Interface Card)? The component in a computer that is used to connect
it to a network.
-> MAC address? Media Access Control is a unique address given to the NI
by the manufacturer.
Transmission media? cables used to transfer data in a network.

Static IP Dynamic IP

An IP address that does not change An IP address that can change each
every time the device connects to a time the device connects to a network.
network.

★​ Software
4.1 Types of software and interrupts
System software is a type of software that manages the hardware and the software
in a computer. The operating system(OS) is a program that manages the computer,
allows the user to communicate with the computer and allows software to be run.
Utility programs are system software that performs housekeeping activities.

Application software is software that allows the user to perform a useful task. This
includes things like word processors, spreadsheets, databases, and web browsers.

Application software runs on OS which runs on firmware loaded by bootstrap.

The OS has many uses, this includes, providing an interface, managing files,
managing peripherals and drivers, managing memory, managing multitasking,
managing interrupts, providing a platform for running applications and managing
user accounts.

An interrupt is a signal sent to the processor to tell it that its attention is required.
Software Hardware

Division by 0 Data input, i.e. key pressed on a keyboard,

mouse click.

Two processes attempting to access the Error from hardware, i.e. printer out of
same location in memory paper
 Program request for input Hardware failure

Output required Hard drive signal that it has read data

Data required from memory A new hardware device connected

Interrupt handler (IH) is a program that organises interrupts into an order based on
priorities. An Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is a program that retrieves an interrupt
and performs the required actions(s).

4.2 Types of programming language, translators and IDEs

High-level languages are programming languages that use human-language-style
words. Programs written with high-level languages can be run on different types and
manufacturers of computers, such as Python, Java, and VB.net.
Low-level languages are closer to the machine’s language. This could be assembly
language or binary code. Machine/binary code is 0s and 1s. This means it is
non-portable and cannot be run on different types of computers. Assembly code is
written in mnemonics that allow direct manipulation of the hardware. It still has to
be converted to binary to run.
High-level language Low-level language

Easier for users to understand, read, write, More difficult for users to understand, read,
amend. write, and amend.

Easier for users to debug code Harder for users to debug code

Portable, machine-independent Not portable, machine-dependent

It must be converted to low-level language It doesn't need converting so it is faster.

before it can be run.

One statement can represent many Several instructions are required for each
low-level instructions high-level language statement

Cannot directly manipulate hardware Can manipulate hardware, making

programs more efficient in terms of speed
and memory usage.

A translator is a type of software that converts code written in one programming

language into another, usually a high-level language into a low-level language.
-> Assemblers convert assembly language into machine code
-> Interpreters are a type of translator that converts a high-level language into a
low-level language, by checking one line of code and then executing it before
checking the next.
-> A compiler is a translator. It checks all code before running the program.
Interpreter Compiler

Translated one line of code into machine Translates all lines of code before running
code and runs it the program
 Reports a syntax error as soon as it's found, Reports all syntax errors at the same time
and stops the program.

Useful when writing the program Useful when a program is finished and
ready for testing

Code must be reprogrammed each time it is Code doesn't need to be re-translated each
translated time the program is run

Doesn't produce an exe file Produces an exe file

Source code is required Source code not required

Interpreter software required No other software required

Can test part of a program without Need to finish a section of code before
completing the code testing it

An IDE is a piece of software that allows a user to write, test, and run program code.
It includes an editor which has features such as auto-completion, auto-correction,
pretty print (helps spot keywords) and block minimising. IDEs also include run-time
environments which allow a program to be run and lets the user interact with the
program. Debugging features include breakpoints, variable watch windows and
stepping.

★​ The Internet and its uses

(this entire topic is mostly physical notes bc I'm lazy and this shit is ez)

5.1 The Internet and the World Wide Web

The Internet is a very large global network that allows users to access the World
Wide Web. The World Wide Web is a collection of all the web pages that have been
made available.

(in-depth notes in notebook bc I understood this topic through programming an actual

website, so I don't want to re-cover all thaat lol)

5.2 Digital currency

Cryptocurrency is a currency that exists electronically rather than physically.
Blockchain is a method that is used to track all the transactions made with crypto. A
digital ledger is a database that is a list of all the transactions recorded by the use
of blockchain.

5.3 Cyber security

p106-122
cyber security threats
keeping data safe
 ★​ Automated and emerging technologies

6.1 Automated systems

An automated system performs actions without
interaction with humans. They are used in small
systems such as the heating or air-conditioning in
buildings, all the way up to flying aeroplanes and
building items such as cars.
They usually include the following features-
Sensors (used to capture data from its immediate
environment), Microprocessors (to process data
from the sensors and determine whether action
needs to be taken), and Actuators (to create
movement).

6.2 Robotics
​
Advantages Disadvantages​

Increased productivity: robots can work High initial investment: purchasing and
continuously without breaks or fatigue setting up robots can be expensive

Consistency and accuracy: robots can Maintenance costs: robots require regular
perform tasks with a high level of precision maintenance and repairs, which can add to
and accuracy the overall cost.

Lack of flexibility: robots are programmed for

Safety: robots can perform tasks that are
specific tasks and cannot adapt easily to new
dangerous for humans
situations or tasks.

Cost-effective: robots can help reduce labour Unemployment: increased use of robots can
costs in the long run lead to job loss in certain industries.

6.3 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is a branch of computer science that involves creating
computer systems that can perform tasks that would normally require human
intelligence.

Things like image recognition, speech recognition, natural language, computer

games and diagnosis systems.

(physical notes for components of AI, expert systems and machine learning :))