ISSN 1554-3439

I nternational F ire S ervice

J ournal of L eadership
and M anagement

Volume 8
2014
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Editor Copy Editor Layout & Design Subscriptions & Permissions
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Institute for Biobehavioral Health
Research
National Development & Research
Institutes
 ng Theo
ldi

i
Bu

ry
IFSJLM

e
to
m

t ic
pac t P r a c
I

The International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management (IFSJLM)

is composed of peer-reviewed articles focusing exclusively on fire leadership and
management topics. To our knowledge, it is the only academic journal with this focus
in the world. IFSJLM is published by Fire Protection Publications (FPP) at Oklahoma
State University (OSU). FPP is part of the College of Engineering, Architecture, and
Technology at OSU and is the leading publisher in the world of fire-related education
and training materials.
IFSJLM would not be possible without the financial support of the Dean of the College
of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology and FPP. Their support represents a
commitment to the continued professionalization of the American fire service.
As a further indication of the support of FPP to the international fire community, all issues
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at the Journal’s website. Please go to http://www.ifsjlm.org/PastEditions.htm to read and/
or download previous issues of the Journal.
 In this Issue

The Dr. Granito Award

Dr. John Granito Award for Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Message from Dr. Robert England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Keynote Address
The Making of a Hero: An Exploration of Heroism in Disasters and
Implications for the Emergency Services
Dr. Anne Eyre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fireground News
The Deployment of Resources at Residential Structural Fires and
Cardiovascular Strain in Firefighters
Dr. David A. Barr, Dr. Lori Moore-Merrell, Ron Benedict, and Dr. Denise L. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Combating Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) in the United States (US) Fire Service
Dr. Denise L. Smith, Jacob P. DeBlois, and Dr. Stefanos N. Kales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Peer-Reviewed Articles
When the Smoke Clears:The Impact of State Fire-Safe Cigarette
Policies on Reducing Fire Fatalities
Dr. David H. Folz and Chris Shults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Leading by Example: The Role of Leadership in Firefighter Health
Sara A. Jahnke, Christopher K. Haddock, and Walker S. Carlos Poston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Fiscal Stress and Cutback Management Among United States Fire Departments
Dr. Robert E. England and Dr. Anthony Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Mind-Body Integrative Training: Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Dr. Rodger E. Broomé, Zachery Lyman, and Joshua Told . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Academic Workshop
Career Urban Firefighters’ Perceptions of Citizen Volunteer Participation in
Disaster-Management Response
Brian William Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Journal and Subscription Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Previous Recipients of the Dr. John Granito Award for

Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management Research
Research Symposium 2008 (RS08)
Dr. John Granito
Professor Emeritus and Retired Vice President for Public Service and External Affairs
State University of New York Binghamton and Public Safety Management Consultant

Research Symposium 2009 (RS09)

Dr. Denis Onieal
Superintendent
National Fire Academy (NFA)

Research Symposium 2010 (RS10)

Dr. Lori Moore-Merrell
Assistant to the General President
International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF)

Research Symposium 2011 (RS11)

Dr. Edward T. Dickinson, MD
Professor of Emergency Medicine
Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania

Research Symposium 2012 (RS12)

Daniel Madrzykowski
Fire Protection Engineer
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

Research Symposium 2013 (RS13)

Dr. Anne Eyre
Trauma Training Consultant
Coventry, United Kingdom

Research Symposium 2014 (RS14)

Chief Dennis Compton
Chairman of the Board of Directors of the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation

4
 Volume 8

The Dr. Granito Award

Dr. John Granito Award for
Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management Research
The Dr. Granito Award
Fire Protection Publications (FPP) and the International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management (IFSJLM) head-
quartered on the campus of Oklahoma State University (OSU) are proud to announce the creation of the Dr. John Granito
Award for Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management Research (the Dr. Granito Award). The award will be presented
at the IFSJLM Research Symposium that supports the Journal held annually in July at the IFSTA Validation Conference. The
award honors Dr. John Granito. John is one of the premier fire and public safety consultants in the United States. Just a few of
his many Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Services research projects include: Oklahoma State University-Fire Protection Publica-
tions Line of Duty Death Reduction project (3 years); Centaur National Study (3 years); Research Triangle Institute/National Fire
Protection Association/International City/County Management Association project (4 years); Fire Department Analysis Project
(FireDAP) of the Urban Fire Forum (13 years); Combination Department Leadership project, University of Maryland, Maryland
Fire & Rescue Institute (4 years); Worcester Polytechnic/International Association of Fire Fighters/International Association of
Fire Chiefs/National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Fire Ground Performance Study (current). He has participated
in more than 400 fire department studies. John also has strong ties to academia. He served in a number of academic positions
for almost 30 years, including 16 years at the State University of New York at Binghamton. He is Professor Emeritus and Retired
Vice President for Public Service and External Affairs at SUNY Binghamton, which is consistently ranked in the top public
universities by U.S. News and World Report. John has published numerous articles, chapters, and technical papers, served
as co-editor of the 2002 book published by the International City/County Management Association entitled, Managing Fire and
Rescue Service, and is a Section Editor of the NFPA® 2008 Fire Protection Handbook. Dr. Granito was the first recipient of the
award that honors him and his service to the fire service and to academia. Each year the recipient of the Dr. Granito Award will
present the Keynote Address at the annual IFSJLM Research Symposium.

Nomination Form
Fire Protection Publications (FPP) and the International Fire although early in their career as a practitioner/scholar or aca-
Service Journal of Leadership and Management (IFSJLM) demic, has made a seminal contribution to the fire leadership
headquartered on the campus of Oklahoma State University and management literature.
(OSU) are accepting nominations for the Dr. John Granito
Award for Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management To nominate an individual for the Dr. Granito Award, please
Research (the Dr. Granito Award). The award is presented at submit by 15 January of the symposium year: (1) this form
the Research Symposium that supports the International Fire (or a copy of it), (2) no more than a one-page single-spaced
Service Journal of Leadership and Management (IFSJLM) letter explaining why you believe the person is deserving of the
held annually in July at the IFSTA Validation Conference. award, and (3) a copy of the nominee’s resume or curriculum
vitae. Please send required materials in hard copy to: Dr.
The nominee should have made a significant contribu- Granito Award, C/O Dr. Robert E. England, Founding Editor,
tion to the advancement of fire leadership and manage- International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Manage-
ment through his/her scholarly/academic writing. The Dr. ment, 487 Elm Avenue, Norman, Ok 73069. Or, if you prefer,
Granito Award is not necessarily a life-time achievement award, scan and complete the nomination form and send all materials
although such individuals certainly should be in a prominent electronically to: [email protected].
position to be nominated. The nominee can be a person who,

I nominate ________________________________________ for the Dr. John Granito Award for Excellence in Fire
Leadership and Management Research. To support the nomination, I have included a letter of recommendation and a
resume or curriculum vitae (CV) of the nominee. (A nomination is not accepted without the supporting letter and resume/CV.)

Nominator Name: _________________________________________________________________________________

Address: ________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

Zip/Postcode: ____________________________________________________________________________________

Contact Information:
Telephone: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Email:__________________________________________________________________________________________

5
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Message from Dr. Robert England

Founding Editor, International Fire Service Jour- annual issue of the “Red Journal.” Typically, readers
nal of Leadership and Management (IFSJLM), should expect to see the annual edition released in
Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State September or October. When the issue goes to press,
University however, is largely dependent on when external peer
reviewers accept four or more articles for publication.
Welcome to Volume 8 of IFSJLM. This issue marks Regardless of the number of articles, the volume will
the fourth year of our transition from a biannual to an be available no later than the end of the calendar year.

6
 Volume 8

Keynote Address
Sixth Annual Dr. John Granito Award for Excellence in Fire Leadership and Management Keynote Address pre-
sented at Research Symposium 2013 (RS13) by Dr. Anne Eyre, Trauma Training Consultant, Coventry, United
Kingdom (UK)

The Making of a Hero: An Exploration of Heroism in Disasters and

Implications for the Emergency Services
Abstract
This paper explores the phenomenon of heroism in the context of behavioural responses to
disaster. Drawing on social scientific, media, and health and safety sources, it reflects on the
impact and consequences of being labelled a hero. Consideration is given to the implications of
heroism for the emergency services arising from recent cultural and legal developments within
the United Kingdom (UK). The paper calls for a more informed understanding and debate about
the meaning and implications of heroism in disasters.

Introduction Members of the emergency services may be

described as everyday (albeit often reluctant) heroes to
the extent that they deliberately enter environments of
“Show me a hero and I’ll write you a tragedy.”
risk as part of their ordinary duties, but their actions in
the context of major emergencies may attract addi-
(F. Scott Fitzgerald Quote)
tional attention and analysis in the following days and
References to heroes and heroic acts in disasters are weeks. The paper considers the renewed focus on
common, particularly when it comes to mass fatality risk, health, and safety within emergency response
incidents. Accounts and analyses of heroic acts appear prompted by a series of major incidents and investiga-
in sources as wide ranging as the news media and tions within the United Kingdom (UK) and the conse-
popular culture through to academic papers and health quences these have had for revisiting the interpretation
and safety guidance literature (see References sec- and guidance around acts considered heroic within the
tion and Appendix). However, although these various law, custom, and practice.
sources may be using the same term, are they all talk-
ing about the same kinds of behaviour and attributes/ Understanding Disaster Experiences and Heroism
qualities?
This paper begins by examining the psychological Exceptional events often generate exceptional indi-
and social context of major emergencies as poten- vidual and social reactions. To understand disaster-
tially traumatic events and the significance of these for related behaviour, it is important to appreciate how
understanding disaster-related actions and behaviour. such circumstances can impact on the perceptions,
In some cases reactions to disasters may be as much experiences, and social responses of those involved
about spontaneous, instinctive human responses in them and what this means for questions of heroism.
as they are about the measured implementation of Focussing on disasters as psychological and social
preprepared emergency procedures. It is important experiences gives some insight into understanding
to acknowledge this reaction if we are to understand, when behaviour is truly heroic and its implications.
anticipate, and interpret extraordinary and heroic acts Major emergencies or disasters are, thankfully,
where people risk their own lives in responding to the relatively abnormal events rather than everyday occur-
needs of others. rences within communities.1 Psychologists and soci-
The newsworthiness and other social and political ologists highlight how behavioural responses reflect
agendas served by the discourse of disaster heroes the ways in which they differ from normal, everyday
will be briefly referred to along with the wider conse- experiences and routine emergency response. Major
quences of being labelled a hero. For a member of emergencies are, to a lesser or greater extent,
the public who becomes the victim-cum-hero, finding • of a different order in terms of emergency
oneself unwittingly caught up in a life-threatening event procedures and scale of response. The
can be life-changing enough, but in the aftermath there declaration of an event as a major incident
may be additional costs associated with identifications or disaster usually triggers a specific set
of heroism such as additional survivor guilt. of procedural responses, namely the
implementation of special arrangements such
7
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

as major incident plans. Actions described as • potentially traumatic, insofar as those directly
heroic tend to fall outside of or beyond prescribed exposed to them have experienced, witnessed,
emergency procedures; they are usually or been confronted with an event or events that
spontaneous and unplanned, may be often involve actual or threatened death or serious
committed by ordinary bystanders who are not injury, or a threat to the physical integrity
following formal emergency procedures, or they of oneself or others (American Psychiatric
may be committed by emergency responders Association, 2013). Heroes may be those
breaking with or exceeding formal protocols. who take the fight rather than the flight option
in disasters, rushing in to save others at the
• often described as surreal and quite different
expense of themselves. As well as generating
in feel from scenes displayed in disaster films
physical and psychological reactions during
or other imaginary scenarios. Many emergency
immediate impact, the traumatic nature of such
responders reflecting on their first-hand
events continues to generate psycho-social
experience of real disaster have emphasised the
effects in the following days and weeks. For
contrast with drills or exercises and the impact of
those whose natural instinct in disaster was to
such experiences on them both during the event
save themselves rather than others, survivor guilt
and afterwards. Typical of this is the comment
may be compounded by the lavish praise being
made by a firefighter who responded to the
bestowed on the selflessness of heroes.
Ladbroke Grove train crash in London, 1999,
in which 31 people were killed. Commenting • large-scale community events with likely ripple
on the initial reactions of shock while gathering effects and impacts. The community effects of
up the personal belongings of those who had disaster are described by the sociologist Kai
so suddenly died, the firefighter commented Erikson (1976) in the aftermath of the Buffalo
on the feeling of being unprepared for such an Creek flooding disaster in 1972. His classic
encounter: “In training, you are shown photos of ethnographic account gives a powerful descrip-
other major incidents so you are prepared in that tion of the effects of collective trauma, which he
way, but nothing in my training prepared me for it describes as a blow to the basic tissues of social
when I saw it in real life” (BBC News, 1999). life that damages the bonds attaching people
together and impairs the prevailing sense of com-
• experienced as chaotic by those caught up in
munality.
them and first on scene, at least in the initial
phases at the point where sense is being made — Rob Gordon (2009) has analysed further the
of what is occurring and before a coordinated social processes and dynamics that transpire
emergency response kicks in. Initial emergency within a community when a disaster strikes.
calls during the London Bombings, July 7, He describes how emerging distinctions and
2005, typified this reality with first responders differences between individuals can cause
facing “considerable difficulties in assimilating cleavage planes, severing the fabric of social
information that is coming in as clearly a very support systems, and causing tension and
confused incident presented itself” (Hugo Keith, conflict during recovery stages.
Queen’s Counsel [QC], speaking at the Inquest,
— Singling out and rewarding some individuals
October 11, 2010; Her Majesty’s [HM] Coroner,
as heroic may create or reinforce unhelpful or
2010). In such circumstances, heroic acts may
unintended hierarchies of worthiness exac-
be associated with their bringing leadership or
erbating group or community tensions, for
order to bear or restoring control in the midst
example, where some individual acts or actors
of chaos and destruction. The individuals who
are formally commended with awards while
formed a human bridge to lead fellow passengers
others are not.
to safety in the midst of ferry disasters have
been described as heroes in this sense (TNT • public and political events in which every detail,
Magazine, 2012; Kent Online, 2012). decision, and action by those involved as victims,
survivors, witnesses, and responders as well as
• prolonged events, where notions of heroism are
the reactions of those mourning and bereaved
associated with notions of endurance as well
may be observed, scrutinised, and evaluated.
as spectacular single acts (Smith, 2011). The
Legal accountability for actions in disasters,
Fukushima 50 in Japan have been described
both individual and corporate, may be examined
in heroic terms. Heroism here has been linked
through lengthy processes and procedures such
to their continuing work to restore control over
as inquests, public inquiries, and health and
the ongoing threats and hazards caused by the
safety investigations. Far from praising the risk-
nuclear disaster in Japan in March, 2011, as well
taking behaviour and morality of heroes, legal
as their initial, self-sacrificing responses at the
judgements and disciplinary procedures may take
nuclear plant as the disaster unfolded (Yokota &
a rather more negative view of such actions.
Yamada, 2012).
8
 Volume 8

Disaster Behaviour: Bringing Out the Best in refuse their money or another diner had already
covered the ticket. The legend of the “Oklahoma
People Dollar” is based upon a first responder com-
menting that he was leaving Oklahoma with the
Social scientists have spent decades reviewing human same dollar he had when he arrived because,
reactions and responses to disasters as part of their during his entire stay in Oklahoma, he had been
studies of individual and collective behaviour. Their unable to spend that dollar (Oklahoma City
contribution is a reminder of the importance of ensur- National Memorial and Museum, 2014).
ing the needs of people are at the heart of emergency
planning, response, and recovery strategies. Working The behaviour exhibited during and after this inci-
with emergency managers, they seek to make sure dent was not unusual for large-scale, mass-fatality inci-
emergency plans and procedures are appropriate and dents. Reinforcing the themes of Erikson and Gordon
successful by being based on experience and evi- given earlier, Zunin and Myers (2000) refer to a honey-
dence about how people typically behave and respond moon phase reflecting a common aspect of community
in the impact and aftermath phases of disaster. Fur- responses in disaster. They describe this as following
thermore, their work plays an important role in demys- on from a rescue or heroic phase where people may
tifying and debunking the erroneous myths and beliefs risk their own safety to save others, including strang-
often perpetuated by media and other, often partial, ers.
reports of disaster behaviour.
Examples of disaster myths include the notions that Heroism, Self-Sacrifice, and Disasters
disasters produce wide-scale, counterproductive, and
The association between life-saving actions and
antisocial behaviour such as panic, social disorganisa-
heroism dates back as far as Greek mythology where
tion, and looting. This is not to say that such phenom-
heroes (and heroines) were depicted as courageous
ena do not exist, but rather that reports about their
characters displaying the will for self-sacrifice for some
prevalence often tend to be exaggerated by the media.
greater good of all humanity. They were often vener-
In fact, evidence from across different kinds of disaster
ated as demigods and although today’s heroes may
and societies suggests that on the whole endangered
not quite be worshipped in the traditional sense, the
publics and disaster victims respond and adapt well
cult of the hero personality may seem close to adula-
during and after disasters (Tierney, Bevc, & Kuligowski,
tion at times. Today heroism remains associated with
2006).
moral excellence and positive qualities such as nobility,
Contrary to the classic notion of the disaster
bravery, and fortitude (McLeish, 1993).
syndrome — a zombie-like condition that renders
Although the popular meaning and application of
disaster victims hapless and helpless (Quarantelli &
notions of heroism to disaster-related behaviour has
Dynes, 1970) — social scientific research has also
been somewhat stretched in contemporary popular
highlighted that, at least in the immediate aftermath
culture,2 it still tends to be associated with positive
of disasters, community resilience and unity,
moral qualities, meritorious life-saving endeavours,
strengthening of social ties, self-help, heightened
and exceptional acts of self-sacrifice. Examples where
initiative, altruism, and pro-social behaviour more often
heroes have been identified by the media and praised
prevail (Auf der Heide, 2004). An example of pro-
for their actions include the extreme risk-taking as
social, positive responses to disaster was the way in
part of initial rescue efforts in responses to terrorist
which the people of Oklahoma reacted in the aftermath
incidents in Oklahoma City,1995; New York City, 2001;
of the bombing of the Murrah Building on April 19,
London, 2005; Glasgow, 2007; and Boston, 2013.
1995. Behaviour later described as “selfless acts of
The hero label is commonly applied by journalists
heroism” (Coats, 2011) included local citizens and
and members of the public as part of telling the story
members of the emergency services running towards
and a simplistic media discourse about good (heroes)
the disaster scene to rescue survivors immediately
and bad (blameworthy) people in the aftermath of
after the bombing rather than away from the building.
disasters. It is interesting to see how the media return
This behaviour and other examples led to the term The
to familiar themes and phrases in telling stories from
Oklahoma Standard being coined to define a new level
one disaster to another. The notion of a human bridge,
of caring during and after disasters:
for example, used to describe a British man helping
When a need for blood was broadcast, it had fellow passengers to safety during the sinking of the
to be followed by an advisory to stay home, Costa Concordia in 2012 was the same description
because more people lined up than were applied to another British hero during the sinking of a
needed. When an announcement was made ferry off Zeebrugge in 1987 (United Press International,
that work boots were needed at the site, workers 1987; M. Fricker, 2102; BBC News, 1987; and Kent
pulled up and took off their boots and left them. Online, 2012).
First responders from out of town found that they Beyond the media, academic reviews also include
could not go to a restaurant and pay for their references and analyses of the heroic actions of
own meals. Either the restaurant owner would individuals associated with disasters, rescue, and
9
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

response (e.g., Lois, 1999). Levinson (2002) questions that were broadcast worldwide, and over the follow-
the appropriateness of these reviews. Analysing Israeli ing months he was invited to meet a number of senior
news media coverage of bombing incidents over two political figures including the Prime Minister and the
consecutive days in Jerusalem and Haifa in 2001, he New York City Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg. His
critiques the accuracy of initial accounts, including dra- awards included the CNN Everyday Superhero Award,
matic reports of heroism that formed a key element of a Daily Mirror Pride of Britain Award, and a Queen’s
the coverage. Drawing on the work of others, Bennett Gallantry Medal.
and Daniel (2002) reflect on how accounts of heroism A year later reports began to circulate in the national
are part of what makes disaster stories newsworthy: press that Smeaton’s involvement in the incident had
been exaggerated and that others who had done more
The selection of obtrusive incidents for report-
to restrain the attackers had not been recognised with
ing by newspapers depends critically on edito-
awards such as the Queen’s Gallantry Medal. Smeaton
rial perceptions of what kinds of event appeal to
was branded a fake and found himself on the receiving
the public imagination. Stories about disasters
end of negative media attention. Interviewed five years
have much to offer in this respect, as they can
after the incident, he described the impact of being
be dramatic, emotive and awe inspiring. Also
assigned a hero label:
they furnish numerous opportunities for report-
ing personal dramas and heroic rescues . . . for It was absolutely crazy. I just did what I thought
indulging the public’s apparent fascination with I had to do . . . I went to help the police officer.
horrific events . . . and for satiating the apparent Before I knew it, I am thrust into the limelight. I
wish of many people to experience vicariously had everybody chasing after me. To be honest,
the suffering and tragedy of others . . . . (p. 34) I didn’t know what way to turn, what to do . . . . It
was very difficult. I am a normal guy, and all of
a sudden I am on the front page of newspapers,
The Disaster Hero: A Good News Angle on a Bad on international news programmes. You don’t
News Story know which way to turn. It was unbelievable.
(BBC News, 2008)
As well as raising the important question of whether
accounts of heroism in disasters are accurate, such
commentary helps explain why references to hero- Heroism as Resistance to Terrorism
ism may be so prolific in disaster reporting. Accounts
A symbolic aspect of Smeaton’s heroism was the
of heroism are eminently newsworthy, satisfying the
sense that his actions not only thwarted a violent act
thirst for a good news angle on a bad news story. Not
but spoke for the wider public, nationally and interna-
only this, disaster heroism is newsworthy in the classic
tionally, in resisting the fear and threat generated by
sense because it involves unexpected and dramatic
terrorism. In a television news interview days after the
events and includes a human-interest perspective with
incident, watched by millions around the world, a jour-
which the audience may be able to personally connect
nalist asked him what message he would give to any
and find meaning (Galtung & Ruge, 1965).
future terrorist who tried to launch an attack. Smeaton
The newsworthiness of the disaster hero may even
replied:
contribute to circumstances where the hero becomes
the story in itself, well beyond reports of emergency They can try and come to Britain, and they’ll try
rescue or response that initially impelled an individual and disrupt us any way they want, but the Brit-
or individuals into the limelight. A cult of personality ish people have been under a lot worse things
may arise, established and propagated by the mass than this and we always stand proud and (if) you
media and social media, whereby a hero’s identity and come to Glasgow, Glasgow doesn’t accept this,
actions take on a dynamic life and significance of their do you know what I mean, this is Glasgow, you
own, potentially in place of truth, accuracy, or propor- know, so we’ll set about you. (STV Glasgow,
tionality. 2007)
An example of this is John Smeaton, a baggage
In this setting, heroism represented resilience and
handler at Glasgow International Airport, who was
defiance against the threat and vulnerability caused
involved in helping to thwart a terrorist attack there in
by international terrorism. Perhaps faith in the power
2007. When terrorists drove a burning jeep filled with
of heroes in the face of violent and traumatic scenes
explosives into the airport entrance, Smeaton helped
affirms the social belief that goodness and goodwill will
to wrestle one of the attackers to the ground. He was
prevail over threats to safety and social harmony. The
subsequently hailed a hero for having stood up to the
need to identify people as heroes may be an uncon-
terrorists and received a string of awards and positive
scious response to the sense of collective threat posed
affirmations. A John Smeaton Appreciation Society
by the terrorists and a need to affirm the belief that
was set up on Facebook hailing him a hero for our
most people are good, rather than bad, in a world that
time, and a tribute website received 500,000 hits in
really is a safe place most of the time.
its first 48 hours. Smeaton gave television interviews
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 Volume 8

While at its roots there have been political connota- too had acted bravely during the Glasgow attack, not
tions attached to legends of heroism and personality just him, adding: “They all should be recognised for
cults, equating heroic spontaneous reactions with polit- their efforts and behaviour instead of debating who did
ical resistance to terrorism may be confusing. Similarly the most. It should not be turned into a competition.”
in defining heroism, there is an important distinction to (Fraser, 2012)
be made between suffering injury during disaster and Another example of this sentiment was displayed
taking explicit actions to save the lives of others as an by Thomas Barrett, a patrolman in the Boston Police
incident unfolds. It becomes problematic if survival per described by Time Magazine as A Hero Among
se becomes a reason to call someone a hero. Heroes for acting on his instinct and training in assist-
In the days after the Boston bombings, 2013, some ing injured people in the bombings. Barrett’s response
media reports applied the hero label more generally to the attribution reflected the instinct to label everyone
to people present at the scene as victims, bystanders, involved as heroes, not just himself, as Time Magazine
and responders. The term seemed to be liberally used reported:
to distinguish between non-perpetrators and those
It’s a moment of valour he won’t soon forget.
who perpetrated the deliberate act of violence. The
Barrett borrows a quote about a character
inference here was that heroism is associated with
from Stephen Ambrose’s Band of Brothers to
innocence and with resistance to evil and the terrorists’
describe the experience: “His grandson asked
intention.
him if he was a hero in the war,” and he said,
One seriously injured survivor, Jeff Bauman,
“No, I wasn’t. But I served in the company of
attracted extensive media attention for his heroism
heroes.” Last Monday, Barrett thought similarly.
that has been associated both with surviving and with
“That day, everybody from my station was a
trying to help the authorities identify the perpetrators by
hero. Everybody from the police department was
giving them a description:
a hero. And at that point, everybody in the city
We’re just so proud of him, said his boss Kevin was a hero.” (Katz, 2013)
Horst. We do consider him a hero, both for what
he did for law enforcement, whatever role he
played in that, but more importantly, he’s a hero The Costs of Heroism: Intrusion and Survivor Guilt
for how he’s handling this time. He’s got such a Today disaster scenes are beamed into our living
great attitude. (WCVB, 2013) rooms, including breaking news stories covering every
The local news media reported how the Boston aspect of the unfolding drama. More than ever before,
bombing hero was receiving dozens of letters each day disasters have become public events in the sense of
from people moved by his story. His colleagues created actions, reactions, and behavioural responses being
Team Bauman T-shirts, and one news report stated captured, recorded, reviewed, and replayed through
that he had received more than $600,000 in donations social and other media. The cost of this may be unin-
for his medical bills over the previous week (Peterson, vited intrusions into privacy. For some people caught
2013). up in this media analysis, enduring coverage renders
them unable to escape public attention, exposure, and
Everyone’s a Hero, But Some are More Heroic scrutiny. This attention may be all the more unwelcome
during particularly sensitive times such as the fraught
Than Others emotional aftermath of a traumatic experience.
It is not unusual for those to whom the hero label is
In the immediate aftermath of the Boston bombings, attributed to express reluctance and to resist or deflect
much media focus was on identifying and detaining the media attention. Associating their actions with implica-
perpetrators, and so it is understandable that efforts to tions of extraordinary qualities and goodness may feel
assist the authorities was greatly appreciated within the inappropriate or unfair. Examples of this following the
wider community. Loosely aligning notions of heroism Boston bombing include the following:
to crime reporting in these circumstance, however, is
unhelpful because, again, it blurs distinctions in this • A man photographed carrying a woman to safety
case between acts of genuine self-sacrifice and civic after the explosions who, when interviewed, said:
duty. Furthermore, it makes the decision to formally “While I appreciate the interest in hearing our
recognise truly heroic behaviour more difficult since perspective on today’s horrific events, the spot-
everyone involved may potentially be identified as a light should remain firmly on the countless
hero. individuals — first responders, medics, EMTs,
Alternatively, calling everyone caught up in or runners who crossed the finish line and kept on
responding to disaster a hero may be an attractive running straight to give blood, and the countless
prospect for some people since it prevents differentia- civilians — who did whatever they could to save
tion and the idea of some heroes being singled out lives. They were the true heroes.” (NBC News,
by the media as being more heroic than others. John 2013)
Smeaton, for example, later acknowledged that others
11
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

• An active-duty service member was photo- cised, both in the report of the London Assembly in
graphed wrapping the red shirt he wore during 2006 and in the inquests conducted during 2011 into
the Marathon around the bloody leg of a man at why 52 innocent people died.
the blast site. His reluctance to be identified led Although the emergency response on July 7 was
to his being referred to as “the man who gave the commended on the whole, such intense public scrutiny
shirt off his back.” (NBC News, 2013) and elements of criticism during the lengthy subse-
quent legal procedures must have had an impact on all
Focusing on heroism can distract from the true hor-
involved in the emergency response, including those
rors of confronting mass death and injury. Meanwhile
who may have felt a sense of falling from hero to zero.
for those whose natural instinct and reaction during
It is important that psychological, social, and organisa-
disaster was to save themselves and flee from danger,
tional support is made available for responders dur-
notions of heroism may later feed powerful reactions
ing these later, longer-term phases following disaster
of survivor guilt. Writing a few weeks after the Boston
as inevitable legal procedures take their course. The
bombing, journalist Beth Teitell (2013) recorded how,
impact of events and their appraisal may be no less
since the attack, many of the wounded have shared
significant at these points.
their stories with the public. But, she adds, “In private,
some uncounted number of runners and spectators are
suffering from feelings of intense guilt because when Tributes to Fallen Heroes
violence struck, they didn’t dash in to help. Instead, When first responders lose their lives during disaster
they made sure their own loved ones were safe amid response, the impact on families, public service organ-
the harrowing chaos — or fled the danger to make sure isations, and the wider community is painfully felt and
they would survive to care for their families.” especially poignant, even more so when there is mul-
Teitell interviewed Jane Blansfield Finch, a clinical tiple loss. Tributes by key political and national figures
social worker and Red Cross volunteer, about people’s in the aftermath of such events often make specific
reactions. Finch suggested that even though many references to their bravery and heroism.
anointed as heroes said they did not deserve the hon- An example of this situation is the following com-
our, the public veneration of those who jump to help in ment made by Sanford Coats, the US Attorney for the
a disaster serves a greater purpose because it encour- Western District of Oklahoma, in remembering the
ages altruism. At the same time she acknowledged tenth anniversary of the tragic events on September 11,
that there is a downside: “It puts pressure on people to 2001, and April 19, 1995:
think, ‘If I’m not out there helping strangers, am I worth-
while?’” (Teitell, 2013) Just like the morning of September 11, brave
Oklahoma firefighters, medical personnel, and
Emergency Service Responders as Heroes police officers risked their lives by going into
a burning, unstable building in selfless acts of
For members of the emergency services, there can heroism [emphasis added] to rescue survivors.
be a strong sense that risk-taking comes with the Indeed, one first responder gave the ultimate
job; but the exceptional conditions associated with sacrifice in an effort to rescue survivors, becom-
disaster response and recovery has particular implica- ing one of the 168 casualties of the bomb.
tions, both for their role and subsequent recognition of (Coats, 2011)
their actions in relation to heroism. When emergency
After the explosion at the fertiliser plant in West, Texas,
responders become identified as disaster heroes, sto-
in April, 2013, where 11 of the 144 fatalities were fire-
ries highlighting their personal circumstances and sub-
fighters, the news media made specific reference to
sequent lives are invariably newsworthy, especially if
the fact that most of the deaths were first responders
they can be linked to a salacious or sensationalist sto-
and, as with other disasters where multiple members of
ryline (e.g., Camber, 2011; Stritof, S. & Stritof, B. 2013).
the emergency services are killed, the mourning rituals
Unsurprisingly, for example, much media coverage was
and memorials received special media coverage (Fer-
given internationally to Bryce Reed, the paramedic first
nandez, 2013). In an article entitled “Heroes in West,
hailed a hero for helping save victims of the fertiliser
Texas, explosion honoured,” USA Today reported on
plant explosion in West, Texas, and later charged with
President Obama travelling to the town to speak at the
the federal charge of possessing an explosive device.
memorial service for those killed in the explosion and
After the London bombings on July 7, 2005, 23
ordering flags at government building to be lowered to
members of emergency teams and transport work-
half-mast in honour of the victims (USA Today, 2013).
ers who helped victims of the attacks were formally
recognised in the Queen’s New Year Honours list in
2006 (BBC News, 2005). Many others who behaved Heroism, Common Sense, and Common Safety
heroically on that day were not so recognised. And in If heroism is about exceptional or extraordinary behav-
contrast to this period where certain heroic acts were iour, should it be applied to the ordinary work of mem-
formally recognised and publically praised, aspects of bers of the emergency services? Clearly distinctions
the emergency response as a whole were later criti- are made between the usual and exceptional work
12
 Volume 8

of emergency responders when bravery awards are Police Officers, and Crown Prosecution Service to
given to recognise particular acts of merit as opposed consider further guidance to put this into effect.
to actions that are more run of the mill. Notions of
heroism as reflecting moral virtue also raise important Balancing Operational and Health and Safety
questions about what kinds of attitudes and behav-
iours are right, appropriate, and desirable in those Duties
exceptional environments where many lives are at risk This focus on risk, health, and safety within emer-
or in situations where the lives of some may be put at gency response came at a significant moment in the
greater risk through potential life-saving actions for oth- UK. In the preceding years, the challenging nature
ers. Such questions fall within the remit of health and and extremely dangerous environments in which
safety law and practice, but there are broader philo- firefighters and other emergency responders have to
sophical and practical issues to consider: “There is work had been highlighted by a series of serious and
(also) a need to stimulate a debate about risk in society fatal incidents that had exposed emergency respond-
to ensure that everyone has a much better understand- ers to personal risk in the course of their attempts to
ing of risk and its management” (Lofstedt, 2011, p. 6). rescue victims. At the same time, the actions and risk
In the UK, discussions about heroism in the emer- assessments of responders were coming under some
gency services have been prompted by just such a criticism by investigators, the media, and the public,
debate and developments in health and safety. In 2010 including bereaved families. The incidents and investi-
the UK Government commissioned a review by Lord gations included the following:
Young of the operation of health and safety laws (HM
Government, 2010). While the driver was to reduce • The London bombings, 2005, which killed 52
bureaucracy, confusion, and fears of an increas- people and 4 terrorists, and where the response
ingly litigious compensation culture, the review also of the emergency services was reviewed and cri-
focussed on activities of members of the emergency tiqued both through the inquest and a review by
services and the implications for acts of heroism. It the London Assembly (Greater London Authority,
outlined the responsibility of employees under health 2006).
and safety legislation to take reasonable care of • The death of a woman trapped in a mine shaft
themselves and others, but added that the nature of in 2008 whose rescue was inhibited for over
jobs within the emergency services means individuals six hours. The fatal accident inquiry concluded
may occasionally put themselves at risk to save the Mrs. Hume may have lived if emergency ser-
life of someone else. Where this happens, stated the vices — and the fire service in particular — had
report, the last thing that should be contemplated is a removed her sooner. The sheriff’s ruling criticised
prosecution for noncompliance with health and safety procedural failings that led to the delay and said
legislation. Lord Young stated: “Where an unfortunate senior officers on the scene “rigidly stood by their
incident occurs and an officer puts him or herself at operational guidelines.” (Carrell, 2011; BBC News,
risk in the line of their duty to protect the public, I take March 29, 2012)
the view that it would not be in the public interest to
take action and investigate under health and safety • The Cumbria shootings, 2010, in which 12 mem-
laws” (p. 35). However, Lord Young also recognised bers of the public lost their lives and a further 11
that there was some ambiguity in such cases and people were seriously injured. A peer review of
a need for greater certainty in this important area. the emergency response by the Assistant Chief
Indeed, this is illustrated in his comments further on in Constable of West Mercia Police concluded that
the report: there were differing “risk thresholds” between the
services and that the interoperability between
It is important to recognise that individuals have the police and ambulance service needed to be
personal choices to make and they may choose improved (Chesterman, 2011).
not to put themselves at unreasonable risk.
However, those officers who go the extra mile • A fatal fire at a warehouse in Warwickshire, 2007,
and put themselves in harm’s way to protect the where four firefighters lost their lives. Warwick-
public should continue to be recognised and shire County Council was fined £30,000 after
rewarded for their bravery. (p. 36) pleading guilty to a health and safety charge.
Three fire service managers were prosecuted for
The report thus recommended that “police officers and manslaughter by gross negligence. After all were
fire-fighters should not be at risk of investigation or found not guilty, the Chief Fire Officer condemned
prosecution under health and safety legislation when the decision to press criminal charges against
engaged in the course of their duties if they have put them (BBC News, December 7, 2012).
themselves at risk as a result of committing a heroic
act” (HM Government, p. 36) and invited the Health As a result of these and other incidents, the HSE
and Safety Executive (HSE), the Association of Chief began working with senior leaders of the police and
fire services to clarify a number of complex and

13
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

interrelated issues. Their aim was to avoid a risk- health and safety, guidance exists (International
averse culture, provide mechanisms for ensuring Association of Fire Fighters [IAFF]/National Institute
early and wide learning from incidents, and set of Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 2013)
out the expectations of the services in relation to and further debate has begun about the context and
the management of dynamic and often dangerous consequences of heroism, the actions of emergency
situations. responders, and the implications of their actions both
on families and responders themselves (Nicol, 2013).
Redefining Heroic Acts of Emergency Responders Ultimately, such reflections may also contribute to our
thinking and expectations around good, worthy, and
Endorsing the recommendations of the Young Report commendable behaviour in more ordinary circum-
(HM Government, 2010), the HSE, Association of stances.
Chief Police Officers, police authorities, and fire and
rescue authorities worked together to identify how a The characteristic of genuine heroism is its
balance could be struck between high-risk operational persistency. All men have wandering impulses,
duties and the health and safety of themselves and fits and starts of generosity. But when you have
others. The result has been the issuing of statements resolved to be great, abide by yourself, and
and further guidance for both the police services and do not weakly try to reconcile yourself with the
the fire and rescue authorities clarifying the balance world. The heroic cannot be the common, nor
between operational and health and safety duties in the common the heroic. (Emerson, 1841)
the emergency services and clarifying the meaning
and consequences of acts deemed heroic (HSE 2009;
HSE 2010).
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Smith, J. (2011, March 20). Out of the gloom of disasters shine the
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between Operational and Health and Safety Duties in the Fire and www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/joan-smith/joan-
Rescue Service. Crown Copyright. Retrieved from http://www.hse. smith-out-of-the-gloom-of-disasters-shine-the-heroes-who-give-us-
gov.uk/services/fire/heroism.htm all-hope-2246975.html
Her Majesty’s (HM) Coroner. (2012). Coroner’s Inquest into the London Stritof, S., & Stritof, B. (2013). Cheating heroes: More victims of
bombings of 7 July 2005. Judicial Communications Office. Retrieved September 11th. Retrieved from http://marriage.about.com/cs/
from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120216072438/ infidelity/a/cheatingheroes.htm
http:/7julyinquests.independent.gov.uk/
STV Glasgow. (2007). Glasgow airport attack: John Smeaton becomes
Her Majesty’s (HM) Government. (Lord Young of Graffham). (2010, a worldwide celebrity. Retrieved from http://local.stv.tv/glasgow/
October 15). Common sense, common safety. Cabinet Office, magazine/108635-john-smeaton-from-glasgow-airport-terror-attack-
London. hero-to-fish-farmer/
International Association of Fire Fighters/National Institute of Teitell, B. (2013, May 9). Some agonize over fleeing Marathon
Occupational Safety and Health (IAFF/NIOSH). (2013). Suggested bombing scene. The Boston Globe. Retrieved from http://www.
Guidance for Supervisors at Disaster Rescue Sites. Washington bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/style/2013/05/08/boston-marathon-
DC: IAFF/NIOSH. Retrieved from http://www.iaff.org/hs/Alerts/ heroes-are-lauded-some-who-didn-rush-help-grapple-with-guilt/
NIOSHdisaster.asp SNUKlSFLDMKTmz3Sen69dP/story.html
Katz, Andrew. (2013, April 22). A hero among heroes: A Boston cop’s Tierney, K., Bevc, C., & Kuligowski, E. (2006, March). Metaphors
story at the marathon. Time Magazine. Retrieved from http://nation. matter: Disaster myths, media frames, and their consequences
time.com/2013/04/22/a-hero-among-heroes-a-boston-cops-story-at- in Hurricane Katrina. Annals, American Academy of Political and
the-marathon/#ixzz2StoEUom9 Social Science (AAPSS), 604.
Kent Online. (2012). Andrew Parker — The human stepping stone. TNT Magazine. (2012, January 17). British cruise ship hero survivor
The Human Factor Engineering (HFE) Tragedy 25 Years On (Video acted as human bridge. Retrieved from http://www.tntmagazine.
Results). Retrieved from http://www.kentonline.co.uk/kentonline/ com/travel/news/british-cruise-ship-hero-survivor-acted-as-uhuman-
home/special_reports/herald_of_free_enterprise/andrew_parker_-_ bridgeu
the_human_step.aspx

15
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

United Press International. (1987, March 10). Lanky Banker’s Human Eyre, A. (2006). Remembering: Community commemorations after
Bridge Saved 20 on Ferry. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http:// disaster, In Springer Handbook of Disaster Research. New York:
articles.latimes.com/1987-03-10/news/mn-5952_1_small-island Springer.
USA Today. (2013). Heroes in West, Texas explosion honoured. USA Mattson, J. (2012, April 20). Most of the deaths in West, Texas
Now video. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/videos/news/ explosion were first responders. Global Post online. Retrieved from
usanow/2013/04/25/2112287/ http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/americas/united-
states/130420/first-responders-majority-deaths-texas-explosion
WCVB. (2013, April 27). Communities rally support for Boston
bombing hero. Retrieved from http://www.wcvb.com/news/ Raymond, K. (2008, April 18). Another OKC Bombing Hero Commits
local/metro/communities-rally-support-for-boston-bombing- Suicide. The Oklahoman. Retrieved from http://www.prisonplanet.
hero/-/11971628/19923962/-/jqqoolz/-/index.html com/articles/april2008/180408_b_okc.htm
Yokota, T., & Yamada, T. (2012, March 4). Heroes of Japan’s Nuclear
Disaster All but Forgotten. The Daily Beast, Newsweek. Retrieved
from http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/03/04/heroes-of- About the Author
japan-s-nuclear-disaster-all-but-forgotten.html
Dr. Anne Eyre is a UK sociologist specialising in
Zunin L. M., & Myers, D. (2000). Training manual for human service psychosocial aspects of major incidents, emer-
workers in major disasters (2nd ed., DHHS Publication No. ADM gency planning, and disaster management. Her
90-538). Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services work focuses on the management and support
Administration, Centre for Mental Health Services. of people with the aim of ensuring the needs of
people are at the heart of contingency planning,
Endnotes emergency response, and post-incident recovery.
Anne works independently and provides
1
In this paper the terms major emergency and disaster research, training, and consultancy services for a
are used interchangeably to refer to large-scale range of organisations within the public, private,
incidents placing life and/or property in danger, often and voluntary sectors. She also programme man-
involving multiple casualties and/or fatalities and likely ages an annual UK conference on Fire-Related
requiring multiagency response and assistance. Research and Developments. This event, sup-
ported by the UK Fire Service College and the
2
For example an online game produced by the US Institution of Fire Engineers, focuses on bringing
Department of Homeland Security/Federal Emergency researchers and practitioners together to promote
Management Agency (DHS/FEMA) claims to equip evidence-based best practice, and often draws
players with all the information, tips, and resources international representatives reflecting on US
needed to prepare them to be a real-life Disaster Hero experiences and approaches.
in the aftermath of natural disaster or a man-made After the 2004 Asian Tsunami, whose victims
disaster (See http://www.disasterhero.com/). included many UK citizens, Anne coordinated the
Tsunami Support Network established by the Brit-
Appendix ish Red Cross Society to support those in the UK
affected by the disaster. Anne is also Vice-Chair
For Further Reading of Disaster Action (www.disasteraction.org.uk), a
Although the references that follow were not cited in charity representing the interests of those directly
affected by disaster. In this capacity, she has
the text of this keynote address, they proved useful
assisted in providing strategic advice around fam-
resources in the writing of the article.
ily and community support to those responding to
Addley, E. (2011). 7/7: How victims and heroes were made with a various mass-fatality incidents, including the Sep-
terrible randomness. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www. tember 11, 2001, attacks; the London Bombings,
guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/jan/27/7-7-bombings-victims 2005; and the Aberdeen Helicopter crash, April,
Drabek, T. (1986). Human system responses to disaster: An inventory 2010.
of sociological findings. New York: Springer-Verlag. Anne’s publications have included two research
reports commissioned by the UK Government
Edwards, R. (2007, July 3). The making of a legend on the Internet.
Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1556377/ focussing on the development of best practice in
The-making-of-a-legend-on-the-internet.html humanitarian assistance after a disaster. She is a
Fellow of the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust and
Erikson, K. (1994). A new species of trouble. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company. in 2006 spent time in New York and New Jersey
examining community support strategies after the
Eyre, A. (2006). Community support after disasters — Report of terrorist attacks in September, 2001. This report is
Winston Churchill travelling fellowship. Winston Churchill Memorial
Trust. available online through the Trust’s website. Anne
can be contacted at anne.eyre@traumatraining.
com

16
 Volume 8

Fireground News
“Fireground News” contains research presented at the International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and
Management (IFSJLM) Research Symposium (RS) held annually in July at the International Fire Service Training
Association (IFSTA) Validation Conference. These reports offer information useful to the well-being, safety, and/or
professionalization of the fire service. As editor of IFSJLM, I decide which reports are presented at the Research
Symposium and subsequently which are published in the Journal. The following two articles were presented at
Research Symposium 2013 (RS13) on July 13, 2013.

Dr. David A. Barr, First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Sciences,
Skidmore College and currently at Cardiovascular Physiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical
School
Dr. Lori Moore-Merrell, International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF)
Ron Benedict, International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF)
Dr. Denise L. Smith, First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Sci-
ences, Skidmore College

The Deployment of Resources at Residential Structural Fires and

Cardiovascular Strain in Firefighters
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of crew size on time required to sup-
press a fire and the cardiovascular strain experienced by firefighters during a low-hazard
single-family residential structure fire. Fire-fighting crews with four and five firefighters com-
pleted fire-suppression activities 25−30% faster than crews consisting of two and three firefight-
ers. Additionally, the four- and five-person crews experienced less cardiovascular strain than the
smaller crews did.

Introduction
Firefighters often perform physically demanding fire- cardiac events are 10 to 100 times more likely to occur
fighting activities in extreme environmental conditions during or following fire suppression than station activi-
(Bos, Mol, Visser, & Frings-Dresen, 2004; Smith, Man- ties and that firefighters with underlying cardiovascular
ning, & Petruzzello, 2001; Smith, Petruzzello, Kramer, risk factors are in the greatest danger of experienc-
& Misner, 1996, 1997; Soteriades, Smith, Tsimenakis, ing cardiac events in the line of duty (Kales, Soteria-
Baur, & Kales, 2011). It is well known that strenuous des, Christophi, & Christiani, 2007; Holder, Stallings,
activity performed while wearing heavy impermeable Peeples, Burress, & Kales, 2006; Kales, Soteriades,
personal protective ensembles (PPE) leads to sig- Christoudias, & Christiani, 2003).
nificant physiological strain (Barr, Gregson, & Reilly, Entering a dwelling, maneuvering charged hose-
2010; Soteriades et al., 2011). This physiological strain lines, performing search and rescue activities, and
manifests mainly as elevations in heart rate to maximal rescuing trapped occupants are critical components of
levels, increases in core body temperature, and high fire-fighting duties. The time required to achieve these
levels of dehydration, all of which have potential to not critical tasks is important for a number of reasons;
only impair job performance but can also be detrimen- notably, it may affect civilian safety or survivability, and
tal to a firefighter’s health and safety. it has a large impact on the extent of property damage
There is strong epidemiological evidence that heavy that results from the fire. Increased time performing
physical exertion can trigger sudden cardiac events, strenuous work may also have a direct effect on fire-
particularly in sedentary individuals (Albert et al., 2000; fighter health, safety, and survivability during opera-
Mittleman et al., 1993). According to the National Fire tional duties.
Protection Association® (NFPA®), 48.4% of United The deployment of larger crew sizes may reduce
States (US) firefighter fatalities in 2012 were caused work time needed to control the fire, thereby providing
by stress/overexertion (Fahy, LeBlanc, & Molis, 2013). several potential benefits. Obviously, extinguishing
Of the 64 on-duty deaths, 27 were a result of sudden the fire more quickly lessens the likelihood of civilian
cardiac death. Research indicates that these sudden casualties and may decrease the magnitude of

17
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

damage to property that could significantly reduce (MD) and Fairfax County (VA). Each firefighter was
financial loss. Furthermore, working for a shorter time given a detailed verbal account of what the study
and/or at a lower intensity may mean that firefighters entailed and provided written informed consent prior to
experience less cardiovascular strain while engaged in participation. The study was approved by the Institu-
fire-fighting activities. tional Review Board at Skidmore College.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of crew size on time needed to suppress a fire Table 1: Characteristics of Firefighters.
and on cardiovascular strain experienced by firefight- Characteristic Mean ± SD
ers. This study is part of a larger study conducted by
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Age (years) 37 ± 8
and the International Association of Fire Fighters
(IAFF) and other study partners to investigate the effect Height (cm) 183 ± 7
of first-apparatus arrival time and response times on
the time necessary to complete essential fire-fighting Weight (kg) 90.8 ± 4.0
tasks (including extinguishing the fire). The findings of
the original study are available from the NIST website
Body mass index (kg/m2) 29 ± 3.6
(Averill et al., 2013).
Note: Height and weight were self-reported. Characteristics were
Methods obtained on 132 of the 163 participants.

The study was performed at the Montgomery County Each fire-suppression scenario simulated an initial-
Fire Rescue Training Academy in Montgomery County, alarm assignment response to a structure described in
Maryland. All scenarios were conducted in a residen- NFPA® 1710 (NFPA®, 2010) as a low-hazard residential
tial-scale burn prop (see Figure 1). The burn prop was structure to which firefighters respond on a regular
constructed as a two-story duplex residential building basis. In this case, it was a confirmed fire in the liv-
with a common stairwell and movable walls between ing room in the rear first-floor area of one unit of the
the sections to allow for multiple daily experiments. structure. The pallet and excelsior configuration was
The burn prop contained two mirror-image, two-story chosen based on laboratory experiments that found
units each totaling 2,000 ft2 (186 m2), without basement such a configuration repeatedly produced a consistent
or nearby exposures — a typical model of a low-haz- and realistic quantity of heat and smoke similar to what
ard single-family residence identified in NFPA® 1710, firefighters routinely encounter at residential structure
Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire fires, without resulting in flashover.
Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Opera- Following a briefing and preparation period, the fire-
tions, and Special Operations to the Public by Career fighters donned their PPE, which consisted of turnout
Fire Departments (NFPA®, 2010). Noncombustible coats and pants, antiflash hood, gloves, boots, helmet,
furniture (angle iron and gypsum board construction) and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) worn
was fashioned to represent obstacles of realistic size over a typical firefighter station uniform.
and location for firefighters navigating the interior of the During each scenario, three engines, a ladder-truck,
structure. The dimensions were typical of residential and a Battalion Chief (with an aide) were dispatched
furnishings. to the scene of a residential structure fire. The staffing
Figure 1: Two-Story Burn Prop level of responding fire apparatus varied incrementally
in each scenario from two to five fire-fighting personnel
(see Table 2). When two firefighters were deployed, the
crew consisted of a driver and an officer. When three
firefighters were deployed, the crew consisted of a
driver, an officer, and a firefighter. This deployment pat-
tern continued up to a five-person crew that included
three firefighters in addition to a driver and an officer.
Fire-fighting crews that normally operated together as a
company participated in this study as a complete unit.
The time to complete each fire-suppression drill
was recorded on a stopwatch to the nearest second.
As part of the original study, each fire-suppression drill
was broken into 22 specific tasks that were required
to achieve three key objectives known to change fire
Descriptive characteristics of the participants are behavior or tenability within the structure: (1) entry
presented in Table 1. Participants included 163 full- into a structure, (2) water on a fire, and (3) ventilation
time professional firefighters from Montgomery County through windows (three upstairs and one back down-

18
 Volume 8

Table 2: Staffing Components and Levels for Each Crew Size.

Total on
Crew size Apparatus Deployed Crew Components
Scene
3 Engines, 1 Ladder Truck, 8 Firefighters,
2 10
Battalion Chief Car Battalion Chief and Aide
3 Engines, 1 Ladder Truck, 12 Firefighters,
3 14
Battalion Chief Car Battalion Chief and Aide
3 Engines, 1 Ladder Truck, 16 Firefighters,
4 18
Battalion Chief Car Battalion Chief and Aide
3 Engines, 1 Ladder Truck, 20 Firefighters,
5 22
Battalion Chief Car Battalion Chief and Aide

stairs window and the burn room window). For this firefighters reduced the time to complete all fire-fighting
study, the time to complete all tasks was recorded as tasks on average by 7 minutes (30% faster) com-
the total work time. pared to the two-person crew size. The four-person
Heart rate, which provides an index of cardiovas- crew completed the same number of fireground tasks
cular strain, was measured during each scenario from on average 5.1 minutes (25%) faster than the three-
a strap worn around the chest of each firefighter and person crew. The addition of a fifth person to the
was recorded using a heart-rate monitor (Polar Electro, four-person crew did not show any additional decrease
Kempele, Finland). As maximum heart rate is affected in fireground task times in this low-hazard residential
by age, heart-rate data are presented as a percentage scenario.
of maximal heart rate using the formula HRmax = 220 –
age (Miller, Wallace, & Eggert, 1993). Cardiovascular Responses
Table 3 presents average working heart rates (as per-
Results centage of maximum) for the first two arriving engines
Data findings are summarized into two sections: The (Engine 1 and Engine 2) based on crew size and
first section discusses time to complete fire-fighting position (driver, officer, firefighter 1, firefighter 2, and
tasks by crew size; the second section outlines fire- firefighter 3). Heart-rate responses varied by crew size,
fighter cardiovascular responses. position, and apparatus. In order to compare similar
type of work, we reported only on engine work in this
Time to Complete Fire-Fighting Tasks report and focused on the first two arriving engines
because they engaged in work for a longer period
The time to complete all fire-fighting tasks differed by before the fire was extinguished. Firefighters on Engine
crew size (see Figure 2). Deploying a crew size of four 1 (Table 3, upper panel) generally operated at a higher
Figure 2: Overall Time to Complete Fire-Fighting Tasks. average heart rate compared to Engine 2 firefighters
(Table 3, lower panel). For firefighters on Engine 1,
there was a tendency for heart rate to decline as crew
25:00 size increased. The average working heart rate for fire-
fighters on Engine 1 when a crew size of two firefight-
ers was deployed was 83% of age-predicted maximum
20:00 values, whereas when a crew of five was deployed on
each apparatus, the average working heart rate was
67% of age-predicted maximum values. Average work-
ing heart-rate responses in firefighters on Engine 2
Time (min:sec)

15:00
declined as crew size increased from a three-person to
a four-person crew.
Figure 3 expands on the data for two- and five-
10:00
person crews on Engine 1 presented in Table 3 by
illustrating heart-rate responses of individual crew
members throughout fire-suppression activities. Heart-
05:00
rate responses for firefighters on Engine 1 were higher
for almost the entire time spent during fire-suppression
activities for a crew with two firefighters compared with
00:00 a crew of five firefighters.
2 Person 3 Person 4 Person 5 Person

19
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Table 3: Average Working Heart-Rate Responses in Firefighters of Different Crew Sizes Presented by Position from Engine
1 (upper panel) and Engine 2 (lower panel). Heart Rates Are Expressed as a Percentage of Age-Predicted Maximal Heart
Rate (220 – age in years).

Engine 1 Average Working Heart Rates (% maximal heart rate)

Crew Size Driver Officer FF1 FF2 FF3 Average

2 82% 84% 83%

3 64% 71% 71% 69%

4 80% 71% 76% 66% 73%

5 75% 68% 67% 67% 60% 67%

Engine 2 Average Working Heart Rates (% maximal heart rate)

Crew Size Driver Officer FF1 FF2 FF3 Average

2 81% 69% 75%

3 74% 74% 72% 74%

4 82% 64% 68% 48% 65%

5 73% 56% 66% 63% 69% 65%

Figure 3: Heart-Rate Responses During Fire-Suppression Activities of Engine 1 for 2- and 5-person Crews.

200 Engine 1 Crew (Size of 2)

Engine 1 Crew (Size of 5)
180

160
Heat Rate (b•min-1)

140

120

100

80

60
0:00:00
0:00:37
0:01:14
0:01:51
0:02:28
0:03:05
0:03:42
0:04:19
0:04:56
0:05:33
0:06:10
0:06:47
0:07:24
0:08:01
0:08:38
0:09:15
0:09:52
0:10:29
0:11:06
0:11:43
0:12:20
0:12:57
0:13:34
0:14:11
0:14:48
0:15:25
0:16:02
0:16:39

Elapsed Time

20
 Volume 8

Discussion cardiovascular strain. In addition to reducing the likeli-

hood of sudden cardiac events, operating in larger
This study investigated the effects of crew size on teams will put firefighters at a reduced risk of develop-
each responding apparatus on the time to suppress a ing dehydration and experiencing core-temperature
low-hazard, residential structure fire and on the cardio- increases to dangerous levels. Core temperatures
vascular strain experienced by firefighters of different increase as a consequence of both metabolic activity
crew sizes. The primary findings from this study were and environmental heat. When subsequent bouts of
that fire-fighting crews containing four and five firefight- activity are performed in quick succession, the thermo-
ers were able to complete fire-suppression activities on regulatory strain increases further. Reductions in work
average 25% to 30% faster than crew sizes of two and time and intensity will also put firefighters in a better
position to perform any additional activities at a later
three firefighters. This task completion also occurred
time in the same work shift if required.
in conjunction with a reduced cardiovascular strain.
The combination of shorter time to suppress the fire
and lower cardiovascular strain during suppression Conclusion
suggests a benefit to both trapped occupants and to This study was part of a larger study that showed when
firefighters. smaller crews were deployed at a residential fire, it took
When a two-person crew was deployed, higher longer to complete the fire-suppression tasks, demon-
working heart-rate values were observed in firefighters strating that larger fire-fighting crews are more effec-
on Engine 1 compared to Engine 2. Engine 1 person- tive at fire-suppression activities during low-hazard
nel performed the work associated with establishing residential structure fires. The current study expanded
water supply and stretching the attack line to the fire for on these findings by reporting that average working
fire suppression. In experiments deploying crews with heart rates of firefighters were higher when smaller
a crew size of two, Engine 2 personnel supplemented crews were deployed. The combination of longer work
the Engine 1 crew in their tasks. These findings are times and higher working heart rates when two-person
consistent with previous research that reported that crews are deployed demonstrates that smaller crews
secondary help who encountered similar environmental experience considerably more cardiovascular strain
conditions to a lead group of firefighters experienced compared with larger crews deployed to fight a fire
of the same size. This information may be useful to
considerably less cardiovascular strain (Romet & Frim,
communities and other decision makers to determine
1987).
the number of firefighters they should have available to
The high heart rates reported in this study, along
effectively perform fire suppression and to protect the
with elevation that persisted throughout the fire- health and safety of firefighters as they perform these
suppression activities are in agreement with previous public-safety duties.
research (Romet & Frim, 1987; Smith et al., 1996;
Smith et al., 2001; Horn, Blevins, Fernhall, & Smith,
2013), showing that heart rates can increase dramati-
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H., & Manson, J. E. (2000). Triggering of sudden death from cardiac
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response will be also affected by individual character- R., Notarianni, K. A., & Wissoker, D. (2013). Report on high-rise
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Standards and Technology (NIST). Available at http://www.nist.gov/
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2011; Smith et al., 2013). Barr, D., Gregson, W., & Reilly, T. (2010). The thermal ergonomics
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(Fahy et al., 2013). Stress and overexertion have been 10.1080/00140130310001643283
implicated as the main causes of these cardiac events. Fahy, R. F., LeBlanc, P. R., & Molis, J. L. (2013). Firefighter fatalities
Therefore, reducing both the duration and the intensity in the United States – 2012. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection
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21
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Kales, S. N., Soteriades, E. S., Christophi, C. A., & Christiani, D. C.

(2007). Emergency duties and deaths from heart disease among About the Authors
firefighters in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine,
356(12), 1207–1215. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa060357 David A. Barr (Ph.D) is a researcher in cardio-
vascular physiology at Brigham and Women’s
Kales, S. N., Soteriades, E. S., Christoudias, S. G., & Christiani, D. Hospital/Harvard Medical School. David received
C. (2003). Firefighters and on-duty deaths from coronary heart
disease: A case control study. Environmental Health, 2(1), 14. doi: his Ph.D. in firefighter physiology from Liverpool
10.1186/1476-069x-2-14 John Moores University and completed post-
Miller, W. C., Wallace, J. P., & Eggert, K. E. (1993). Predicting max HR
doctoral work, which focused on the cardiovascu-
and the HR-VO2 relationship for exercise prescription in obesity. lar health of United States (US) firefighters at the
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 25(9), 1077–1081. First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory at
Mittleman, M. A., Maclure, M., Tofler, G. H., Sherwood, J. B., Goldberg, Skidmore College in upstate New York. His areas
R. J., & Muller, J. E. (1993). Triggering of acute myocardial infarction of expertise include thermal physiology, firefighter
by heavy physical exertion. Protection against triggering by regular fitness and health, sports and occupational perfor-
exertion. New England Journal of Medicine, 329(23), 1677–1683.
doi: 10.1056/nejm199312023292301 mance, and protective clothing and heat strain.

National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®). (2010). NFPA® 1710: Lori Moore-Merrell (Ph.D.) is an Assistant to the
Standard for the organization and deployment of fire suppression President of the International Association of Fire
operations, emergency medical operations, and special operations Fighters (IAFF). Lori’s expertise is in emergency
to the public by career fire departments. Quincy, MA: NFPA®
Publications. response system design, staffing and deployment
of mobile resources, system performance mea-
Romet, T. T., & Frim, J. (1987). Physiological responses to fire fighting surement, and evaluation. She has managed emer-
activities. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational
Physiology, 56(6), 633–638. gency response system evaluation teams, includ-
ing geographic information systems (GIS) analysis,
Smith, D. L. (2011). Firefighter fitness: Improving performance and
preventing injuries and fatalities. Current Sports Medicine Reports, in more than 400 fire departments throughout the
10(3), 167–172. US and Canada. Lori was a firefighter/paramedic
with the City of Memphis Fire Department for 7
Smith, D. L., Barr, D. A., Kales, S. N., & Stefanos, N (2013). Extreme
sacrifice: Sudden cardiac death in the US Fire Service. Extreme years. She holds a Master of Public Health degree
Physiology and Medicine, 2(6). doi: 10.1186/2046-7648-2-6 in Epidemiology and a Doctor of Public Health
Smith, D. L., Manning, T. S., & Petruzzello (2001). Effect of strenuous
degree in Quality Performance Measurement from
live-fire drills on cardiovascular and psychological responses of the George Washington University School of Public
recruit firefighters. Ergonomics, 44(3), 244–254. Health.
Smith, D. L., Petruzzello, S. J., Kramer, J. M., & Misner, J. E. (1996). Ron Benedict (M.S.) has served as an analyst at
Physiological, psychophysical, and psychological responses
of firefighters to firefighting training drills. Aviation Space and the International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF)
Environmental Medicine, 67(11), 1063–1068. for the previous 13 years. Prior to his current posi-
tion, he spent more than 10 years as a firefighter
Smith, D. L., Petruzzello, S. J., Kramer, J. M., & Misner, J. E. (1997).
The effects of different thermal environments on the physiological with the Prince George’s County Fire Department.
and psychological responses of firefighters to a training drill. He attended the University of Maryland College
Ergonomics, 40(4), 500–510. Park and University of Maryland Baltimore County,
Soteriades, E. S., Smith, D. L., Tsismenakis, A. J., Baur, D. M., & Kales, where he received his Masters in Emergency
S. N. (2011). Cardiovascular disease in US firefighters: A systematic Health Systems.
review. Cardiology in Review, 19(4), 202–215. doi: 10.1097/
CRD.0b013e318215c105 Denise L. Smith (Ph.D.) is a Professor of Health
and Exercise Sciences at Skidmore College,
Acknowledgments where she directs the First Responder Health
and Safety Laboratory, and a Research Scientist
We would like to formally thank the firefighters who at the University of Illinois Fire Service Institute.
participated in this study. We would also like to grate- Dr. Smith has coauthored several textbooks and
fully acknowledge that Polar Electro provided the phys- has published over 40 scientific papers, primarily
iological monitors that were used in this study. Fund- on firefighter cardiovascular health. She lectures
ing for the parent study was provided through the US extensively on health and safety issues in the Fire
Department of Homeland Security/Federal Emergency Service. Her research has been funded by FEMA-
Management Agency’s (DHS/FEMA’s) Grant Program AFG, DHS S&T, NIOSH, and DOD. She is a fellow
Directorate for fiscal year (FY) 2008 and Assistance to of the American College of Sports Medicine and
Firefighters Grant Program Fire Prevention and Safety a member of the NFPA Fire Service Occupational
Grants (EMW-2008-FP-01603). Safety and Health committee. Dr. Smith serves as
The full National Institute of Standards and Tech- the corresponding author and can be reached at
nology (NIST) Report on Residential Fireground Field [email protected]
Experiments can be obtained online at http://www.nist.
gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=904607 or on the
parent study website at www.firereporting.org
22
 Volume 8

Dr. Denise L. Smith, Department of Health and Exercise Sciences, Skidmore College, and University of Illinois
Fire Service Institute1, 2
Jacob P. DeBlois, Department of Health and Exercise Sciences, Skidmore College1, 2
Dr. Stefanos N. Kales, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health and Occupational
Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance/Harvard Medical School1, 2

Combatting Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) in the United States (US) Fire Service
Abstract
Approximately 100 United States (US) firefighters die in the line of duty each year. Sudden
cardiac death (SCD) accounts for 45 to 50% of all duty-related fatalities. Many aspects of fire
fighting increase cardiovascular strain including activation of the sympathetic nervous system,
strenuous physical activity, heat stress and dehydration, and severe environmental conditions.
High levels of cardiovascular strain can trigger sudden cardiac events in susceptible individu-
als with underlying cardiovascular disease (CVD). This article presents a theoretical model for
the interaction between underlying CVD in firefighters and the multifactorial psychophysiological
strain of fire fighting. Recommendations to decrease CVD deaths in the fire service are offered.

Introduction
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounts for approxi- arrhythmia. Coronary heart disease (CHD) increases
mately 45% of all firefighter duty-related fatalities (Fahy, the risk of both a myocardial infarction and an arrhyth-
2005) with both career and volunteer firefighters suffer- mia. CHD is associated with progressive narrowing of
ing a nearly proportionate number of deaths due to car- the arteries due to atherosclerotic plaques in the coro-
diac events (Fahy, LeBlanc, & Molis, 2009). Figure 1 nary arteries supplying the heart. When the demands
presents the number of fatalities due to cardiovascular of the heart increase, blood flow from the narrowed
events, asphyxiation, and burn injuries over the past 20 arteries is decreased and oxygen delivery to the heart
years. While the fire service is well aware that sudden may become insufficient (called ischemia) and may
cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of line-of- be associated with symptoms such as chest pain and
duty deaths, this graphic presentation clearly illustrates shortness of breath. Plaque rupture stimulates the
the need to address this compelling threat to firefighter formation of a blood clot (thrombus) and can cause
health and safety. Just as the fire service has enacted sudden occlusion of a narrowed artery, leading to a
policies, procedures, and educational and training myocardial infarction.
programs to help protect firefighters from burns and Cardiomegaly (enlarged heart) and left ventricular
asphyxiation, a better understanding of the causes of hypertrophy (LVH) are also associated with increased
cardiovascular death and how it relates to the strain of risk of fatal ventricular arrhythmias. The increased risk
fire fighting can serve as a basis to enact changes that of SCD associated with LVH is independent of other
will decrease cardiovascular fatalities. While there is factors such as age, gender, smoking status, diabetes,
widespread support for decreasing duty-related deaths and serum cholesterol (Verdecchia et al., 2001; Schil-
and disability, efforts have been somewhat hampered laci, Verdecchia, Reboldi, Pede, & Porcellati, 2000;
by incomplete understanding of the complex, multifac- Casale et al., 1986). LVH commonly results from hyper-
torial interactions that lead to cardiac events. tension and/or coronary disease. Other risk factors
This article (a) reviews medical causes of cardio- for LVH include obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, and
vascular deaths, (b) summarizes cardiovascular strain genetics. There is mounting evidence that cardiomeg-
associated with fire-fighting activity, (c) presents a aly/LVH is common among US firefighters and plays a
conceptual model of how fire fighting can serve as a major role in CVD events in the fire service.
trigger for a cardiac event in individuals with underly-
ing disease, and (d) discusses steps that fire service Acute Cardiovascular Strain of Fire-Suppression
leaders can take to decrease CVD events in the fire
service. Activities
Fire fighting affects every major physiological system
Medical Cause of Sudden Cardiac Events of the body. However, when considering cardiovascular
events, the most relevant physiological responses
Although SCD can be caused by many conditions,
include direct cardiovascular strain, increased body
the vast majority of cases are caused by a myocar-
temperature, and dehydration. The physiological strain
dial infarction (heart attack) or a primary ventricular
associated with fire fighting is affected by several

23
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management
19
Figure 1: Contribution of Firefighter Fatalities from Heart Attacks, Asphyxiation, and Burns: 1990–2012 (Modified from Fahy
et al., 2009).

Heart Attack
(!"60
;/405"<=4>?" <9@ABC7481D" E,0D9"
Asphyxiation
+,-./0"12"3454678/9"

Burns
'!"50

&!"40
Fatalities

%!"30

$!"20

#!"10

!" 0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
#))!" #))$" #))&" #))(" #))*" $!!!" $!!$" $!!&" $!!(" $!!*" $!#!" $!#$"
:/40"
Years

factors, including those that are related to the incident eral interacting factors. Following the sound of an
Figure 1: Contribution
and the environment in which of
theFirefighter Fatalities
job is performed and from
alarm Heart
bell, Attacks,
cardiovascular Asphyxiation,
strain and
increases due to an
Burns: 1990–2012
those related (Modified from Fahy et al.,adrenaline
to the individual. 2009). surge, referred to as sympathetic activation,
As shown in Figure 2, the magnitude of the car- resulting in elevated heart rates and blood pressure
diovascular strain of fire fighting is affected by sev- (Barnard & Duncan, 1975). Adrenaline release remains
Figure 2: Factors Affecting the Cardiovascular Strain Associated with Fire Fighting (Modified from Smith et al., 2013).

Sympathetic Severe
Muscular Heat Stress/
Activation Environmental
Work Dehydration
(Adrenaline) Conditions

Individual Characteristics
Health Status Fitness Profile

Cardiovascular Response to Fire Fighting

Plasma Volume
Stroke Volume

Heart Rate
Blood Pressure
Arterial Stiffness
Clotting Potential

24
 Volume 8

high throughout fire-fighting activities, crucially alter- firefighters have risk factors for cardiovascular disease
ing the physiology of firefighters on the fireground. The and that many lack the fitness level required to safely
cardiovascular system is also taxed by strenuous work perform essential fire-fighting tasks:
such as climbing stairs and ladders, performing forcible
a. 20 to 30% of firefighters have high resting
entry and ventilation tasks, and suppressing fires while
blood pressure (Fahs et al., 2009; Kales,
wearing heavy (>55 lbs) personal protective equipment
Tsismenakis, Zhang, & Soteriades, 2009);
(PPE). Performing strenuous fire-fighting activities
can increase core temperature by ~4oF in as little as b. greater than 20% of firefighters have
18 minutes (Smith, Petruzzello, Chludzinski, Reed, & high serum cholesterol (Donovan et
Woods, 2001) and can result in dehydration equivalent al., 2009; Soteriades et al., 2002);
to 1.1% body mass loss or 1 L of water loss (Fernhall,
c. 75 to 90% of firefighters are overweight
Fahs, Horn, Rowland, & Smith, 2012). Increases in
and 30 to 40% meet the definition of
body temperature and dehydration place greater strain
obesity (Fahs et al., 2009; Smith et al.,
on the cardiovascular system. The severe environ-
2012; Soteriades et al., 2005); and
ment, including heat, excessive noise, and smoke
exposure, further stresses the cardiovascular system. d. many firefighters do not meet the required
The combination of unique stressors at each fire scene fitness level to safely perform tasks on the
interacts with an individual’s health status and fitness firegrounds (Barr, Gregson, Sutton, & Reilly,
profile to determine the magnitude and consequences 2009; Storer et al., 2014; Smith, 2011; Clark,
of the cardiovascular response to each episode of fire Rene, Theurer, & Marshall, 2002), which can
fighting. result in pathologic changes in the cardiovascular
system (Baur, Leiba, Christophi, & Kales, 2012).
Research convincingly demonstrates that fire fight-
The fire service routinely weighs risk versus benefit
ing causes significant cardiovascular strain, including:
on the fireground (i.e., risk a little to save a little; risk a
a. maximal or near-maximal heart rates lot to save a lot). Clinical research has provided a great
(~190 bpm) (Smith & Petruzzello, 1998; deal of scientific data to guide the fire service in evalu-
Smith, Manning, & Petruzzello, 2001; Horn, ating the risk of a firefighter suffering a cardiac event
Blevins, Fernhall, & Smith, 2013); based on the presence of CVD risk factors or diag-
nosed CVD. Figure 3 summarizes research document-
b. an acute increase in systolic blood pressure
ing the relative risk of on-duty firefighter CHD fatalities
(Bugajska, Zužewicz, Szmauz-Dybko, &
by CVD risk factor (Kales, Soteriades, Christoudias,
Konarska, 2007), which decreases below resting
& Christiani, 2003). Figure 3 also reveals that obesity
values during recovery (Horn et al., 2011);
is associated with a threefold increased risk of duty-
c. increased stiffness of the arteries related death compared to a normal-weight firefighter.
(Fahs et al., 2011); Obesity and increased body mass index (BMI) are also
risk factors for job-related disability.
d. a 15% reduction in plasma volume (Smith,
Smoking is a major CVD risk factor and is associ-
Petruzzello, Chludzinski, Reed, & Woods, 2001);
ated with approximately a ninefold increased risk of
e. a 13 to 30% decrease in stroke volume cardiac death among firefighters. The prevalence of
(the amount of blood ejected from the current smoking in the fire service ranges from 10 to
heart with each beat) (Smith, Manning, & 18%, whereas the prevalence is 40 to 50% among
Petruzzello, 2001; Fernhall et al., 2012); and those suffering duty-related CHD fatalities (Kales et
al., 2003). Hypertension is a well-established major
f. increased clotting potential (Smith et al.,
risk factor for CVD, with increased risk being evident
2011; Smith, Barr, & Kales, 2013).
with prehypertension. Figure 3 shows uncontrolled
hypertension resulted in a twelvefold increased risk of
duty-related cardiac death.
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Risk Factors in An existing diagnosis of CHD (based on peripheral
Firefighters artery disease, carotid stenosis, and history of throm-
botic stroke or transient ischemic attack) is associated
The cardiovascular strain associated with fire fighting with the greatest risk by far of suffering a fatal cardiac
is strongly influenced by the individual characteris- event (a thirty-fivefold or 3,500% increased risk). While
tics of each firefighter, most notably his or her health only 1% of career firefighters and 9% of volunteers
status and fitness profile. Underlying CVD increases have established CHD, 31% of firefighters who experi-
cardiovascular strain and greatly increases the risk enced fatal CHD events had a previously established
of a cardiovascular event, whereas improved fitness disease (Soteriades, Smith, Tsismenakis, Baur, &
decreases cardiovascular strain and hastens recov- Kales, 2011).
ery from a given amount of work. Unfortunately, there
is robust research evidence that large proportions of
25
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Figure 3: Risk of On-Duty Firefighter Cardiac Fatalities by Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Risk Factor (Modified from Kales
et al., 2003).

40

35

30

25
Odds Ratio1

20

15

10

0
ity

rs

sis
ro

itu
in

io

a
es

te

no
Ye
ok

ns
ell
es
Ob

ag
Sm

rte
M

45
ol

Di
pe
es
Ch

e≥
nt

HD
Hy
et
rre
gh

Ag
ab

rC
Cu
Hi

Di

io
Pr
1
An odds ratio represents the likelihood that an outcome will occur, in this case, cardiac fatality, given a particular exposure, here, cardiovascular
risk factor. There is a greater chance of cardiac fatality in firefighters if they have a prior diagnosis of coronary heart disease (CHD) than any other
traditional risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) During Fire Fighting alarm response, clearly indicating that the adrenaline
surge associated with alarm response results in power-
Fire fighting includes multiple stressors, including: ful changes to the cardiovascular system.
• Physical stress (associated with strenuous work
and heavy, encapsulating PPE);
Theoretical Model for Sudden Cardiac Events in
• Emotional stress (associated with emergency
activities); and the Fire Service
• Environmental stress (as a result of fire heat, SCD in firefighters occurs because of a complex
smoke, and other products of combustion). interaction between health behaviors and CVD risk
factors, underlying CVD state, and the acute stress of
Together, these stressors may provoke or trigger fire fighting. As illustrated in Figure 5, CVD develops
a sudden cardiac event in individuals with underlying over many years, even decades; and this disease
disease. Accordingly, there is compelling evidence that progression is influenced both positively and negatively
sudden cardiac events are more likely to occur during by health behaviors and is reflected by the balance of
emergency operations or strenuous work than during CVD risk factors. As disease progresses, it may result
routine station duty. in subclinical CVD (detected or undetected), which
Despite the fact that fire-supression activities com- manifests as atherosclerotic heart disease, CHD, and/
prise only 1 to 5% of total annual working time spent or structural changes in the heart such as cardio-
during all fire-service duties, more than 30% of line-of- megaly or LVH. In the presence of chronic underlying
duty CHD deaths occur during these activities (Kales, disease, the cardiovascular strain associated with
Soteriades, Christophi, & Christiani, 2007). As seen in fire fighting may lead to plaque rupture and thrombus
Figure 4, this means that the risk of SCD during fire formation and/or arrhythmia, which in turn may lead to
suppression is roughly 50 times the risk encountered an acute event — specifically a fatal or nonfatal cardiac
during station duties (Kales et al., 2007). There is also event.
an elevated risk (about sixfold increase) associated with

26
 Volume 8

Figure 4: Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) by Firefighter Duty and Emergency Medical Services (EMS) (Modified from
Kales et al., 2007).

60

50

40
Odds Ratio1

30

20

10

0
ire

ies

rn

se

n
in

sio
tu

on
-F

nc

in

Re

es
on

sp
ra
ge

pr
lT
/N

Re
m
er

up
ica
se

ar
m

eS
Al
ou

rE

ys

ar
eh

Ph
he

Fir
Al
Fir

Ot
or
S
EM

1
An odds ratio represents the likelihood that an outcome will occur, in this case, cardiac fatality, given a particular exposure, here, type of firefighter
duty. There is a greater chance of sudden cardiac death during fire-suppression activities than any other duty performed by firefighters.

Figure 5: Theoretical Model for Sudden Cardiac Events in the Fire Service and Means of Mitigating Event Occurrence
(Modified from Soteriades et al., 2011).

Appropriate Wellness/Fitness Annual Medical Evaluations/ On-Scene

Entry Standards Initiative Return to Work Evaluations Preparedness

Health Behaviors Underlying Acute Stress

and Cardiovascular Cardiovascular of Fire Fighting
Risk Factors Disease

Subclinical or Overt Heart Disease

Disease
Smoking
Regular Activity • Arteriosclerosis
Death
High Cholesterol
Healthy Diet • Cardiomegaly/LVH
Disability
High Blood
Adequate Sleep Pressure
Moderate Alcohol Diabetes
Obesity

Atherosclerotic Disease Progression

Time (Years)

Note: Complete arrows indicate relationship to sudden cardiac death (SCD); broken arrows indicate relationship to SCD in susceptible individuals;
stacked arrows indicate means to positively influence cardiovascular risk factors, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cardiovascular strain.

27
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Mitigating Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) in the Fire 5. Provide On-scene Medical Support and
Incident Rehabilitation — On-scene
Service preparedness is important to mitigate SCD on
the firegrounds. Having emergency services
Fire service leaders can take the following five steps to on-scene ensures that those firefighters who
decrease the risk of SCD among firefighters: require medical attention receive it in a timely
1. Ban Smoking — Smoking is associated manner, thus reducing the risk of cardiac
with an increased risk of SCD as well as death. Additionally, incident rehabilitation
increased risk of cancer and respiratory is designed to ensure that firefighters are
disease. The fire service should completely provided with rest, rehydration, and cooling,
ban smoking and tobacco products. thereby lessening the cardiovascular strain
experienced during subsequent work.
2. Adopt and Implement Wellness/Fitness
Programs — By embracing a wellness/fitness
initiative, the fire service can greatly influence
Conclusions
health behaviors and reduce the annual Fire-fighting activities involve heavy strenuous work,
number of fatal cardiac events that occur on sympathetic activation (adrenaline release), and severe
the fireground (see Figure 5). By implementing environmental conditions. The combination of physical,
a wellness/fitness initiative, fire departments emotional, and environmental stresses results in con-
can improve the firefighters’ overall health and siderable cardiovascular strain. The theoretical model
physical fitness profiles, and consequently offered in this article is based on extensive research
reduce CVD risk factors. Regular physical and proposes that in susceptible individuals with
activity, a healthy diet, and adequate sleep help underlying heart disease (most often CHD and LVH),
ensure firefighters are prepared for the physical, the cardiovascular strain associated with fire fight-
emotional, and environmental stressors they ing may trigger a sudden cardiac event. The precise
may encounter while on a fire call. Additionally, mechanisms that result in a cardiovascular event may
a wellness/fitness initiative is an important step vary depending upon the underlying disease state.
to address modifiable risk factors associated Increases in cardiac demand may cause rupture of vul-
with SCD, including obesity, hypertension, high nerable plaque, resulting in occlusion of coronary arter-
serum cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes. Wellness ies; and this may be exacerbated by hypercoagulability,
and fitness can be accomplished by providing which increases the risk of thrombotic (blood clotting)
on-duty time for required regular exercise. events. Ischemia (a lack of oxygen delivery) can also
result in direct electrical and mechanical changes in
3. Require Annual Medical Evaluations and
the cardiac muscle, leading to fatal arrhythmias. Expo-
Return-to-Work Evaluations — Annual
sure to environmental conditions (such as gaseous
medical evaluations can improve detection of
and particulate toxicants in smoke) may also increase
underlying CVD and permit more aggressive
susceptibility to arrhythmias (Dockery, 2001; Goldberg
treatment of CVD risk factors. Paying particular
et al., 2001; Mittleman, 2007), particularly in those with
attention to current modifiable risk factors
LVH and other forms of cardiomegaly.
(cholesterol, blood pressure, smoking, etc.),
To help mitigate the cardiovascular strain in firefight-
firefighters who are most susceptible to cardiac
ers, the fire service should:
events should undergo screenings to diagnose
subclinical or overt CVD. This step is especially 1. ban smoking;
important given that between 25 and 30%
2. adopt and implement wellness/fitness programs;
of all cardiac deaths on the fireground occur
in firefighters who have a previous diagnosis 3. provide annual medical evaluations
of CVD, had a prior myocardial infarction, and return-to-work evaluations;
or have a stent. A physician who is familiar
4. enact obesity standards; and
with the stress of fire fighting should provide
return-to-work clearance for firefighters. 5. provide on-scene medical support
and incident rehabilitation.
4. Enact Obesity Standards — Common-
sense obesity standards should be enacted
within the fire service. Obesity is linked to
increased risk of injury, disability, cardiomegaly,
and SCD. The enacted obesity standards
should balance antidiscrimination and
employment law considerations with the
health and safety of firefighters to ensure
that unnecessary risk of death is avoided.

28
 Volume 8

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Fernhall, B., Fahs, C. A., Horn, G., Rowland, T., & Smith, D. (2012). Environmental Medicine, 44(9), 840–846.
Acute effects of firefighting on cardiac performance. European Soteriades, E. S., Smith, D. L., Tsismenakis, A. J., Baur, D. M., Kales,
Journal of Applied Physiology, 112, 735–741. S. N. (2011). Cardiovascular disease in US firefighters: A systematic
Goldberg, M. S., Burnett, R. T., Bailar, J. C. III, Tamblyn, R., Ernst, P., review. Cardiology in Review, 19(4), 202–215.
Flegel, K., . . . Vincent, R. (2001). Identification of persons with Storer, T. W., Dolezal, B. A., Abrazado, M. L., Smith, D. L., Batalin, M.
cardiorespiratory conditions who are at risk of dying from the acute A., Tseng, C. H., . . . The PHASER Study Group. (2014). Firefighter
effects of ambient air particles. Environmental Health Perspectives, health and fitness assessment: A call to action. Journal of Strength
109(Suppl. 4), 487–494. and Conditioning Research, 28(3), 661–671.
Horn, G. P., Blevins, S., Fernhall, B., & Smith, D. L. (2013). Core Verdecchia, P., Carini, G., Circo, A., Dovellini, E., Giovannini, E.,
temperature and heart rate response to repeated bouts of firefighting Lombardo, M., . . . The MAVI Study Group. (2001). Left ventricular
activities. Ergonomics, 56(9), 1465–1473. mass and cardiovascular morbidity in essential hypertension: The
Horn, G. P., Gutzmer, S., Fahs, C. A., Petruzzello, S. J., Goldstein, MAVI study. Journal of the American College of Cardiologists, 38(7),
E., Fahey, G. C., . . . Smith, D. L. (2011). Physiological recovery 1829–1835.
from firefighting activities in rehabilitation and beyond. Prehospital
Emergency Care, 15(2), 214–225.
Kales, S. N., Soteriades, E. S., Christophi, C. A., & Christiani, D. C.
(2007). Emergency duties and deaths from heart disease among
firefighters in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine,
356, 1207–1215.

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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Endnotes
1
Competing interests: Stefanos N. Kales has served as Jacob P. DeBlois, B.S., is a research assistant for
an expert witness in legal cases involving firefighters the First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory
and was also contracted to revise the Heart Disease in the Health and Exercise Sciences Department
Manual of the International Association of Fire Fighters. at Skidmore College. He has worked on projects
Denise L. Smith has served as an expert witness in funded by NIH-NIA and DHS S&T. Jacob is a mem-
legal cases involving firefighters. Jacob P. DeBlois has ber of the American College of Sports Medicine.
no competing interests to declare.
Stefanos N. Kales, M.D., M.P.H., is Associate Pro-
2
Authors’ contributions: Denise L. Smith conceived the fessor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School and
research and collaborated with Stefanos N. Kales on Associate Professor and Director of the Occupa-
the development of the theoretical framework for the tional Medicine Residency at the Harvard School
manuscript. Denise L. Smith provided the initial draft of of Public Health (HSPH). Dr. Kales is also the Chief
the manuscript. Jacob P. DeBlois provided a significant
of Occupational and Environmental Medicine and
review and revision of the manuscript draft. Stefanos N.
Medical Director for Employee Health and Indus-
Kales reviewed and provided significant contributions to
trial Medicine at the Cambridge Health Alliance, a
the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the
Harvard-affiliated hospital system. He has partici-
final manuscript.
pated in a wide range of research, advisory, and
Acknowledgments teaching activities on five continents resulting in
over 110 publications. He also serves on several
Funding for this work was provided to Denise L. Smith biomedical editorial boards and participates in
(P.I.) by the Federal Emergency Management Agency Harvard’s Cardiovascular Epidemiology Program.
(FEMA), Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG), His primary research involves firefighters’ health,
Award EMW-2010-FP-01992. Stefanos N. Kales (P.I.) and he has received Massachusetts, U.S. federal
was supported by the FEMA AFG, Awards EMW- government, and Canadian government fund-
2009-FP-00835 and EMW-2011-FP-00663. ing. Dr. Kales is an international clinical authority
regarding cardiovascular disease among public
About the Authors safety personnel.
Denise L. Smith, Ph.D., is a Professor of Health
and Exercise Sciences at Skidmore College
where she directs the First Responder Health and
Safety Laboratory and is a Research Scientist
at the University of Illinois Fire Service Institute.
Dr. Smith has coauthored several textbooks and
has published over 50 scientific papers, primarily
on firefighter cardiovascular health. She lectures
extensively on health and safety issues in the fire
service. Her research has been funded by FEMA-
AFG, DHS S&T, NIOSH, and DOD. She is a fellow
of the American College of Sports Medicine and
a member of the NFPA Fire Service Occupational
Safety and Health committee. Dr. Smith serves as
the corresponding author and can be contacted at
[email protected]

30
 Volume 8

Peer-Reviewed Articles
Dr. David H. Folz, Professor & Director, University of Tennessee Master of Public Policy and Administration
(MPPA) Program, University of Tennessee
Chris Shults, Ph.D. Student, University of Tennessee, Department of Political Science

When the Smoke Clears:

The Impact of State Fire-Safe Cigarette Policies on Reducing Fire Fatalities
Abstract
Fire-service professionals across the country have long known that cigarettes are a leading
cause of fatal home fires. Tireless efforts by leaders in the fire service to persuade state law-
makers to adopt standards for fire-safe cigarettes yielded success first in New York and would
be followed by legislative victories in every state by 2011. These standards required manufactur-
ers to sell only low-ignition strength cigarettes, so labeled because they would self-extinguish if
left unattended. The legislative purpose was to save lives and prevent injuries and devastation
from cigarette-ignited fires. This study examines whether the states’ fire-safe cigarette policies
helped to reduce the rate of smoking-related civilian fire deaths. The evidence indicated that the
policy had a modest impact on the decline in the rate of smoking-related residential fire deaths
between the years 2005–2011 — a success that leaders and managers in the fire service need
to share with lawmakers.

Introduction
Advances in fire management, code adoption, and and proponents from other allied health organizations
emergency-response capacity have contributed to a finally achieved legislative victory in 2000 when New
decline in the number of civilian fire deaths worldwide York required cigarette manufacturers to certify their
during the last several decades. Between 1980 and products as low-ignition strength (Coalition for Fire-
2011, the number of civilians who perished in United Safe Cigarettes, 2012). This standard specifies that no
States (US) home fires dropped by more than half more than 10 of every 40 cigarettes tested can burn to
from 5,200 to 2,520 fatalities (Karter, 2012). Despite their full length when placed on 10 layers of standard
this remarkable progress, the rate of US fire deaths filter paper (Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes, 2012).
is still higher than most other industrialized nations The purpose of this design standard was to reduce the
including Canada, France, the United Kingdom (UK), risk of fires ignited by leaving cigarettes unattended
Germany, and Australia (Geneva Association, 2012). and other careless smoking behaviors.
While several factors account for differences in the rate Cigarettes that comply with this standard are
of fire deaths internationally, smoking-related fires are made fire safe by using wrapping paper that has two
among the leading causes for civilian deaths in resi- or three thin bands of less-porous paper that act as
dential buildings in the US (Hall, 2012). Ahrens (2011) speed bumps to slow down a burning cigarette. Left
estimated that US fire departments responded to about unattended, a burning cigarette reaches one of these
373,900 home structure fires per year during 2005 speed bumps and should self-extinguish before ignit-
through 2009 and that these fires involved 2,650 civil- ing other materials such as furniture or bedding (Hall,
ian fire deaths, 12,890 civilian fire injuries, and more 2012). In other words, without regular puffing by a
than $7.1 billion in direct damage. Among the fatal fires smoker every 30 to 40 seconds, at least 75% of all
that occurred during this period where the cause was unattended fire-safe cigarettes should self-extinguish
known (about 55%), smoking was the cause for 25% in 30 to 60 seconds.
of civilian home fire deaths, while heating equipment By 2011, every state had adopted fire standards
and cooking equipment accounted for 21% and 15%, compliant (FSC) legislation for cigarettes (also known
respectively, of the deaths in home fires (United States as reduced ignition propensity [RIP]). The rationale for
Fire Administration [USFA], 2011; Ahrens, 2011). these new standards was similar in many respects to
In an effort to reduce further the number of US fire the federal regulations imposed on manufacturers of
deaths and the related devastation that engulfs fami- mattresses, upholstered furniture, and other products
lies touched by such tragedies, fire service leaders that addressed flammability and fire resistance. Hall
in the International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), (2012) explained that most of the home fires started by
representatives of the American Burn Association, smoking materials (cigarettes, cigars, or pipes) were

31
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

started unintentionally and can be “attributed to some of screens was employed to exclude all fire incidents
error in control or disposal” (p. 6). In fact, about 32% for each year that did not satisfy these relevant selec-
of fatalities result from individuals falling asleep while tion criteria for the dependent variable. Only records
smoking; drug or alcohol impairment while smoking of fire incidents in which smoking-related material
accounts for about 19% of fatalities in smoking-related was the documented cause were included; we did not
fires (Hall, 2012). In many respects, the new regulatory extrapolate to incident reports where the fire cause
regime for cigarette manufacturers represented a tech- was unknown. To do so would have made it impossible
nical fix for a product that was intended to complement to link specific incidents, ignition causes, and victim
efforts by fire-safety educators to address a problem characteristics.
that stems primarily from smokers’ risky, careless, or The main independent variable in the study is the
impaired behavior (G. West, personal communication, states’ fire-safe cigarette policy. The variable was
March 15, 2011). operationalized as a proportionate dummy variable that
The purpose of this study is to examine whether credited implementation for any part of a year that it
the states’ fire-safe cigarette laws are responsible was in effect. If the law was not in effect for any part of
for any of the observed reduction in smoking-related a year, the variable was coded 0. If the law took effect
fire deaths. Some reports suggest that the observed in January of a particular year, then the variable was
decline in fire deaths nationally might be due to the coded as a 1. Laws that became effective in any later
adoption of fire-safe cigarette legislation (Hall, 2012; month were coded in 0.08 increments from 0.92 (e.g.,
Alpert, 2007; Seaman 2009; National Fire Protection February) through 0.08 (e.g., December). This coding
Association® [NFPA®], 2010). Considering the pattern scheme was chosen to capture, as accurately as pos-
of decline in fire deaths nationally, there is evidence of sible, the actual portion of a year that the policy was
at least a correlational connection. This study exam- effective (Houston & Richardson, 2008).1 It is important
ines data on smoking-related fire deaths to determine if to note that the effective date of implementation was
there is evidence for a causal relationship. The findings not the same as the date when the policy was enacted
have import for the many professionals in fire manage- by a state legislature. Typically, state laws provided
ment across the states who invested much effort and for a grace period of up to two years during which the
political capital in persuading legislative officials to inventory of non-FSC cigarettes were marketed. Con-
enact fire-safe cigarette legislation. Providing feedback sequently, the period between legislative passage and
to these officials about the effectiveness of this policy actual implementation is part of the prepolicy period.
is an important dimension of sustaining strong legisla- Data on annual adult smoking rates in the US were
tive relations for the next campaign to advance fire obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and
safety. Prevention (CDCP) annual reports: “Current Cigarette
Smoking Among Adults” (CDCP, 2012a). Estimates of
Data and Methods the smoking rates in each state for 2005 through 2010
were obtained from the annual Behavioral Risk Factor
The fire-incident data for this study were obtained from Surveillance System (BRFSS) survey that employed
the USFA National Fire Data Center, which maintains large state samples and land-line telephone interviews
the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS). with noninstitutionalized civilian adults 18 years and
These data are submitted voluntarily by more than older (CDCP, 2012b).
15,000 fire departments in the US; and while they do A particular issue for this variable involved a major
not constitute a census of fire incidents, about 75% change in the BRFSS sampling methodology for
of fire incidents are captured annually (USFA, 2013). estimating the adult smoking population in the states
These data represent the single best available source during the 2011 CDCP data-collection effort. A new
of information about fire incidents in the states. sampling methodology included, for the first time, cel-
In 2005, fire reports were required to follow the for- lular telephone-only households that comprised about
mat specified in version 5.0 of the NFIRS manual that a third of the sample size (CDCP, 2012b). The CDCP
guides report coding into several distinct data modules also replaced the post-stratification weighting method
(USFA, 2008). Due to differences in coding legacy data used in all surveys prior to 2011 with a different weight-
from the earlier NFIRS reporting system (version 4.1), ing method called iterative proportional fitting or raking
USFA personnel suggested using data from 2005 and (CDCP, 2012c). The 2011 BRFSS survey produced
later for our analysis (M. Lawler, personal communica- estimates of adult smoking significantly higher than
tion, September 20, 2011). As a result, New York could previous annual surveys. The CDCP explained that
not be included in some of the analyses because its “because of these changes, estimates of tobacco
before era predated 2005. prevalence from 2011 BRFSS forward cannot be
The dependent variable in the study is the annual compared to BRFSS estimates from previous years”
rate of civilian, unintentional, smoking-related residen- (CDCP, 2013).
tial fire deaths in each state. These data were derived Considering the established connection between
from three different NFIRS reporting modules that were smoking and home fire fatalities, it is important to
merged using five unique incident identifiers. A series include state smoking rates for 2011 in an analysis of
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 Volume 8

the factors that may affect the variation in the rate of 1995; Wooldridge, 2010). Several additional tests for
smoking-material fire deaths. The challenge is how panel data were performed, and these detected the
best to incorporate a 2011 measure of adult smoking in possible presence of heteroskedasticity, serial correla-
the states that is comparable to the CDCP figures for tion, and unit effects. Unit effects refer to the system-
2005 through 2010. atic variance across different units (states in this study).
Following an approach described by Roth (1994) Since each state has its own history before the study
and Schafer and Graham (2002), we estimated each period, each unit (state) may differ systematically on
state’s 2011 smoking rate by computing the annual the dependent variable (the smoking-related fire-death
average amount of change in smoking rates between rate). The presence of unit effects means that the val-
2005 and 2010 and then adjusted each state’s 2010 ues of the dependent variable may differ systematically
CDCP smoking rate by that amount to obtain an esti- across states. These unequal variances may result in
mated 2011 state smoking rate. Nationally, these 2011 OLS models that produce inaccurate coefficients and
computed estimates resulted in a decline of 0.51 in the standard errors. Consequently, we present the results
percent of adults who smoked compared to the 2010 from a Random Effects GLS Model that corrects for
national average. Only two states (West Virginia and heteroskedasticity, serial correlation, and unit effects
Ohio) recorded an increase in the 2011 rate of adult in panel data to obtain unbiased coefficients for the
smoking. While estimating a data point for a single year independent variables in the model.2
from the known values for six previous years is never
ideal, this approach enabled us to retain the largest Variables in the Study and Previous Research
possible number of observations for the largest number
of states for the 2005 through 2011 study period. The standards and cigarette-test methods embraced
Other variables employed in this study included by the states’ FSC policy (the key independent variable
population demographics and housing-stock charac- in the study) followed those in New York’s law, which
teristics. Data for these variables were obtained from were based on recommendations by a congressional
the US Census American Community Survey for 2005 study commission (Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes,
through 2011 (US Census, 2012). 2011). The year in which each state’s legislation actu-
The data in this study consist of pooled cross- ally became effective is shown in Table 1. Implementa-
sectional time series or panel data for 49 states during tion of the law involved a review by state officials of the
the seven-year 2005 through 2011 period. The unit of cigarette test reports that were required to be submit-
analysis is the state. There are 343 total observations. ted for each brand of cigarette sold in the state by man-
Two methods used to model the factors hypothesized ufacturers. The states’ fire-safe cigarette legislation
to affect the rate of smoking-related deaths in the is basically identical. Only minor differences occurred
states are Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Random with respect to the particular state agency charged with
Effects Generalized Least Squares (GLS) regression reviewing the manufacturers’ certification reports (typi-
models. To verify the data met OLS assumptions, cally the State Fire Marshal) and the size of state fees
relevant statistical tests were performed to detect the for certification of each cigarette brand (fees ranged
presence of problems such as multicollinearity, auto- from $250 to $3,000). In all states, manufacturers were
correlation, and heteroskedasticity. Collinearity statis- allowed to sell existing inventories of noncompliant
tics, for example, indicated that the variance inflation cigarettes during the interval between adoption of the
factor (VIF) was close to 1 for each of the five inde- statue and its effective enforcement date.
pendent variables used in the model, suggesting that The dependent variable in this study is the rate of
multicollinearity (which inflates standard errors) was US civilian smoking-related fire deaths.3 As indicated
not present in the data. Autocorrelation or correlation in Figure 1, this rate declined by about a third between
of residuals (a not-uncommon occurrence in time- 2005 and 2011. Although smoking-related deaths
series data) can inflate or deflate standard errors. The steadily declined, the profile of victims in these fires
Durbin-Watson score did not indicate the presence of changed little during this period. Older adults aged 75
serial correlation. A modified Wald test for group-wise to 84 years had the highest risk of dying in smoking-
heteroskedasticity indicated the possibility of weak material home fires. Most victims were male and white.
heteroskedasticity in the data. To correct for possibly The overall risk of dying in fires for children under 18
inflated or deflated standard errors, we followed Hayes was low, but children under 5 years of age accounted
and Cai (2007) to compute reestimated standard errors for more than one of every four fatalities (44%) during
(corrected for heteroskedasticity) in the OLS model. the 2007 through 2011 period (Hall, 2012). In fact, more
This method generally produces standard errors that than half of all children under 16 years who died in fires
make inferences more conservative. were under 5 years of age in 2007 (Sternberg, 2011).
Since this study employs panel data, possible As one fire chief observed, the prospect of saving just
structural issues need to be assessed and corrected one of these lives was sufficient motivation to work
to avoid the possibility of generating biased estimators hard to encourage state officials to pass fire-safe ciga-
due to unobserved (omitted) variables (Beck & Katz, rette legislation. (G. West, personal communication,
March 15, 2011).

33
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Table 1: Implementation Years for State Fire-Safe Cigarette Policies.

2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
New York Vermont California Illinois Delaware Alabama Missouri
Oregon Maine Iowa Arkansas South Dakota
New Massachusetts Oklahoma Florida Wyoming
Hampshire Kentucky Pennsylvania Georgia
Montana Texas Michigan
New Jersey Idaho Nebraska
Connecticut Indiana New Mexico
Maryland Kansas North Carolina
Utah West Virginia South Carolina
Alaska Colorado Tennessee
Rhode Island Arizona Virginia
Minnesota Washington Ohio
Louisiana Nevada
Hawaii Mississippi
Wisconsin North Dakota

Figure 1: Trend in Civilian Smoking-Related Fire Deaths in the US (1981–2011).

2500

2000

1500
Deaths

1000

500

0
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

Years

Figure 2 shows the annual mean rate of smoking- it has substantive importance because it provides the
related fire deaths in the states from 2005 through requisite correlational evidence between implementa-
2011. During this period, the mean rate for these tion of the state FSC policies and an observed change
mortalities declined by about 39%, a reduction that in the dependent variable that must exist to consider a
was mediated by increases during 2006 and 2010. For possible causal connection.
proponents of the FSC policy, this overall pattern of The magnitude and direction of the change in the
decline was a highly desirable outcome. For this study, rate of smoking-related fire deaths in the individual

34
 Volume 8

Figure 2: Rate of Smoking-Related Civilian Home Fire mentation, the overall rate declined from 1.04 deaths
Deaths in the US (per million) 2005–2011. per million before policy implementation to 0.59 deaths
per million after policy implementation. Among the 12
states with higher mean rates of smoking-related fire
1.50 fatalities after policy implementation, the mean rate
1.40 increased from 0.45 deaths per million to 0.69 deaths
1.30 per million. Clearly, the decline in the mean rate of
1.20 smoking-related fire deaths was broad-based, but it
1.10 1.05 was not universal after the states implemented fire-safe
1.00 0.90
cigarette legislation.
0.90 What factors other than the FSC policy might
Rate

0.80 account for the variation in the dependent variable?

0.68 0.66
0.70 0.59
0.64 Smoking is a leading cause of fatal residential building
0.60 0.55
fires; lower rates of cigarette smoking in the states over
0.50 time should be linked with fewer fires caused by this
0.40 source and consequently lead to fewer smoking-related
0.30
fire deaths (O’Connor et al., 2010; Diekman, Balleste-
0.20
ros, Berger, Caraballo, & Kegler, 2008). Hall (2012) also
0.10
0.00 observed that lower rates of cigarette smoking should
lead to fewer fires that ignite mattresses, bedding, and
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
upholstered furniture — the items most often associ-
Years
ated with fire deaths.
The National Health Survey defines smokers as
states after implementation of the FSC policy is shown those who report “ever smoking 100 cigarettes in
in Table 2. These data indicate that 36 states recorded their lifetime and now smoke every day or some days”
an overall decline in their mean rate of smoking-related (CDCP, 2012d). Figure 3 shows that the national adult
fire deaths after policy implementation, while a dozen smoking rate declined from 24.6% in 1995 to 19.0% by
states experienced an increase in their mean rate. In 2011, a 23% reduction. The adult smoking rate regis-
the 36 states4 with lower mean rates after policy imple- tered its steepest decline between 1995 through 2005

Table 2: Mean State Rates of Smoking-Related Home Fire Deaths Before and After Implementation of Fire-Safe Cigarette
Legislation (2005–2011).

States with Lower Mean Rates States with Higher Mean Rates

Mean Mean Mean Mean

Smoking- Smoking- Smoking- Smoking-
Effective Related Fire Related Fire Effective Related Fire Related
Date of FSC Death Rate Death Rate Date of FSC Death Rate: Fire Death
State Law Before After State Law Before Rate: After

Alabama 1/1/2010 0.304 0.105 Colorado 7/31/09 0.410 0.695

Alaska 8/1/08 4.520 2.147 Georgia 1/1/10 0.276 0.410

Arizona 8/1/09 0.220 0.075 Hawaii 9/30/09 0.000 0.370

Arkansas 1/1/10 1.406 0.345 Illinois 1/1/08 0.473 0.875

California 1/1/07 0.335 0.192 Kansas 7/1/09 1.460 1.516

Connecticut 7/1/08 0.673 0.142 Nebraska 1/1/10 0.690 0.820

Delaware 1/1/09 0.890 0.000 New Mexico 1/1/10 0.200 0.240

North
Florida 1/1/10 0.378 0.325 1/1/10 0.534 1.040
Carolina

Idaho 4/1/09 1.520 0.213 Pennsylvania 1/1/09 0.142 0.476

South
Indiana 7/1/09 0.630 0.566 1/1/10 0.510 0.750
Carolina

(Continued)
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Table 2: Mean State Rates of Smoking-Related Home Fire Deaths Before and After Implementation of Fire-Safe Cigarette
Legislation (2005–2011). (Concluded)
States with Lower Mean Rates States with Higher Mean Rates

Mean Mean Mean Mean

Smoking- Smoking- Smoking- Smoking-
Effective Related Fire Related Fire Effective Related Fire Related
Date of FSC Death Rate Death Rate Date of FSC Death Rate: Fire Death
State Law Before After State Law Before Rate: After

Iowa 1/1/09 1.010 0.440 Utah 7/1/08 0.520 0.817

Kentucky 4/1/08 1.200 0.287 Wisconsin 10/1/09 0.144 0.265

Louisiana 8/31/09 0.180 0.110

Maine 1/1/08 0.766 0.567

Maryland 7/1/08 0.656 0.525

Massachusetts 1/1/08 1.673 1.185

Michigan 1/1/10 0.462 0.405

Minnesota 12/1/08 1.070 0.630

Mississippi 7/1/10 0.692 0.335

Missouri 1/01/11 0.651 0.500

Montana 5/1/08 1.420 0.757

Nevada 6/1/10 0.470 0.185

New
10/1/07 0.260 0.190
Hampshire

New Jersey 6/1/08 0.620 0.540

North Dakota 8/1/10 1.860 1.460

Ohio 5/1/10 1.450 1.080

Oklahoma 1/1/09 1.270 0.620

Oregon 7/1/07 1.370 0.634

South Dakota 1/01/11 2.270 1.210

Tennessee 1/1/10 1.900 1.805

Texas 1/1/09 0.460 0.250

Vermont 5/1/06 1.660 0.266

Virginia 1/1/10 0.730 0.310

Washington 8/1/09 0.744 0.590

West Virginia 7/10/09 1.235 0.540

Wyoming 7/01/11 0.323 1.760

Means 1.04 0.59 0.45 0.69

36
 Volume 8

Figure 3: Percent of US Adults Who Smoke (2005–2011). variables, state-level data are available mainly for
smoking rates, population demographics, and housing-
stock variables.
Following Eisenberg (2005), we included two demo-
30
graphic variables (the percent population white and the
29
percent population male) and a housing-stock variable
28
27 (the percent of housing built between 2000 and 2004)
26 in this comparative state analysis. Table 3 shows the
25 24.6 relevant descriptive statistics for these three census
24 23.1
variables. Based on Eisenberg’s (2005) findings, we
hypothesized that states with higher proportions of
Percent

23
22
20.9
whites and males will have higher rates of smoking-
20.8 20.6 20.6
21 19.8
related fire deaths, while states with larger proportions
20 19.3 19.0 of newer housing (built between 2000 and 2004) will
19 have lower rates of smoking-related home fire deaths
18 since these newer structures may be more likely to
17 meet contemporary building codes and have operating
16 smoke alarms.
15
1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Years
Findings
Table 4 shows the OLS and Random Effects GLS
model results for the five variables described in the
when it dropped by 15 percent; the rate declined more
previous section that are hypothesized to affect the
gradually during the 2005 and 2011 period, dropping by
rate of smoking-related home fire deaths in the states
only 1.9% (from 20.9% to 19.0%).
between 2005 thru 2011. The most striking finding in
In addition to smoking rates, several studies
both models is that the states’ fire-safe cigarette
have identified other causes of fire fatalities and the
policy had a statistically significant independent
factors that might help to prevent them. Seven distinct
effect in helping to reduce the rate of smoking-
categories of variables emerge, for example, as
related home fire deaths, controlling for the effects
important for understanding the causes of fire fatalities
of the other variables in the model. In the Random
from the collective works by Hall, 2012, 2013; Ahrens,
Effects GLS model that corrects for all of the issues
2012; Anderson and Ezekoye, 2013; Evarts, 2011;
with panel data, the states’ fire-safe cigarette policies
Karter, 2012; Eisenberg, 2005; Waugh and Hy, 1990;
were responsible for reducing the state’s smoking-
Waugh and Tierney, 2007; and Coe, 2009. These
related fire mortality rate by 0.233 per million. While
categories include (1) population demographics; (2)
this independent effect is best described as modest,
population behaviors (e.g., smoking, cooking, etc.);
it was the only variable in the Random Effects model
(3) housing-stock characteristics; (4) the presence
to attain statistical significance. In other words, com-
of various combustible materials in the structure;
pared to the rate of adult smoking, state demographic
(5) operational smoke alarms and fire-suppression
features, or housing-stock characteristics, adoption of
technology such as sprinkler systems; (6) the adoption
the FSC policy by the states was the most important
and enforcement of appropriate building codes;
reason for the observed reduction in the rate of smok-
and (7) the availability of an adequate fire-fighting,
ing-related fire deaths.
rescue, and emergency medical care infrastructure
In the OLS model, three variables in addition to
and management capacity. Among these types of
the FSC policy attained statistical significance. The

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for State Demographic and Housing-Stock Variables (2005–2011) N = 343.

Variable Mean Standard Deviation Range Skewness Kurtosis

Percent housing built between

8.44 3.09 17.79 1.00 1.74
2000-2004

Percent male 49.31 0.73 4.2 0.96 1.27

Percent white 78.61 12.61 73.00 -1.36 3.67

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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Table 4: Fire-Safe Cigarette Policy and the Rate of Smoking-Related Fire Deaths in 49 States (2005–2011).

Heteroskedasticity-Consistent (HC) OLS Model Random Effects GLS Model

Variable Coefficient SE (HC) t P>|t| Coefficient Robust SE z P>|z|

Fire safe cigarette law -0.222 0.098 -2.26 0.024 -0.233 0.091 -2.55 0.011

Adult smoking rate 0.037 0.016 2.32 0.020 0.026 0.028 0.91 0.363

Percent housing stock

built between 2000- -0.052 0.016 -3.20 0.001 -0.04 0.03 -1.17 0.240
2004

Percent population male 0.327 0.115 2.82 0.005 0.209 0.205 1.02 0.309

Percent population white 0.005 0.003 1.50 0.133 0.006 0.006 0.94 0.347

Constant -16.04 5.62 -2.85 0.004 -10.17 9.84 -1.03 0.302

Observations = 343 Observations = 343

R2 = 12.6 rho = 0.281

coefficients of each were in the expected direction: data for 2011, the year for which the adult smoking
(1) Higher rates of adult smoking led to higher rates rate was estimated based on the CDCP survey data
of smoking-related fire deaths, (2) larger proportions from the previous six years. The downside of such an
of housing stock built between 2000 and 2004 led analysis is the loss of a large number of observations.
to lower rates of smoking-related fire deaths, and (3) Analyzing only the 15 states that have two or more
higher male population proportions in a state resulted years of post-FSC data on smoking-related fire deaths
in higher rates of smoking-related fire mortalities. and excluding 2011 data altogether results in just 90
However, the variables in this model together explained observations, a less than desirable N for purposes of
only about 13% of the variation in the smoking-related regression analyses.
fire-death rate. Table 5 shows the model results for these data from
In the Random Effects GLS model, none of the OLS and Random Effects GLS procedures. For this
variables besides the FSC policy attained statisti- dramatically smaller group of states, the OLS model
cal significance. The best indicator of goodness of fit indicated that adoption of the fire-safe cigarette policy
for the Random Effects model is the rho value. This continued to have a statistically significant impact on
measure represents the ratio of individual specific reducing smoking-related fire deaths. The size of the
error variance to the composite (entire) error variance. coefficient was actually larger for this smaller group
The rho value of 0.281 indicates that about 28% of the of states — a result that suggests several years of
composite error variance is explained by the variables postpolicy mortality data might help to capture the full
in the model. potential impact of the law. In the Random Effects GLS
Causal claims about policy impacts always should model, the coefficient for the FSC policy just misses
be subjected to rigorous examination. Clearly, the attaining statistical significance at the 0.05 level. On
most robust evaluation results can be produced by balance, however, these findings provide us with
analyses that encompass several years of post-FSC additional confidence for validating the assertion that
policy fire-mortality data and that include variables that the FSC law had at least a modest impact in helping
are measured and collected consistently over time. reduce the rate of smoking-related fire deaths in the
However, policymakers often need credible evidence states.
about policy performance much sooner than the ideal
research-design timeline. To complicate matters, Implications
government agencies sometimes change the meth-
ods used to collect data (such as smoking behavior) Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death,
without consulting social scientists about how such disease, and disability in the US and also is a signifi-
changes would affect longitudinal analyses. cant contributor to the costs of health care (General
Within the limitations of existing data, we can Accountability Office [GAO], 2012). This study finds
examine the impact of the FSC policy only for those that the fire-compliant design standards for cigarettes
states that have at least two or more years of data on adopted by the states helped to reduce the incidence
smoking-related fire deaths. We also can exclude all of deaths in fires started by tobacco products. While

38
 Volume 8

Table 5: Fire-Safe Cigarette Policy and the Rate of Smoking-Related Fire Deaths in 15 States with Two or More Years of
Post-FSC Policy Experience (2005–2010).

Heteroskedasticity-Consistent (HC) OLS Model Random Effects GLS Model

Variable Coefficient SE (HC) t P>|t| Coefficient Robust SE z P>|z|

Fire safe cigarette law -0.384 0.150 -2.56 0.011 -0.273 0.158 -1.72 0.085

Adult smoking rate 0.065 0.021 3.06 0.002 0.087 0.060 1.44 0.149

Percent housing stock

built between 2000- -0.108 0.037 -2.86 0.005 -0.069 0.055 -1.26 0.207
2004

Percent population male 0.630 0.143 4.38 0.000 0.410 0.071 5.76 0.000

Percent population white -0.009 0.006 -1.53 0.129 -0.015 0.015 -0.97 0.330

Constant -29.67 6.85 -4.32 0.000 -19.04 3.07 -6.19 0.000

Observations = 90 Observations = 90
R2 = 0.420 rho = 0.489

the impact was modest, the policy did help to prevent Finally, the proportion of unexplained variance in
the loss of life. In a rational calculus, the value of the state smoking-related fatality rates underscores the
lives saved should far outweigh the modest implemen- fact that the fire-safe cigarette policy, while effective,
tation costs incurred by the states. is not a panacea. To reduce fire fatalities further still
This policy success is important to communicate to requires attention to both the technical and behavioral
state lawmakers. Providing useful feedback about pro- aspects of fire-safety policy. Since states with higher
gram results to elected officials and the media about proportions of newer housing have lower rates of
the consequences of a policy decision is a preemi- smoking-related fire fatalities, we speculate that com-
nent responsibility of public managers (Svara, 1994; pliance with recent building-code standards and the
Simon, 1997; Lee, 2009). It is also smart management presence of operating smoke alarms in these dwellings
(Ammons, 2008). Keeping lawmakers informed about may help to explain lower fatality rates. The next tech-
policy performance (regardless of the outcome) builds nical-policy challenge may involve promoting the more
trust, credibility, and a reputation for candor that helps widespread adoption of code standards that require
to accumulate political capital that can be helpful in the installation of sprinklers in new residences. However,
next campaign to advance fire safety (Chase & Reveal, we concur with Rhodes and Reinholtd (1998) that the
1983). strategies with the most promise for achieving further
The impact of the fire-safe cigarette policy mea- reductions in fire fatalities are probably those that seek
sured in this study actually may have been attenuated to change individual behaviors such as fire-safety and
by a tax loophole that was finally eliminated by Con- prevention education efforts targeted at the most vul-
gress in 2012 (Esterl, 2012; Morris, 2012; Burke, 2012; nerable and high-risk groups in communities. Unfortu-
Karuschak, 2012). Up until that time, the states and nately, proactive efforts that seek to train individuals to
the federal government exempted roll-your-own (RYO) take more responsibility for their own safety are often
cigarettes made with pipe tobacco from the same among the first items in the fire service to be curtailed
tobacco excise-tax levies that were imposed on ciga- in times of fiscal stress. The enduring challenge for
rette tobacco. This exception helped to explain why leaders in the fire service is at least twofold: (1) iden-
pipe-tobacco sales increased from 3.2 million pounds tify, promote, and evaluate those policies that address
to 30.5 million pounds between 2009 and 2011 (GAO, the technical causes of fires and (2) work to secure
2012). Not only was the tax loophole eliminated, but the adequate community investment in those strategies
2012 amendment to the federal transportation bill also proven to engage and educate the most vulnerable
redefined tobacco manufacturers to include any busi- groups about fire safety. The extent to which contem-
ness with a roll-your-own cigarette machine, a change porary leaders in the fire service see significant further
that many other states adopted that year (Morris, 2012). reductions in residential fire fatalities may depend upon
As a result, future analyses of this policy may find an both the quality of their relations with legislators and
impact even more substantial than that documented in their ability to forge partnerships with other interests to
this study.5 reach the most vulnerable groups in the community.

39
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

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smoking/coalition-for-fire-safe-cigarettes/model-legislation kucc625/method/panel/panel_iuj.pdf

Coe, C. (2009). Handbook of urban services: A basic guide for local Rhodes, A., & Reinholtd, S. (1998). Beyond technology: A holistic
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Seaman, A. (2009, January 2). States push fire-safe cigarettes. USA operationalized, adoption of the FSC policy attained
Today. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009- statistical significance in helping to explain the decline
01-02-cigarettes_N.htm
in the rate of state smoking-related fire deaths between
Simon, H. (1997). Administrative behavior: A study of decision-making 2005 and 2011.
processes in administrative organizations (4th ed.). New York: Free
Press. 2
A likelihood ratio test was used to test for heteroske-
Sternberg, S. (2011, February 14) Report: Half of children killed in dasticity. A chi square value of 0.0000 indicated that
fires are under age 5. USA Today. Retrieved from http://www.
usatoday.com/news/nation/2011-02-14-kidsinfire14_ST_N. the data were heteroskedastic. Heteroskedasticity
htm?loc=interstitialskip# occurs when the variance of the unobserved error,
conditional on the explanatory variables, is not con-
Svara, J. (1994). Facilitative leadership in local government: Lesson
from successful mayors and chairpersons. San Francisco, CA: stant. Heteroskedasticity can yield biased variances
Jossey-Bass. that result in confidence intervals and t-statistics that
United States (US) Census. (2012). American fact finder. Washington, are not valid (Wooldridge, 2012).
DC: US Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://factfinder2. The Wooldridge test for serial correlation had a
census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml Prob-F value of 0.02 and indicated the presence of
United States Fire Administration (USFA). (2008). USFA national first-order autocorrelation. Serial correlation is the
fire incident reporting system 5.0, complete reference guide. notion that a value for a variable is influenced by its
Emmetsburg, MD: USFA. own value in a previous time period. Serial correlation
United States Fire Administration (USFA). (2011). Civilian fire fatalities in can result in biased standard errors and results that
residential buildings. Topical Fire Reports Series, 12(7), 1–10. are less efficient (Drukker, 2003). The Block-F test
United States Fire Administration (USFA) (2013). About the national fire detected the presence of unit effects.
incident reporting system (NFIRS). Retrieved from http://www.usfa. To address these concerns with the panel data, a
fema.gov/fireservice/nfirs/about/ Random Effects model was estimated using a Gen-
Waugh, W. L. Jr., & Hy, R. J. (1990). Handbook of emergency eralized Least Squares (GLS) routine with corrections
management: Programs and policies dealing with major hazards for heteroskedasticity and serial correlation. Among
and disasters. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. the more common solutions for unit effects in panel
Waugh, W. L. Jr., & Tierney, K. (Eds.). (2007). Emergency management: data are two modeling approaches: Fixed Effects and
Principles and practice for local government (2nd ed.). Washington, Random Effects. The Hausman test helps to determine
DC: International City/County Management Association. whether unique errors were systematically correlated
Wooldridge, J. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel with the regressors and consequently whether a Fixed
data (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Effect or a Random Effects model would be the pre-
Wooldridge, J. (2012). Introductory econometrics: A modern approach ferred approach for producing unbiased and accurate
(5th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. results. The null in the Hausman test is that the pre-
ferred model is Random Effects (that unique errors are
not correlated with the regressors). Our test results
Endnotes (p = 0.029) suggested that a Fixed Effects model might
1
An alternate operationalization of the FSC policy is be preferable, but Beck (2007) argued that when there
to code the year in which the law became effective as is very small variation in the dependent variable over
a 1 and to code all other years as 0. Since the effec- time and the data involve a small N, a Random Effects
tive date of the states’ FSC policy actually began in a GLS model is preferred over a Fixed Effects model.
variety of different months during various years, the Since our data exhibited both of these characteristics,
fractional method of measurement was considered we chose to present the findings from the Random
to be a more accurate way to capture what actually Effects GLS model. Park (2011) also suggests that the
occurred on the ground in the states. Nonetheless, results from a pooled OLS model should be presented
we computed the dichotomous measure and used it under these circumstances.
in the same analytical procedures as the proportional For comparison purposes, we computed both
measure. This dichotomous measure produced virtu- the Random Effects GLS model and a Fixed Effects
ally identical results with only a very minor reduction model. We found that the FSC policy, regardless
in the size of the coefficient in the models. Both the of whether it was measured proportionately or as a
proportional and the dichotomous operationalizations dichotomous dummy, remained statistically significant
remained statistically significant in the same analy- with only a very small reduction in the size of the coef-
ses. For example, the Random Effects GLS model ficient for the FSC policy in the Fixed Effects model.
produced a statistically significant coefficient of -0.233
for the FSC policy when measured as a proportionate
3
We examined smoking-related fire deaths because
variable. When measured as a dichotomous dummy the reduction of mortalities in fires ignited by tobacco
variable, it produced a statistically significant -0.199 products is one of the principal goals of the states’ FSC
coefficient. Regardless of how the policy variable was policies. Cigarettes are a leading cause of fire deaths

41
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

among smokers and nonsmokers, and this rationale About the Authors
figures prominently in the states’ statutes. Work in
progress also examines the impact of the states’ FSC David H. Folz is Professor and Director of the Mas-
policies on the rate of smoking-related fire incidents ter of Public Policy and Administration Program at
and particularly the rate of injuries (other than death) the University of Tennessee, Howard Baker Jr.
by type (minor, moderate, severe, and life threaten- Center for Public Policy, where he teaches courses
ing). Together with the current study, these subsequent in public management, financial administration,
analyses will provide a comprehensive picture of the research methods, and state politics. His research
impact of the states’ FSC policies. has appeared in numerous journals in public
administration. Dr. Folz is the corresponding author
4
New York is excluded since we do not have compara- and can be contacted at [email protected]
ble “prepolicy” data on the dependent variable. Rhode
Island is not included in Table 2 because it did not Chris Shults is a Teaching Associate in the doc-
report data on fire deaths during the study period. toral program in the Department of Political Sci-
ence at the University of Tennessee, where he
5
A complication future evaluations will encounter is the teaches courses in American Government and
inability to compare CDCP survey data on adult smok- Public Administration. He expects to defend his dis-
ing rates pre-2010 with 2011 and later because of the sertation project on policies that affect fire fatalities
change in survey methodology. and injuries in 2014.

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 Volume 8

Sara A. Jahnke, Ph.D.

Christopher K. Haddock, Ph.D.
Walker S. Carlos Poston, Ph.D.
Center for Fire, Rescue, & EMS Health Research, Institute for Biobehavioral Health Research
National Development & Research Institutes, Leawood, Kansas

Leading by Example: The Role of Leadership in Firefighter Health

Abstract
In occupations such as the military, police, and fire service, leaders play an important role in
promoting the health and safety of their employees. A growing body of research suggests that
United States (US) fire service personnel face a host of health and safety challenges, including
high rates of obesity, low physical fitness, and binge drinking. In order to address these health
issues effectively, strong fire service leadership is needed on these issues. However, little data
exists on the attitudes and opinions of fire service leaders regarding health and safety. This
study presents data from part of a large, national, qualitative study on the health of firefight-
ers. Themes related to the role of leadership and management as well as effective messages
for motivating firefighters to be healthy were identified. The critical role of leadership (e.g., fire
chiefs, company officers) in modeling and promoting health and safety practices was a preva-
lent theme across fire departments. Participants also noted that framing health and safety
initiatives as important for the sake of your crew rather than for individual gain was an effective
motivational tool for fire service leaders. Findings highlight the importance of engaging leader-
ship in effecting department-level change for firefighter health.

Introduction
There is wide agreement in the United States (US) fire Hauser, Kawachi, Christiani, & Kales, 2008), metabolic
service that fire fighting requires high levels of health syndrome (Baur, Christophi, & Kales, 2012), and binge
and readiness (Donovan et al., 2009; International drinking (Haddock, et al., 2012). For instance, Poston
Association of Fire Fighters [IAFF], 2008). The primary and colleagues (Poston et al, 2011), in a large popula-
labor organization, IAFF, and the management asso- tion-based study conducted with 24 randomly selected
ciation, the International Association of Fire Chiefs fire departments, found that nearly 80% of firefighters
(IAFC), jointly developed standards for fire-department were either overweight or obese, a rate which exceeds
wellness programs that focus on increasing the physi- that found in the general public. Furthermore, a 2007
cal preparedness of firefighters to perform strenuous report by the National Institute of Occupational Safety
activities. The Fire Service Joint Labor Management and Health (NIOSH) found that only 39% of fire depart-
Wellness-Fitness Initiative (IAFF, 2008) documents a ments had a voluntary fitness program, and only 8
consensus among both labor and management that percent of those departments required participation
firefighters need “high levels of aerobic fitness, mus- (CDC/NIOSH, 2007). Research has demonstrated that
cular endurance, muscular strength, muscular power, firefighters from the small number of departments that
flexibility, and body composition in order to perform provide active wellness programs are more healthy and
safely and effectively in the fire service” (p. 25). How- fit than their peers (Poston, Haddock, Jahnke, Jitnarin,
ever, a large and rapidly growing body of research & Day, (2013). Thus, the fire service is in the awkward
documents that most firefighters fall far short of this situation of strongly advocating high levels of fitness
occupational standard of physical preparedness, and and health for its personnel while also supporting a
most fire departments do not require firefighters to culture that has produced low levels of fitness and
demonstrate even minimal levels of fitness or health unfavorable body composition, despite evidence that
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], the wellness program that it advocates is effective.
2007). According to Staley, Weiner, & Linnan (2011),
Recent occupational health research has dem- promoting fitness in the fire service has proven to be
onstrated that a majority of firefighters struggle with a complex and difficult cultural phenomenon. A num-
multiple health issues, such as low physical fitness ber of barriers to firefighter health and wellness are
(Donovan et al., 2009; Poston, Haddock et al., 2011), identified and have been categorized into clusters of
obesity (Haddock, Poston, & Jahnke, 2011; Poston, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organizational factors.
Jitnarin, Haddock, Jahnke, & Tuley, 2011; Poston, Had- Intrapersonal barriers include a lack of interest or moti-
dock et al., 2011; Soteriades et al., 2005; Soteriades, vation for improving personal health, perceiving having
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

received inadequate or incorrect information about ship in improving the health and readiness of firefight-
fitness, or generally lacking knowledge about improv- ers. In addition, we explored effective motivators for
ing health. Interpersonal factors among crewmembers change among fire service personnel.
also have been suggested to play a role, in that crews
tend to have behavioral norms that either encour- Methods
age or discourage healthy behaviors. Organizational
barriers include a lack of departmental resources, the Data for the current study were extracted from focus
challenges of scheduling fitness into the day between groups and interviews conducted as part of a national
emergency calls, and the lack of leadership support. qualitative study of fire service personnel’s perception
However, among the barriers identified, crew and of health and wellness funded by the American Heart
department leadership were posited to play the largest Association (Jahnke, Poston, Jitnarin, & Haddock,
role in whether firefighters value fitness (Staley et al., 2012). The study examined beliefs and perceptions
2011). Specifically, firefighters believe that the personal of personnel with regard to psychological and physi-
fitness and expectations of both the crew captains and cal health. Relevant institutional review boards (IRBs)
the department chiefs underlie whether firefighters will approved protocols.
value health and fitness.
Occupations with fitness demands similar to the fire
Fire Department Solicitation
service, such as the military, have long recognized the Departments were primarily solicited through an article
critical role played by leadership in promoting health in Fire Chief magazine (Pyle, 2008). Using purposive
and readiness. For instance, a central tenet of the US sampling (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2001), addi-
Department of Defense’s Total Force Fitness model is tional departments were sought to ensure a broad
that leadership engagement is among the most crucial cross section with regard to region, size, and type
components in promoting military readiness and health (e.g., career, volunteer, and combination). A total of 34
(Bates, et al., 2010). Similarly, effectively address- departments were represented in the final sample.
ing the health and safety needs of the fire service
will require leaders who are able to navigate cultural
barriers to fitness and incentivize firefighters to value Participants
it. Unfortunately, limited data is available about the As shown in Table 1, participants were primarily Cau-
relationship between leadership and health promotion casian and male, which is consistent with the demo-
among firefighters. In this national qualitative study, we graphics of the fire service nationally (Fox, Hornick, &
examined the perceived role of fire department leader- Hardin, 2006). Personnel were from volunteer, career,

Table 1. Demographic and Occupational Characteristics of Personnel.

Career Volunteer Combination
(N=295) (N=48) (N=80)
Demographic
41.8a 37.1a 38.9a
Age (years)
(10.6)b (14.9)b (12.7)b
Gender (% male) 93.2 79.2 87.5
Race (% Caucasian/White) 64.8 97.9 92.5
Of Hispanic Origin (% yes) 6.5 0.0 3.8
Occupational
15.6a 16.0a 14.3a
Time in the Fire Service (Years)
(9.3)b (11.6)b (11.2)b
Rank/Position in Fire Department
FF/FF paramedic (%) 56.0 64.4 66.3
Company Officer (%) 23.7 13.3 20.1
Chief (%) 15.4 17.8 11.3
Other Personnel (%) 4.7 4.4 2.6
a
Mean
b
Standard Deviation
44
 Volume 8

and combinations departments. Participants included The Role of Leadership

both firefighters and fire service leadership. In general,
the leaders were department chiefs or his/her desig- While policies and procedures (e.g., on-duty time for
nee. working out) and resources directed toward health
and wellness (e.g., medical physicals, equipment)
Focus Group/Interview Protocols were regularly noted as important, one of the primary
themes that emerged as influencing the department-
Focus-group interviews typically occurred at the fire
level culture surrounding health and wellness was
stations with intact firefighter crews. Those in leader-
department leadership. The administration’s stance on
ship roles were typically interviewed individually. Focus
health and fitness and the content of messages to their
groups and interviews started with an introduction of
personnel were identified as having significant impacts
the research team, an explanation of the study, and the
on firefighters. When leadership made health a depart-
signing of IRB-approved consent forms. Questions in
ment priority, personnel were aware that it was a main
the protocols covered a range of topics including the
concern, and they believed it positively influenced the
following: (1) general perceptions of health and well-
culture of wellness in their department. In particular,
ness in the fire service, (2) physical fitness, (3) nutri-
a fire chief who sets an expectation of wellness was
tion and the food culture in the fire service, (4) tobacco
identified as key for setting the tone:
use, (5) alcohol use, (6) sleep challenges, (7) safety
and seatbelt use, and (8) health-related policies and “We’re lucky to have a Fire Chief that makes it
programs for firefighters. Themes that emerged related clear to our fire department that every day is a
to leadership were typically the result of responses to training day, every day is a wellness day. Every
questions such as the following: (1) How important do day we exercise. It’s mandatory and nonpuni-
you believe your department/chief thinks health and tive, so — pretty much [the chief] leads by
wellness are? (2) What programs does your depart- example.” (Deputy Chief, Central Region, Career
Type)
ment use to benefit your health and wellness? (3)
What messages about safety, health, and wellness are In particular, fire service leaders setting an example
strong messages for firefighters? (4) If you could do themselves were noted as sending a strong message
anything to improve the health and wellness of the fire about the relative priority of health. For example:
service, what would you do?
“. . . the Fire Chief and the Deputy Chiefs . . . they
Analytic Approach locker with us. You know what I mean? They . . .
change clothes back there and all that, and they
All focus group and interview recordings were tran- lead by example. Because I mean, . . . they work
scribed verbatim for thematic analysis. For the first out.” (Firefighter, Central Region, Career Type)
step, transcripts were separated by region (east, west,
“If you have a department [in which] . . .
central) and by the interviewee (firefighters, fire service
management does not place an emphasis on
leadership) and analyzed separately. Transcripts were exercise or healthy eating, it doesn’t trickle down.
uploaded to NVivo (NVivo, n.d.), a computer program Whereas, for example here, we place a great deal
designed to assist qualitative data analysis. Next, a of emphasis on [health and exercise] to the point
researcher who served as a facilitator in nearly all where even the people that work in the office
the groups reviewed the full transcripts for emergent a traditional 40-hour week are given the option
themes. General themes were “parent” nodes and of taking an hour of their work day aside from
more specific subthemes within each code were noted lunch to work out. Some of them take advantage
as “child” nodes. Where the role of leadership arose as of it, some of them don’t, but they [firefighters]
a theme, the statements were noted and summarized. [are] always watching you, you know, the guys
Example statements were recorded. Next, two addi- are always watching and I work out 3 to 4 times
a week over here now. I [worked out] . . . offsite
tional researchers who attended most of the sessions
for a while, but now I do it here . . . . The culture
and were familiar with the transcripts reviewed the starts with how management perceives it.”
summary results. Areas of divergence of opinion were (Chief, Central Region, Career Type)
discussed and revised.
The importance of fire chiefs empowering firefight-
Results ers and peer fitness trainers to create programs and
engage in the development of fitness programs also
A number of themes emerged around the importance was highlighted as an important goal for department
and role of leadership in promoting health. Department leadership.
leaders were noted as particularly influential in set-
ting the tone and expectations of health. The impact of “Our firefighters developed this program. Had
policies, procedures and resources allocated toward we tried to force this program on them — this
wellness also influence the perceived culture of depart- very same thing — it would have fallen flat. So,
it’s really not about . . . . fitness as much as it is
ment wellness. Suggestions also were presented for
just about . . . people and the way we interact,
promoting health and wellness within a department.
45
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

the way we guide, the way we lead, . . . [and] “The biggest thing they did is they won’t let
the culture that we foster.” (Chief, West Region, you . . . smoke anymore. We . . . [have to] sign
Career Type) a paper [which says we will not smoke] even
before you are hired.” (Firefighter, East Region,
Personnel also identified the company officers as an Career Type)
important determinant for the priority that health and
wellness plays in the firehouse. Often these individuals
were noted as setting the schedule and determining How Leaders Can Promote Wellness
what tasks take precedence each shift. Outside of the traditional change agents, several
“I think the first line officer, whether it . . . [is] a key motivators were identified among participants as
lieutenant or a captain . . . is . . . going to [have] encouraging a movement toward better health among
the biggest impact on their crew members as firefighters. One theme that commonly emerged was
far as health and wellness goes.” (Chief, West the benefit of emphasizing not only personal respon-
Region, Volunteer Type) sibility for health but also the shared responsibility
among the crew. In particular, understanding the
“I think that the biggest impact on any firefighter shared risk factors that firefighters face as a crew was
. . . when it comes to health and wellness and noted.
cardiac disease is going to be their company
officer. [A] tight bond [exists between the two].” “The job is . . . to serve and . . . [we are] here to
(Chief, West Region, Volunteer Type) help the community. [We] are not here to serve
ourselves. [The job is] not self-serving.” (Chief,
West Region, Career Type)
In particular, company officers engaging in fitness and
training their personnel were perceived as bolstering
camaraderie and crew cohesiveness: The camaraderie and competition between and
among firefighters also was noted as a relevant moti-
“For me, when I was new [to the fire depart- vating component.
ment] . . . knowing that . . . my officers were
willing to take the time . . . to work out or to lift “We [senior firefighters] ‘poke’ them [younger
[was important to me]. And even though . . . I firefighters] . . . all the time. We’ll be in a fire
[knew I] wasn’t as strong as they were, [we all and I see a . . . [younger firefighter] dragging
did] it together. OK, we’re going to go run. Or and I’ll say, ‘I’m 48 years old son, what are you
we’re going to . . . go in the weight room and doing?’ They hate that.” (Chief, Central Region,
everybody’s . . . [going] to lift. And then, they’d Career Type)
show me how to hold [the weight] . . . , and stuff
like that. And so, I felt a part of it, just like you “[Firefighters] . . . are competitively natured. So,
do the Chow Club.” (Firefighter, Central Region, if they see that they are starting to get a little
Career Type) paunchy and they are falling behind, . . . the
other guys are merciless. It’s kind of an in-house
peer attack if you start [letting your fitness] slip.
Policies, Procedures, and Resources So, I think that’s a big motivator for a lot of . . .
When asked about the relative priority of health in [the firefighters]. They don’t want to fall behind.
the department, many personnel indicated that the They don’t want to be called ‘fat’ . . . and they
resources allocated to health and wellness were strong don’t want to be the butt of the jokes.” (Chief,
Central Region, Career Type)
indicators of the emphasis the leadership assigned
to the topic. Often, the amount of money dedicated to
medical physicals or physical fitness equipment was Discussion
noted as a measure of the relative importance of health In general, fire service personnel were optimistic about
to chiefs. In particular, when time while on duty was the direction the fire service is going with regard to
designated for physical training, it was perceived that health and wellness and reported perceiving a positive
fitness was important to the leadership. In addition, cultural change toward a healthier and fitter fire service
policies that make safety a priority were seen as being in recent years. A number of factors were identified as
positive indications of the administrative direction. contributing to perceptions that a department makes
health and wellness a priority. In particular, department
“. . . we are very fortunate in this department to
have a chief staff that truly cares about the fire- policies that allowed for and encouraged fitness and
fighters and their safety and well-being . . . . health (e.g., policies allowing time for working out while
[W]hen we’re out on the streets doing the job, on duty) were noted as promoting a healthy culture.
they make it as safe as possible for us.” Allocation of resources for both medical exams and
(Firefighter, West Region, Career Type) training equipment also were noted as contributing
to a wellness culture. Leadership was identified as a
key contributor to the perceived importance of health

46
 Volume 8

and wellness within a department. In particular, having Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Institute of
chiefs who themselves prioritized health, engaged in Occupational Safety and Health (CDC/NIOSH). (2007). NIOSH Alert
— Preventing fire fighter fatalities due to heart attacks and other
fitness, and watched their diets were perceived as set- sudden cardiovascular Events (NIOSH Publication No. 2007-133).
ting the standard for their firefighters. Cincinnati, OH. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2007-
Our findings are similar to previous research that 133/pdfs/2007-133.pdf
highlight the importance of leader buy-in for imple- Donovan, R., Nelson, T., Peel, J., Lipsey, T., Voyles, W., & Israel, R.
menting health and fitness programs (Frattaroli et al., G. (2009). Cardiorespiratory fitness and the metabolic syndrome in
firefighters. Occupational Medicine, 59(7), 487–492. doi:10.1093/
2013; Kuehl, H., Mabry, Elliot, Kuehl, & Favorite, 2013; occmed/kqp095
Mabry, Elliot, Mackinnon, Thoemmes, & Kuehl, 2013).
In addition to the role of leaders such as chiefs, com- Fox, K., Hornick, C., & Hardin, E. (2006). International Association of
Firefighters diversity initiative: Achieving and retaining a diverse fire
pany officers also were perceived as key culture set- service workforce. Washington, DC: International Association of Fire
ters because they often have control over the schedule Fighters (IAFF).
and priorities of the day. Having a company officer
Frattaroli, S., Pollack, K. M., Bailey, M., Schafer, H., Cheskin,
invested in the health of his/her crew was perceived L. J., & Holtgrave, D. R. (2013). Working inside the firehouse
as a key determinant of the priority that was placed on developing a participant-driven intervention to enhance health-
health. Findings highlight the importance of engaging promoting behaviors. Health Promotion Practice, 14(3), 451–458.
doi:10.1177/1524839912461150
leadership and both chiefs and company officers lead-
ing by example when it comes to health and wellness. Haddock, C. K., Jahnke, S. A., Poston, W. S. C., Jitnarin, N., Kaipust, C.
M., Tuley, B., & Hyder, M. L. (2012). Alcohol use among firefighters
In particular, the importance of leaders engaging in the in the Central United States. Occupational Medicine (Oxford,
health behaviors they are advocating were highlighted England), 62(8), 661–664. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqs162.
as important.
Haddock, C., Poston, W. S. C., & Jahnke, S. A. (2011). Addressing the
In addition to the department level and leadership epidemic of obesity in the United States fire service. Greenbelt,
factors, camaraderie and shared risk were key themes MD: National Volunteer Fire Council. Retrieved from http://tkolb.net/
that emerged related to effective messages for moti- tra_sch/FireTruckCrashes/2012/FF_ObesityStudy.pdf
vating firefighters. A number of personnel indicated International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF). (2008). The fire
that, while they were reticent to make changes for service joint labor management wellness-fitness initiative (3rd ed.).
themselves, they would make changes to improve the Washington, DC: IAFF.
safety and effectiveness of the crew. They also noted Jahnke, S. A., Poston, W. S. C., Jitnarin, N., & Haddock, C. K. (2012).
that they were more likely to engage in healthy behav- Health concerns of the U.S. fire service: Perspectives from the
firehouse. American Journal of Health Promotion (AJHP), 27(2),
iors when their crew was working on being healthy 111–118. doi:10.4278/ajhp.110311-QUAL-109
and that positive peer pressure focused on improving
wellness was a powerful motivator to change. Findings Kuehl, H., Mabry, L., Elliot, D. L., Kuehl, K. S., & Favorite, K. C. (2013).
Factors in adoption of a fire department wellness program: Champ-
have direct implications for social marketing campaigns and-chief model. Journal of Occupational and Environmental
for those trying to motivate firefighters as well as for Medicine/American College of Occupational and Environmental
programs focused on health and wellness. It is likely Medicine, 55(4), 424–429. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e31827dba3f
that even those more reticent to change will find more Mabry, L., Elliot, D. L., Mackinnon, D. P., Thoemmes, F., & Kuehl, K. S.
success when choices to engage in healthy behaviors (2013). Understanding the durability of a fire department wellness
are collaborative rather than individualistic. program. American Journal of Health Behavior, 37(5), 693–702.
doi:10.5993/AJHB.37.5.13
The primary limitation of the study is the potential
selection bias. Departments were primarily selected NVivo [Computer Program]. Cambridge, MA: QSR International.
based on their responding to a solicitation article in Poston, W. S. C., Haddock, C. K., Jahnke, S. A., Jitnarin, N., Tuley, B.
Fire Chief magazine (Pyle, 2008). Departments with C., & Kales, S. N. (2011). The prevalence of overweight, obesity, and
personnel volunteering for study participation are likely substandard fitness in a population-based firefighter cohort. Journal
of Occupational and Environmental Medicine/American College
those with more of an emphasis to and attention on of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(3), 266–273.
health and wellness. However, the large number of doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e31820af362
personnel participating and the high rate of firefight-
Poston, W. S. C., Haddock, C. K., Jahnke, S. A., Jitnarin, N., & Day,
ers consenting to participate when solicited suggest R. S. (2013). An examination of the benefits of health promotion
findings likely are not biased. Despite this limitation, programs for the national fire service. BMC Public Health, 13(1),
the findings paint a compelling picture about the role 805. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-805.
fire-service leaders play in health and wellness. Poston, W. S. C., Jitnarin, N., Haddock, C. K., Jahnke, S. A., & Tuley,
B. C. (2011). Obesity and injury-related absenteeism in a population-
References based firefighter cohort. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 19(10),
2076–2081. doi:10.1038/oby.2011.147
Bates, M. J., Bowles, S., Hammermeister, J., Stokes, C., Pinder, E.,
Moore, M., . . . Burbelo, G. (2010). Psychological fitness. Military Pyle, S. (2008, February 11). Departments Needed for Research
Medicine, 175(8S), 21–38. Project. Fire Chief. Retrieved from http://firechief.com/leadership/
management-administration/Departments_needed_0211
Baur, D. M., Christophi, C. A., & Kales, S. N. (2012). Metabolic
syndrome is inversely related to cardiorespiratory fitness in male Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Experimental and
career firefighters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference (2nd
/National Strength & Conditioning Association, 26(9), 2331–2337. ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31823e9b19
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Soteriades, E. S., Hauser, R., Kawachi, I., Christiani, D. C., & Kales, Dr. Christopher K. Haddock is the Director and
S. N. (2008). Obesity and risk of job disability in male firefighters. Principal Investigator with the Institute for Biobe-
Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England), 58(4), 245–250.
doi:10.1093/occmed/kqm153 havioral Health Research at the National Develop-
ment & Research Institutes. He is an accredited
Soteriades, E. S., Hauser, R., Kawachi, I., Liarokapis, D., Christiani, D.
C., & Kales, S. N. (2005). Obesity and cardiovascular disease risk statistician from the American Statistical Associa-
factors in firefighters: A prospective cohort study. Obesity Research, tion. He has more than 150 peer-reviewed journal
13(10), 1756–1763. doi:10.1038/oby.2005.214 articles and book chapters to his credit on topics
Staley, J. A., Weiner, B., & Linnan, L. (2011). Firefighter fitness, such as tobacco control, the intervention and pre-
coronary heart disease, and sudden cardiac death risk. American vention of obesity, statistical methodology, and mil-
Journal of Health Behavior, 35(5), 603–617. itary health. He is a Fellow of the Obesity Society:
The North American Association for the Study of
About the Authors Obesity.

Dr. Sara A. Jahnke is the Director and Principal Dr. Walker S. C. Poston is the Deputy Director
Investigator with the Center for Fire, Rescue, & and Senior Principal Investigator with the Institute
EMS Health research at the National Development for Biobehavioral Health Research at the National
& Research Institutes. She has served as the prin- Development & Research Institutes. He has pub-
cipal investigator on four large-scale fire service lished nearly 200 peer-reviewed scientific journal
studies. She is an active member of the Safety, articles and book chapters primarily in the areas of
Health, and Survival Section of the International cardiovascular health including obesity epidemiol-
Association of Fire Chiefs and serves as scien- ogy and treatment, tobacco control, military health
tific consultant to several fire service organizations issues, and minority health. He is a Fellow of the
such as the National Fallen Firefighters Founda- American College of Epidemiology, the American
tion, the National Volunteer Fire Council, and The Heart Association’s Council on Epidemiology and
First Twenty. Dr. Jahnke is the corresponding author Prevention, and the Obesity Society: The North
and can be contacted at [email protected] American Association for the Study of Obesity.

48
 Volume 8

Dr. Robert E. England, Editor, International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management, Fire Protec-
tion Publications, Oklahoma State University
Dr. Anthony Brown, Department of Political Science, Oklahoma State University

Fiscal Stress and Cutback Management Among United States Fire Departments 1
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the Great Recession and its aftermath on
United States (US) fire departments. Findings using (1) Levine (1978) and Levine, Rubin, and
Wolohojian’s (1981) seminal research on cutback management as a theoretical foundation, (2)
survey data from over 1,600 US fire departments provided by the International Association of
Fire Fighters (IAFF), and (3) qualitative accounts of reactions to stress from fire-related websites
and newspapers suggest that the recent economic downturn has been hard on fire depart-
ments across the nation. Three out of ten (30.5%) of the union locals reported losing positions
through attrition. Moreover, when layoffs through attrition are not enough, dozens of fire depart-
ments across the states have experienced company closures, station closures, and brown-outs
(temporary closures). Research reported here is unique since it focuses on the impact of fiscal
stress on a specific municipal agency/function (fire departments) rather than examining fiscal
stress broadly across cities or states.

Introduction
From Glendale, AZ, to Tulsa, OK; from Philadel- ines the impact of the recession on local governments.
phia to Atlanta to Los Angeles, the news is the He notes:
same — budgets are in crisis and firefighters
must be laid off. The depth of the financial crisis Sixty-six percent of managers believe that the
is deep and emergency workers who haven’t measures they have taken to mitigate the fiscal
been handed a pink slip or heard the saber rat- crisis — including increased use of fee-sup-
tling of layoffs are lucky. (Ballam, 2010, p. 1) ported services and contracting out, reshaped
employee benefits and pension systems, limited
As the above quote suggests, many US fire depart- pay increases, tightened financial management
ments, like other municipal agencies, are experiencing procedures, and reinvigorated economic devel-
significant cutbacks during and after the Great Reces- opment efforts — represent a new way of doing
sion.2 Although organizational decline and cutback business. (p. 33)
management are not new concepts and have been
the focus of numerous studies since the late 1970s Using the same 2009 ICMA dataset, Thoreson and
(see, for example, Levine, 1978, 1979; Levine, Rubin, Svara (2011) report the distribution of responses to a
& Wolohojian, 1981; Behn, 1980a, 1980b, 1985; West survey question that asked mangers about the effects
& Davis, 1988; Pammer, 1990; Bartle, 1996; Maher & the economic downturn was having on their communi-
Deller, 2007; Dougherty & Klase, 2009; Pandey, 2010; ties. With 2,116 cities and counties reporting, findings
and Arnett, 2012), it is the breadth and depth brought were as follows:
by the Great Recession and its aftermath that concern • No impact — 0.5% (n = 10),
some analysts. For example, Scorsone and Plerhoples
(2010) assert • Minimal impact — 17.5% (n = 370),

cutback management has perhaps entered a • Moderate impact — 44.5% (n = 941),

new and even more extreme phase among state • Significant impact — 30.8% (n = 651), and
and local governments. Government officials are
being forced to adapt to an environment where • Severe impact — 6.8% (n = 144). (p. 76)
service demands are rising even as both short- The data show that few governments have escaped the
and long-term prospects for revenue are among consequences of fiscal stress and that almost 40 per-
the bleakest in modern history. (p. 177) cent of the local governments experienced significant
Other studies support this thesis. or severe impacts. In cities with populations in excess
Based on 2009 survey data from over 2,000 cities of 100,000, more than 60% percent of the jurisdictions
and counties collected by the International City/County experienced major budget problems. Based on data
Management Association (ICMA), Miller (2010) exam- findings, Thoreson and Svara (2011) conclude: “The
[fiscal] crisis has prompted deep reflection on what the

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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

role of local government will be in the future. It has not Pelissero, & Morgan, 2012). In addition,
[emphasis added] been a temporary downturn followed the American fire service is large, with
by a return to pervious conditions.” (p. 82) over 1.1 million firefighters (about 756,000
Martin, Levey, and Cawley (2012) concur;3 they volunteers and 344,000 career employees).
assert that the Great Recession created a new normal
2. As first responders, fire personnel provide
for local governments with respect to finances (fewer
life-saving emergency services (e.g.,
resources), employment (smaller workforces), and ser-
ambulance, fire suppression, and hazardous
vices (new ways of delivering services) (p. 17S). “When
materials clean up) as well as a host of
one considers the evidence, it is hard to imagine that
other education and community services.
local governments can return to anything approximat-
ing what existed ex ante the great recession” (p. 25S). 3. Public opinion polls show that the fire service
Ammons, Smith, and Stenberg (2012) offer a rebut- commands high respect. For example, a
tal to this argument. The authors studied records and Harris Poll in 2009 ranked firefighter as the
interviewed local officials in cities or counties that (1) most prestigious among the 23 occupations
filed for bankruptcy protection, (2) had their general listed in the survey (see Corso, 2009).
obligation bonds downgraded to junk-bond status, or
— Sixty-two percent of the respondents
(3) had to accept the appointment of a Fiscal Control
said that fire fighting had very great pres-
Board (FCB) to oversee local affairs during the years
tige. In comparison, other occupations
1971–2005. Based on the evidence from previous
that received ratings: scientist (57%),
recessions, Ammons, Smith, and Stenberg (2012) con-
doctor (56%), nurse (54%), teacher
clude that
(51%), police officer (44%), priest/minis-
severe economic hardship has rarely been a ter/clergy (41%), and engineer (39%).
“game-changer” [for local governments]. Condi-
tions triggered . . . by the Great Recession . . . — Similar high regards for the fire service
are unlikely to change fundamentally the scope, emerged from a meta-analysis of 261
quality, or delivery of services in most counties citizen surveys administered to more
and cities or to reshape the local jurisdictional than 215,000 people living in cities,
or intergovernmental landscape, despite predic- towns, and counties in 40 different
tions to the contrary. (p. 72S) states. Among 21 local services rated
in at least 60 or more jurisdictions, fire
Regardless of the debate about the transformational
services received the highest average
nature of financial hardships that local governments
citizen evaluations (Miller & Miller, 1991).
have experienced the past few years, one fact remains
— the most recent recession represents the most sig- Finally, survey data collected by West and Davis
nificant economic downturn in the US since the Great (1988) from 357 municipalities show that public safety
Depression. While several recent studies have exam- programs (police, fire suppression, and fire prevention)
ined how local governments (Miller, 2010; Thoreson & are the least “vulnerable to financial pruning efforts by
Svara, 2011; Pagano, Hoene, & McFarland, 2012) and local officials” (p. 214) during cutbacks.
state governments (Dougherty & Klase, 2009; Arnett, The remainder of this article is divided into three
2012) have responded to fiscal stress during this time sections. The first section provides an overview of
period, cutback management research has not sys- the literature on fiscal stress and cutback manage-
tematically examined the impact of the current financial ment. Section two summarizes findings about how fire
downturn on a specific municipal government depart- departments have responded to fiscal austerity during
ment (but see Packard, Patti, Daly, Tucker-Tatlow, & the Great Recession. Finally, we discuss the implica-
Farrell, 2008, for a study of cutback management strat- tions of the research.
egies used in nine county human service agencies).
The purpose of this study is to summarize Fiscal Stress and Cutback Management
responses to fiscal stress among US fire departments
during the Great Recession. Fire departments serve as As noted previously, the academic study of cutback
the unit of analysis for three reasons. Fire and rescue management dates back to the late 1970s. The very
services are (1) expensive, (2) essential and important, fact that federal, state, or local governments would
and (3) highly regarded by the public and city leaders: shrink or engage in decremental budgeting (Behn,
1985) seemed counterintuitive after more than four
1. Fire and rescue services are both capital and decades of government growth under Keynesian
labor intensive. As such, they are expensive. economics. The budgeting environment did change,
As a percentage of general expenditures, however. For example, after years of financial woes,
public safety (largely police and fire) represents in 1975 the City of New York “was bankrupt in all but
the largest outlay for American towns and a legal sense” (Brecher & Horton, 1985, p. 267). The
cities (21.5% in 2006–2007; see England, recession of 1973–1975 brought with it stagflation

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(stagnant economic growth, high unemployment, and For each decline situation, Levine (1978) offers a
high inflation). In 1978, citizens in California approved number of strategies officials can use to resist and
Proposition 13 (People’s Initiative to Limit Property smooth cutbacks. For example, for environmental
Taxation), followed in 1980 by Proposition 2½ in Mas- entropy, the author suggests the adoption of user
sachusetts. These initiatives ushered in a full-blown charges for services as a resisting strategy and identi-
taxpayers’ revolt. fies improving targeting on problems as a smoothing
It is against this backdrop that Charles Levine called strategy (p. 321).
for and led the study of cutback management, which Building upon his earlier theoretical work and now
he defined as “managing organizational change toward working with Irene Rubin and George Wolohojian,
lower levels of resource consumption and organiza- Levine released The Politics of Entrenchment: How
tional activity” (Levine, 1979, p. 180). He also noted Local Governments Manage Fiscal Stress in 1981.
that cutting back involved making hard decisions In this classic study of cutback management, Levine,
about who would be let go, what programs would be Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981) went to the field to study
scaled back or terminated, and which clients would be how four large urban areas reacted when confronted
asked to make sacrifices in services (Levine, 1979). As with the need to retrench. Examining the cities of
the title of an article written by Olson, Seymour, and Oakland, CA, Cincinnati, OH, and Baltimore, MD, plus
Weaver (2004) asserts, “Downsizing is rough” (p. 10); Prince George’s County, MD, they learned that each
real people lose real jobs. of these administrative units initially tried to improve
In his seminal article on cutback management, efficiency, delay certain expenditures, and reduce
Levine (1978) offers a four-cell typology showing the services. The authors labeled these strategies stretch-
causes of public organization decline (p. 318). Two ing and resisting. The purpose of these strategies was
dimensions define the causes: (1) whether the condi- “to do more with less and to avoid deep cuts that . . .
tions causing the decline are internal or external to the [were] likely to trigger the antagonism of interest groups
organization and (2) whether the causes are a product inside and outside the bureaucracy” (Levine, Rubin, &
of political or economic/technical conditions. Wolohojian, 1981, p. 38). Administrative responses in
The 2×2 matrix yields the following four decline the stretching and resisting category included produc-
situations: tivity increases, management improvements, rationing
services, cutbacks in the workforce through attrition,
1. Political Vulnerability (Internal Location and
sharing agreements with other jurisdictions, raising rev-
Political Condition) — The organization is
enue (e.g., increasing taxes and user fees), and regen-
marked by high fragility and precariousness,
erating the tax base (e.g., renewed focus on economic
which limits its ability to resist budget
development) (Levine, Rubin, & Wolohojian, 1981).
decrements. Lack of (1) expertise, (2) a
The researchers found that local officials terminated
positive self-image, and/or (3) a history
few programs, at least at the outset. In addition, all
of excellence enhance vulnerability.
the localities tried to persuade the state and county
2. Problem Depletion (External Location and governments to assume certain service obligations,
Economic/Technical Condition) — The with some success. Where that strategy failed, the
short-term (e.g., natural disaster), medium- overwhelming choice of decision makers was to lower
length (e.g., war; countercyclical employment service levels across the board, maintaining the exist-
program), or long-term (e.g., polio research ing service mix and site distribution. Yet postponing
and treatment; space program) problem/ expenditures has a differential effect; most delays were
issue that the organization was created in capital spending and maintenance and thus predom-
to address is solved or abandoned. inately affected public works departments.
As might be expected, the deeper the decline and
3. Organizational Atrophy (Internal Location
the longer it lasted, the more likely local officials were
and Economic/Technical Condition) —
to target cuts (versus across-the-board cuts), close
Declining organizational performance and
facilities, terminate programs, and lay off employees
capacity occurs due to system and management
(beyond attrition). Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian
failures. Causes include, but are not limited
(1981) call this stage of cutback management cutting
to, inconsistent and perverse incentives,
and smoothing and characterize it as “severe decline”
role confusion, weak oversight, continuous
versus the more “moderate decline” in the stretching-
reorganization, and/or suspicion of outsiders.
and-resisting phase of cutback management (pp.
4. Environmental Entropy (External Location 45–46). Another administrative response in this
and Economic/Technical Condition) — category includes local officials mandating productivity
The capacity of the environment is unable changes that may provoke antagonism and resistance
to support the organization at prevailing among employees. Examples include reducing the
levels. Declining economic bases result number of police officers in squad cars or firefighters
in financially troubled government on trucks. Smoothing is the administrative reaction to
jurisdictions and decremented budgeting. cutting — an attempt to ameliorate the most negative
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

consequences of reductions in the hope of producing this article is that if a fire department experiences
the least disruption to programs and personnel. organizational decline, the most appropriate cause
Officials try to dampen the antagonism and weaken the for the fiscal stress is environmental entropy — the
resistance of internal and external groups adversely environment is unable to support the organization
affected by the changes. at prevailing levels (see Levine, 1978). The literature
The authors note several other tendencies in the offers no evidence that fire departments generally
four communities. Almost every place found some sub- suffer from any of the other three causes of
stitutes for local revenue, primarily from state and fed- organizational decline discussed by Levine (1978): (1)
eral sources. Even where formal authority was already political vulnerability (lack of a history of excellence,
strong and centralized, there was an additional effort to expertise, or positive self-image); (2) problem
centralize authority, especially in the area of budgetary depletion (the problem/issue the organization was
control. Somewhat surprisingly, neither external groups created to address is solved); or (3) organizational
nor city employees were very effective in slowing down atrophy (declining performance because of system or
or deflecting proposed reductions in expenditures. management failures). Findings are summarized using
They conclude that those cities with more centralized the cutback strategies identified by Levine, Rubin,
control and less political decision-making controls are and Wolohojian (1981) as organizational benchmarks
likely to be more effective in managing the retrench- indicating severity of decline, with stretching and
ment process. In particular, the authors conclude that resisting cutback strategies being less severe than
council-manager communities often handle cutbacks cutting and smoothing strategies.
better than can cities with other forms of government.
Findings from the four case-study analysis led Findings
Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981) to conclude that
Firefighters are the rock stars of municipal employ-
a clear relationship [exists] between revenue lev- ees; they are highly regarded generally by the public
els and the choice of retrenchment strategy. . . . (Corso, 2009) and receive stellar evaluations by the
[T]he deeper the decline and the longer it lasts, citizens they serve (Miller & Miller, 1991). In turn, the
the more likely that cuts will be targeted, that belief among firefighters that the work they do is valued
programs will be terminated, and that personnel and supported by community members is important to
will be reduced by layoff than by attrition. (p. 194) their willingness to put in extra effort (Lee & Olshfski,
In other words, the more sever the decline, the more 2002). Using survey data, Lee and Olshfski (2002) iso-
likely local governments engaged in cutting and lated the source of firefighters’ commitment as public
smoothing strategies. The research did not show, servants: “It was their job. Firefighters were committed
however, that responses to fiscal stress followed a to their job and to the role in the community the job
linear or fixed sequence of stages. Only in Oakland did imposed on them” (p. 112). Walters (2011) explicates
declines in revenues result in a sequential pattern of further the special place of firefighters in the city.
stretching and resisting strategies followed by cutting As a matter of political gospel — and survival —
and smoothing strategies. In Cincinnati, cutting and firefighters are sacrosanct. No matter the depths
smoothing came first and was followed by stretching of a municipality’s budget crisis, neither the fire-
and resisting. In Baltimore, officials employed different fighters’ ranks, pay, nor benefits are touchable.
retrenchment strategies at the same time. There are no reductions in force for firefighters.
A case study by Dougherty and Klase (2009) of Yet, in cities all across the country, that is exactly
eight Mid-Atlantic states’ responses to fiscal stress in what has been happening. The men and women
the early 2000s found strong support for the admin- . . . are becoming as vulnerable to budget cuts
istrative response model advanced by Levine, Rubin, as other municipal employees. (p. 1)
and Wolohojian (1981). Unlike Levine, Rubin, and
Wolohojian (1981), however, Dougherty and Klase In order to gauge the breadth and depth of the budget
(2009) found that the “stages of fiscal stress for states cuts on the American fire service, in April, 2009, the
are [emphasis added] fixed in their sequence” (p. 616); International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) sent
as severity increases, state-administrator responses an electronic survey entitled Economic Crisis: Staffing
move from stretching and resisting to cutting and Survey to their 3,000-plus affiliates in the US and Can-
smoothing. ada. The survey asked respondents to use the date
The findings section that follows uses qualitative September 1, 2008, as the point of reference when
(primarily journalistic) evidence as well as quantitative reporting staffing changes. Union staff sent the survey
evidence to assess the response of American fire to members again in January, 2011, and updated their
departments to the Great Recession and its lingering database. In total, of all the US union locals contacted,
effects. Based on the seminal cutback management 1,610 responded to the survey by January 11, 2011
research by Levine (1978) and Levine, Rubin, (52% response rate). These data provide to date the
and Woholojian (1981), the argument advanced in most comprehensive, systematic overview of the
impact of the recession on the American fire service.

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Table 1 summarizes aggregate cuts across all US all reported cutback actions reported in Table 1, cuts
departments. Following the lead of Levine, Rubin, and through attrition was the most frequently used strategy
Wolohojian (1981), the table shows cutbacks based among the affiliates. Furloughs allowed departments
on severity — with stretching and resisting strategies to save positions. In Baltimore, for example, city
being less severe and cutting and smoothing strategies leaders gave firefighters the option of taking five to
more severe. eight furlough days instead of the potential loss of
100 firefighters (Walters, 2011). In 2010, hundreds
Stretching and Resisting Strategies of Phoenix (AZ) firefighters saved three engine
Table 1 shows two strategies used by fire departments companies and 40 jobs by voting unanimously to take
to resist further fiscal stress and stretch their a 2% cut in pay and four furlough days over the next
resources: furloughs and downsizing through attrition. two years (Holland, 2010). Instead of using furloughs
About 40 fire departments (2.5%) used furloughs, and as a resisting strategy, firefighters in Orlando (FL)
almost one-third (30.5%, n = 492) of the departments agreed to forgo raises and made concessions in
experienced positions lost through attrition. In fact, for educational expenses and uniform allowances to

Table 1: Economic Crisis: Staffing Survey Report (US) (1,610 US union locals responded nationwide).
Percentage of
Stretching and Resisting Strategies
Respondents
Furloughs (S&R-1)
Locals with proposed employee furloughs 8.32
Locals with implemented employee furloughs 2.48
Locals with no employee furloughs implemented or proposed 89.19
Positions Lost Through Attrition (S&R-2)
Locals with positions lost through attrition 30.50
Locals with no employee positions lost through attrition 69.50
Percentage of
Cutting and Smoothing Strategies
Respondents
Layoffs (C&S-1)
Locals with proposed layoffs 20.31
Locals with implemented layoffs 4.04
Locals with no layoffs or proposed layoffs 75.65
Company Closures (C&S-2)
Locals with proposed company closures 10.62
Locals with implemented company closures 4.41
Locals with no company closures implemented or proposed 84.97
Station Closures (C&S-3)
Locals with proposed station closures 9.32
Locals with implemented station closures 2.80
Locals with no station closures implemented or proposed 87.89
Brown-outs (C&S-4)
Locals with proposed company/station brown-outs 5.65
Locals with implemented company/station closures per day/shift 6.71
Locals with no company/station brown-outs implemented or proposed 87.64
Source: Economic Crisis: Staffing Survey, International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF), April 2009 and January 20114
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

save the jobs of 46 colleagues. The department had history of the program going to Detroit, MI.
previously lost 26 positions through attrition (Ballam, The announcement of the $22 million grant
2010). to Detroit came two days after the mayor
To avoid layoffs, local officials have saved fire-and- threatened the proposed termination of 164
rescue positions through retirements and voluntary firefighters due to budget cuts. City officials
resignations during the past few years. According to can use SAFER grants, first enacted in 2009,
Lori Moore-Merrell, an IAFF Assistant to the General to rehire previously laid-off firefighters. The
President, “It’s really overwhelming, . . . . Cities big and grants do not require matching local money and
small are offering early-retirement and early-out pro- represent, in essence, short-term monies to help
grams, leaving vacancies unfilled.” (Moore-Merrell as municipalities weather the economic downturn.
quoted in Ballam, 2010, p. 1). In the city of Covington
3. Fire-department consolidation is an example
(population 40,600), the fifth largest city in Kentucky
of resisting stress, stretching resources, and
(KY), the city commissioners voted to cut fire positions
enhancing productivity. On January 1, 2010, three
through attrition. Public safety represents two-thirds
municipalities in San Diego (CA) County — El
of the city budget, with the police and fire department
Cajon (population 100,000); La Mesa (population
each receiving a one-third share. To trim the budget,
58,000); and Lemon Grove (population 25,000)
the fire chief proposed not filling five positions and
— entered into a joint exercise-of-powers
cutting overtime to save $600,000 (Fox19.com, 2012).
agreement for the management and delivery of
Every state in the union has lost positions due to
fire and emergency medical services (Strong
retirements and resignations except Delaware, Hawaii,
Cities/Strong State, 2012). A shared management
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming.5 Twenty-
team known as Heartland Fire and Rescue
one states show that 30% or more of the affiliates have
leads the reorganized (and consolidated) fire
experienced layoffs through attrition. Eight states show
service. Officials expect the consolidation to
that 40 to 50% of the responding union locals reported
save the cities more than $500,000 a year.
attrition layoffs: Massachusetts (50%), Alaska (50%),
California (49%), Rhode Island (46%), Kansas (46%), Cutting and Smoothing Strategies
Virginia (43%), Michigan (41%), and New Jersey (40%).
Previous research by Levine (1978) and Levine, According to Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981), as
Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981) identified a number of fiscal stress intensifies, city leaders balance budgets
other stretching and resisting strategies that govern- using cutting and smoothing strategies. In the case of
ments can use to mitigate the impact of fiscal stress the fire service, this means layoffs, company closures,
such as mobilizing dependent clients; educating the station closures, and brown-outs (temporary closures).
public about the agency’s mission; increasing produc- Before examining IAFF data about the use of these
tivity; sharing agreements with other jurisdictions; and strategies, some clarification of terms might be useful:
raising revenue through taxes, fees, and grants. Data 1. With respect to a fire company, National Fire
collected by the IAFF do not include systematic evi- Protection Association® (NFPA®) Standard 1710,
dence about the use of these types of cutback strate- Standard for the Organization and Deployment
gies, but a large body of anecdotal and journalistic of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency
evidence does exist. The following three examples are Medical Operations, and Special Operations
illustrative of this literature: to the Public by Career Fire Departments,
1. In terms of resisting cutbacks and educating recommends that a fire company be staffed with
the public, the fire chief in Moline, IL, tendered four firefighters, including a company officer,
his resignation after the city council voted to and that the company officer must remain
eliminate 12 firefighter/paramedic positions as part of the company; he or she can’t stay
and privatize the emergency medical services outside the building as Command. The standard
for the community. The chief argued, “Their further outlines that one firefighter will staff
[the city council] number one priority should the pump, one firefighter will secure the water
be the safety of their citizens. They care more supply, and two firefighters will advance the
about worrying about brick streets and leaf hoseline (Kirby and Lakamp, 2012, p. 1). The
blowing” (Firehouse.com News, 2011, p. 1). loss of a fire company is a significant cutback.
2. In June of 2012, the IAFF (2012) announced that 2. A brown-out occurs when officials take an engine
28 US cities had secured federal largess through or ladder company out of service temporarily
Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency and the company members are reassigned
Response (SAFER) grants administered to fill in personnel gaps in other companies
by the Federal Emergency Management (see McDonald, 2011). In 2011, for example,
Agency (FEMA). In total, FEMA awarded 69 Fire Chief Willie McDonald proposed a flexible
million dollars, with the largest grant in the brown-out plan to the mayor and city council

54
 Volume 8

of San Jose, CA, with savings equalling over hood over the years and were concerned that “Engine
$3.5 million dollars (McDonald, 2011). Under 33 won’t effectively replace the [ladder] truck” (Camp-
the plan, the seven fire stations in San Jose bell, 2012, p. 2).
with two companies would no longer have both Cutting and smoothing strategies disaggregated to
companies staffed, in-service, and ready to the state level show the following information:
respond to emergencies at all times. Two fire
• Union locals in Georgia (29%), Alabama (15%),
companies would be subject to a brown-out
Rhode Island (13%), Louisiana (10%), and Mon-
each day based upon available on-duty staffing
tana (10%) experienced double-digit layoffs.
across the seven stations. Firefighters from the
two brown-out companies will be reassigned by • Affiliates in 11 states experienced double-digit
senior officers to fill in for absent personnel or to brown-outs, including Iowa (31%), Alaska (25%),
perform other departmental duties and activities. Wyoming (25%), Massachusetts (16%), Kansas
In addition to the money saved, the brown-out (15%), New Hampshire (15%), New York (13%),
plan allows all seven fire stations to remain open. Alabama (10%), Louisiana (10%), Montana (10%),
and West Virginia (10%).
3. For purposes of this article, a brown-out
is considered a smoothing strategy. As • Fire Departments in Arkansas (17%), Louisiana
defined by Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian (15%), Georgia (14%), Massachusetts (11%),
(1981), smoothing is an administrative Florida (10%), and Montana (10%) report double-
reaction to cutting. City leaders attempt to digit station closures.
improve the most negative consequences
• Only one state reported that more than 10% of
of reductions in the hope of producing the
the union locals had station closings: Georgia
least disruption to programs and personnel
(14%). South Carolina (9%), Indiana (9%), Mas-
(pp. 45–46). Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian
sachusetts (8%), and Utah (8%) approached the
(1981), in fact, suggest that management
double-digit benchmark.
“may attempt to regain greater control over
manning levels, promotions, hours, and shift
assignments” as a smoothing strategy (p. 46). Discussion
Turning to the IAFF data in Table 1, of the various The purpose of this study was to analyze the degree to
cutting and smoothing techniques used across the which the Great Recession and its aftermath affected
1,610 union locals, administrative decision makers US fire departments. Using quantitative data provided
implemented brown-outs in 6.71% of respondents or by the IAFF and qualitative accounts from fire-related
108 cities. The brown-outs were used to mitigate the websites and newspapers, findings suggest that the
impact of implemented layoffs in 64 of the affiliates recent economic downturn has been hard on fire
(4%), company closures were used in 71 cities (4.41%), departments across the nation. Three out of ten of the
and the potentially more severe cutback strategy of union locals (30.5%) reported losing positions through
closing fire stations was used in 45 jurisdictions (2.8%). attrition. Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981) argue
As noted earlier, a fire station can house two or more that positions lost through attrition are strategies used
companies, thus explaining the larger implications of by local officials to resist further fiscal decline, and fur-
closing a fire station versus a company. loughs are examples of stretching existing resources.
A story from Baltimore, MD, highlights the fact that When resisting and stretching are not enough to stave
these cuts have human as well as safety implications off financial woes, next comes cutting and smoothing.
(Campbell, 2012). In a cost-saving move to address a And while the loss of jobs by layoffs across the union
$48 million budget shortfall, three city fire companies locals was only about one-eight (13%) as frequent
recently closed in Baltimore. One ladder truck (Com- as not filling jobs vacated through attrition, the scope
pany 15) occupied the firehouse on North Montford of the impact of the economic distress facing US fire
Street. The truck and the century-old company were departments is significant. Dozens of fire departments
taken out of service in the summer of 2012. The closing across the states are experiencing company closures,
was emotional for the firefighters who constituted the station closures, and brown-outs. In an article appear-
company. Company officer, Captain Jim Oliver, mused ing in the August 26, 2010, issue of the New York
that he had spent as much time with firefighters in Times, Cooper (2010) argues that the “Fire service
Company 15 as he had with his own family (Campbell, was once a sacred cow at budget time. But the down-
2012, p. 1). Local citizens also expressed concern for turn has lingered so long that many cities, which have
the company closing. Although the station will now be already made deep cuts in other agencies, are now
home to Engine 33, this fire apparatus does not have a turning to their fire departments” (p. 1). It seems Coo-
ladder. Residents remember the occasions when a lad- per was right.
der was required to rescue residents in the neighbour- The present study adds to the literature on fiscal
stress and cutback management in two important

55
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

ways. First, unlike previous studies, the focus here is Campbell, C. (2012, June 29). Three city fire companies close soon
on a specific municipal function, fire and rescue ser- due to budget cuts. Baltimore Sun. Retrieved November 2, 2012,
from http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-06-29/news/bs-md-fire-
vices, instead of analyzing fiscal stress for a group of company-cutbacks-20120628_1_three-city-fire-companies-budget-
cities or states. This micro- versus macro-perspective cuts-engine-companies
provides the opportunity to examine reactions to fiscal Cooper, M. (2010, August 26). Struggling cities shut firehouses in
stress across functional municipal areas. Second, data budget crisis. New York Times. Retrieved November 2, 2012, from
used in the analysis are systematic and comprehensive http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/27/us/27cuts.html?pagewanted=all
and provide an excellent overview of a large sample of Corso, R. A. (2009, August 4). Firefighters, scientists, and doctors seen
cities’ responses to fiscal stress. as most prestigious occupations. The Harris Poll®, #86. Retrieved
In contrast, previous research has most frequently October 31, 2012, from http://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris-
Interactive-Poll-Research-Pres-Occupations-2009-08.pdf
used the case-study methodology. The trade-off, of
course, is that the cross-sectional IAFF data does not Dougherty, M. J., & Klase, K. A. (2009). Fiscal retrenchment in
allow for a testing of the temporal nature of cuts (e.g., state budgeting: Revisiting cutback management in a new era.
International Journal of Public Administration, 32, 593–619.
did resisting and stretching strategies precede cutting
and smoothing?). The case-study approach allowed England, R. E., Pelissero, J. P., & Morgan, D. R. (2012). Managing
urban America. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian (1981) and Dougherty
and Klase (2009) to determine the timing of cuts. In Firehouse.com News. (2011, October 19). Illinois chief resigns after
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firehouse.com/news/10460429/illinois-chief-resigns-after-firefighters-
larger range of cutback management strategies used laid-off
to combat fiscal stress such as productivity measures,
management improvements, use of impact fees, etc. Fox19.com. (2012, September 18). Covington commissioners vote
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and/or service-level cuts would add to the depth and commissioners-vote-cut-fire-dept-positions
breadth of our understanding of responses to fiscal Heifetz, R., Grashow, A., & Linsky, M. (2009). Leadership in a
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Miller, T. I., & Miller, M. A. (1991). Standards of excellence: U.S. 2

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CN: Greenwood Press. 3
For a discussion of organizational leadership in a
Packard, T., Patti, R., Daly, D., Tucker-Tatlow, J., & Farrell, C. (2008). global environment defined by permanent crisis, see
Cutback management strategies: Experiences in nine county human Heifetz, Grashow, and Linsky (2009).
service agencies. Administration in Social Work, 32(1), 55–75.
Pagano, M. A., Hoene, C. W., & McFarland, C. (2012, September). 4
We would like to thank Dr. Lori Moore-Merrell, Assis-
City fiscal conditions in 2012 (Research Brief on America’s Cities).
National League of Cities. Retrieved October 31, 2012, from http:// tant to the President of the International Association of
www.nlc.org/Documents/Find%20City%20Solutions/Research%20 Fire Fighters (IAFF), and her staff at the IAFF for shar-
Innovation/Finance/city-fiscal-conditions-research-brief-rpt-sep12. ing the Economic Crisis: Staffing Survey data with us.
pdf
Pandey, S. K. (2010). Cutback management and the paradox of 5
State-level data is not shown in Table 1.
publicness. Public Administration Review, 70(4), 564–571.
Scorsone, E. A., & Plerhoples, C. (2010). Fiscal stress and cutback
management amongst state and local governments: What have About The Authors
we learned and what remains to be learned. State and Local
Government Review, 42(2), 176–187. Dr. Robert E. England is founding editor of the
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and
Strong Cities/Strong State.com. (2012). Three city fire consolidation
provides unique efficiency model. Retrieved November 1, 2012, from Management. He is coauthor of Managing Urban
http://www.strongcitiesstrongstate.com/success/la-mesa/three-city- America published by Congressional Quarterly
fire-consolidation-provides-unique-efficiency-model Press now in its seventh edition. His research has
Thoreson, K., & Svara, J. H. (2011). How local governments are appeared in such journals as the American Political
navigating the fiscal crisis: Taking stock and looking forward. Science Review, Public Administration Review,
Municipal Year Book 2011, 75–82. Washington, DC: International
City/County Management Association. Journal of Politics, American Journal of Political
Science, and International Journal of Emergency
Walters, J. (2011, January 5). Firefighters feel the squeeze of shrinking Services. Dr. England serves as the corresponding
budgets. Governing. Retrieved October 31, 2012, from http://www.
governing.com/topics/public-workforce/firefighters-feel-squeeze- author and can be contacted at bob.england@
shrinking-budgets.html. okstate.edu
West, J. P., & Davis, C. (1988). Administrative values and cutback
politics in American local government. Public Personnel Dr. Anthony Brown is Associate Professor of
Management, 17(2), 207–222. Political Science at Oklahoma State University. He
also serves as the Director of International Projects
for Graduate Programs in Fire and Emergency
Endnotes Management Administration. His research articles
1
This paper was originally prepared for delivery at have been published by the International Journal
the Conference on Themes in Emergency Planning, of Public Administration, Public Administration
Response, and Recovery (EM12), November 13, 2012, Review, Administration and Society, Social
Nottingham Conference Center, Nottingham, England, Science Quarterly, Korean Journal of Public Policy,
and the Annual Conference: Fire Related Research and a book by the University of Tennessee Press.
and Developments (RE12), November 15, 2012,
Moreton-in-Marsh, England.

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 Volume 8

Dr. Rodger E. Broomé, Utah Valley University

Zachery Lyman, Utah Valley University
Joshua Told, Utah Valley University

Mind-Body Integrative Training: Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Abstract
The purpose of this research is to determine if differences in performance outcomes exist
between the use of paramilitary instruction and a method of teaching informed by the Chinese
philosophy Tài Chí when learning to don structural fire-fighting clothing or personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE). We hypothesize that keeping students in a process focus (i.e., Tài Chí
method) rather than a high-pressure outcome focus (traditional paramilitary method) results in
increased proficiency in the skill-performance outcomes (Selk, 2009). The assumption is that Tài
Chí helps integrates students’ minds and bodies in the learning process and results in a higher
quality of motor learning. The hypothesis is tested using an experimental design with test and
control groups of students from Utah Valley University (UVU). Both the speed and degree of
mastery of the skill are tested based on state standards for firefighters. Findings provide evi-
dence that the steady motor-training method (Tài Chí) is a better approach than the traditional
paramilitary technique of teaching the skill of donning structural fire-fighting equipment.

Introduction
In modern society, a system of emergency response the skill within the allotted period of time. Any step that
has been developed to protect citizens of our commu- is skipped in the performance of the skill is regarded as
nities against the threat of fire. This system is com- incomplete and results in a failure of the test.
prised of dedicated, hard-working, and well-trained The method in which the UVU’s RCA uses para-
firefighters. For the majority of fire-fighting person- military tactics and high-stress environments may, in
nel, needed training is delivered by a fire academy. fact, not be the most effective way of educating new
The National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) recruits. Theory and research from sports and perfor-
has established clear certification safety standards mance psychology suggest that the use of high-stress
for these academies. Furthermore, state fire officials training combined with interrupted motor training is less
have mandated specific certification standards based effective than steady motor training provided in less
on job-performance requirements that each person stressful environments. Research reported here exam-
must meet to achieve the title firefighter. Because of ines potential benefits gained by the use of steady
these standards, a majority of fire programs adopt a motor practice instead of having recruits try to dress
paramilitary environment for such training. The term quickly under the pressure of being punished.
paramilitary refers to the organization of the program
resembling that of military basic training, wherein the Literature Review
teaching style emphasizes high-stress environments
focusing on accomplishing tasks in a given time period. The majority of current practices used in preparing
This instructional environment is designed to help athletes (or in our case firefighters) for competition
recruits achieve the standards set forth by the govern- revolve primarily around practice of the technical
ing bodies. One particular aspect of learning focuses aspects of movement with far less emphasis placed
on turnout drills. These drills are designed to teach the upon systematic training (Abernethy, 1999). Applied
recruits how to don their personal protective equipment to firefighters, the step-by-step process of donning
(PPE) in an emergency. PPE is emphasized and affirmed by instructors closely
Utah Valley University’s (UVU’s) Recruit Candidate inspecting student performance for missed steps like
Academy (RCA) has adopted this paramilitary teach- enclosures not being closed or skin being exposed
ing context and its methods. Recruits are introduced to where the garments are meant to overlap. Abernethy
the proper way of donning their PPE. Recruits repeat- (1999) contends that not all types of practice are likely
edly practice the process. After some practice, the to be equally effective in promoting the development
instructors begin to implement punishment for failure to of expert performance. That being said, there are two
complete the skills correctly. A time limit is established; options of training that can be used: (1) demonstrating
and if not met, a physical activity is implemented as an example of putting on PPE and allowing firefighter
a fixed punishment. This punishment is usually in the recruits to develop their own processes of donning the
form of push-ups, calisthenics, or running. Candidates gear but emphasizing haste and completely donned
are drilled, tested, and so punished until they complete ensembles or (2) demonstrating the steps of donning
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

the PPE and encouraging students to use a steady In situations in which the arousal of the sym-
rhythmic approach to practicing and allowing speed pathetic nervous system or emotional arousal
in dressing to come naturally. Traditionally, as noted becomes very intense, “it floods the attention
previously, UVU’s RCA employed the first instructional mechanisms and decreases the amount of
method. In this study, firefighters learning to don their information that the organism can recruit effec-
PPE using this method were called the control group. tively either from the environment or from its own
In contrast, firefighters using the second method memory store.” (p. 298)
(steady rhythmic approach) to don their turnout gear
As such, due to the proven negative effects of anxiety,
became the test group. We assumed that when tested,
especially in the training of novice entry-level learners,
the recruits who use the steady rhythmic approach to
a steady rhythmic approach may prove more benefi-
practice getting into their PPE would have a higher rate
cial. The UVU’s RCA instructional program should
of proficiency than the control group. Proficiency is
consist of strategies aimed at encouraging a positive
defined as the degree to which students completed the
appraisal of the challenge and personal capabilities of
required step in less than or a time equal to the maxi-
the learner (Hill, Hanton, Fleming, & Matthews, 2009).
mum amount of time set by the fire-academy standard.
By decreasing the amounts of stress and anxiety
MacPherson, Collins, and Obhi (2009) explain
involved, the use of effective steady rhythmic training
that nonrhythmic movement characterizes inefficient
could result in higher levels of skill proficiency.
or suboptimum movement performance. In contrast,
Experiencing the flow, or optimal performance, is
rhythmic movement can improve gross motor skills
more than just focus; it is a harmonious experience
performance; one ought to regard rhythm as a critical
of mind-body integration that feels effortless and as if
component of preparing for psychophysical perfor-
something special is happening (Jackson & Csikszent-
mance (MacPherson, Collins, & Obhi, 2009). It was this
mihaly, 1999). For example, Maslow (1994) explains
overall rhythmic steady motor training that we believed
that people who have such peak experiences feel
would an ideal method of learning new skills required
a unity or convergence of all things in the moment.
in the donning of PPE.
In other words, there is a perceived seamlessness
The second aspect of the current UVU’s RCA
between an individual’s sense of self and his or her
training method is inducing a high-pressure environ-
environment.
ment, particularly by punishing students for inadequate
Mind-body integrative training is inspired by the
performance. This method, however, tends to decrease
ancient martial arts philosophy and method for teach-
the proficiency of performance of unmastered skills
ing Kung Fu known as Tài Chí Chuán. While the phi-
during their acquisition. Yerkes and Dodson (1908)
losophy of Tài Chí has many metaphysical principles
found that the relationship between arousal and perfor-
involved in its theories and practice (Lo, Inn, Amacker,
mance proficiency approximates an inverted U, such
& Foe, 1979), its primary importance to this study is its
that the optimum level of arousal is inversely related
focus on mind-body integration. Strength and speed
to task difficulty. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999)
come through the economy of motion of its flowing
have called optimal performance the flow, which is a
style. Tài Chí Chuán says,
balance between the person’s current ability and the
challenge of the task being performed. The more the If there is any uncoordinated place, the body
challenge exceeds the person’s skill competence, the becomes distorted and weak. First the mind is
greater the experienced arousal and lower the efficacy used to order the body. Later your body can fol-
in the performance. Christianson (1992) explains that low your mind, and you can control yourself and
excessive emotional arousal beyond what is indi- still follow your opponent. (Lo et al., 1979, p. 74)
vidually optimal is correlated with successively lower
The principle of learning each step of a skill one by
degrees of learning and memory. In the case of the
one and not getting the body ahead of the mind’s abil-
UVU’s RCA, the high-stressed training method used
ity to organize the movements is important. The idea is
can very easily push recruits over the optimal level of
to allow the speed of the trainee to increase naturally
pressure and anxiety. In fact, the time pressure and
as the steps in donning PPE gear are learned through
threat of punishment tended to increase the perceived
practice without tension. Carlstadt (2004) points out
size of the challenge for many students. On the other
that when a person is under pressure in a critical
hand, we believed that the steady rhythmic approach
moment in sports, the increased anxiety can manifest
to practice would more likely maintain the balance
itself physically in the increased flexing of the primary
between the challenge of the skill and motor-skill level
muscles that the athlete needs to move as intended,
as it developed and thus approximating each candi-
but opposing irrelevant muscle structures also increase
date’s relative optimum arousal.
in flex, which results in increased rigidity of movement.
In addition, Christianson (1992), quoting Mandler
Even if this state of affairs is subtle, it can throw off the
(1975), explains about the physiological effects of the
accuracy of performance in fine and gross motor skills.
high-stress training method:

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While certification testing must be about proficiency individuals within that age range. Participants were
of outcomes, our approach to training is to focus on recruited from the UVU campus, the surrounding com-
the process rather than outcome. Selk (2009) says that munity, and our beginning emergency medical tech-
outcome focus is a perspective that can undermine nician (EMT) courses. Because the study examines
the success in performance of athletes and others. performance proficiencies acquired through training,
Process focus keeps the person on-task with his or her we excluded volunteers who had prior training in don-
mind and body integrated. When the mind gets ahead ning fire-fighting PPE. Because of the physical require-
of one’s body and the action in the situation, he or she ments of the study, volunteers with medical conditions,
becomes vulnerable to skipping steps in the task. As as determined by the review of consent forms, were
such, the continuity of a step-by-step sequence begins excluded from participating. Participants were subdi-
to collapse, which influences task proficiency. When vided into manageable learning-group sizes of 10 to 15
fire-fighting students are prodded by the instructors members.
to concern themselves with speed, the students can Study participants were fitted with PPE supplied
become outcome focused when attempting to learn by UVU. The gear consisted of (1) one fire-approved
a skill. Moreover, when a student is told that failure to helmet with face shield; (2) a flame-resistant over-
complete the task in the required time can prevent him coat donned with hooks and Velcro ®; (3) fire-resistant
or her from becoming a firefighter, the outcome stakes trousers with suspenders, again attached by Velcro ®
become very high. Our experiment examined the dif- and hooks; (4) fire-protective gloves and hood, and (5)
ference between (a) an outcome-focused, time-con- rubber steel-toed fire boots. The study leaders taught
strained, high-pressure skill drilling with (b) a process- the study participants (firefighters-to-be) how to put on
oriented, lower-pressure, and flowing style of practice their PPE by donning their own PPE, explaining each
for improving the speed and accuracy through which piece and enclosure so that the learners could do it
fire-fighting students learn to don PPE. correctly. Then the study participants practiced don-
ning the gear with the instructors, who either ordered
Hypotheses them to go faster and mentioned push-ups for punish-
ment (the control group), or they were encouraged
Based on the literature review, this study tested the fol- to relax, take their time, and let the skill improve with
lowing hypothesis: Steady motor training is more effec- repetition (test group).
tive then high-pressure, high-stress motor training. Groups were trained for approximately one hour
H0: There is no difference in produced skill pro- and tested for skill proficiency. Study leaders recorded
ficiency between traditional high-pressure for each study participant the time taken to fully don
PPE turnout drills and relaxed steady- the PPE and the amount of mistakes he or she made
paced PPE donning rehearsal. within that time. However, the standard required no
mistakes and completion in 45 seconds or less. There-
H1: Relaxed steady-paced PPE donning fore, any mistakes theoretically meant the time kept
instruction produces increased skill profi- running, even though a participant may have believed
ciency when compared to traditional high- he or she had completed the skill accurately.
pressure PPE donning drills. Our data-collection instrument was a skill-profi-
ciency sheet listing the required steps to don PPE
according to the certification standard. Each participant
Methodology was observed by a study leader who timed the test and
As noted previously, to test this hypothesis a controlled recorded each completed step in the PPE donning test.
experiment was conducted with two groups comprised The researcher stopped the time when the partici-
of 32 participants in a control group and 30 participants pant clapped his or her hands signaling that he or she
in the test group. The independent variable for our believed the skill was complete. The required steps
experiment was the teaching style by which individuals were (1) don fire-resistant hood, (2) don and fasten all
were trained in donning their PPE. The control group closures on pants/boots and coat, (3) turn up collar
was taught using the paramilitary method that stresses on coat, (4) don helmet and tighten chin strap, and (5)
high-pressure, high-stress motor-training conditions don fire-fighting gloves. If the individual being tested
currently used in many fire academies. The test group did not complete one of these five tasks, it was consid-
was taught using rhythmic, steady motor training. The ered a failure of the test. The researcher examined the
dependent variable was the performance proficiency participant’s PPE to check for unclasped enclosures,
test of the certification standard for donning the gear in gaps between garments where they were designed to
45 seconds with no errors (skill mastery). overlap, and garments that had not been donned. The
We used convenience sampling of university stu- observations were recorded with the time on the skill-
dents to obtain our sample of 62 participants. Because proficiency sheet. Binary designations of pass or fail
recruit academy training works with mostly college from these sheets were entered into Statistical Pack-
students that are roughly 18 to 30 years of age, it was age for Social Sciences (SPSS) statistics software for
important that both of our groups were comprised of analysis.
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Data Analysis Figure 2: Frequency of Time (in Seconds) to Complete PPE

Turnout Drill for Test and Control Participants.
Figures 1 through 3 show the data for both the test
Pass Fail
and control groups. Figure 1 provides a breakdown of
individuals in the test and control groups who passed 20
19

Number of Individuals that Passed or Failed

or failed the Utah state standard in regards to the time 18
it took them to completely don their PPE. As the data 17
indicate, 19 passed and 11 failed the PPE turnout drill 16
15
among study participants using the rhythmic steady 14

the State Standard

motor training (i.e., the test group). Comparable figures
for the control group using the high-pressure paramili- 12
11
tary method were 17 individuals passed and 15 failed. 10
Figure 1: Pass/Fail Rate of the Utah State PPE Turnout Drill 8
for Test and Control Groups.
6
Test Control
4
25
2
22
0
20 Test Control
Number of Individuals

15 Figure 3: Number of Mistakes (0 to 3) for Test and Control

13
Group Participants.
11
10 Test Control
16
6 6 15
5 14
2 2
0 12
11 11
Number of Individuals

0
0 1 2 3 10
Number of Mistakes
8
7
Figure 2 shows the frequency of individuals who
6
completed the PPE turnout drill in less than 30 sec- 5 5
onds, 30 to 34 seconds, 35 to 40 seconds, 41 to 45 4
4
seconds, and 46 or more seconds. For test-group par- 3
ticipants, no person completed the drill in less than 30 2
seconds, 5 people took 30 to 34 seconds to don their
0 0
PPE equipment, 11 participants took 35 to 40 seconds, 0
3 individuals completed the task in 41 to 45 seconds, <30 30-34 35-40 41-45 >46
and 11 test group members took 46 seconds or more Time in Seconds
to complete the task. For control-group participants,
the statistics were, respectively, 0 (less than 30 sec- Two different methods were used to analyze study
onds), 5 (30 to 34 seconds), 7 (35 to 40 seconds), 5 (41 data. The first method was a z-score test using indi-
to 45 seconds), and 15 (46 seconds or more). viduals’ times in both the test and the control groups.
Finally, Figure 3 details the number of mistakes Given that this was a left-sided test, the z-score had to
(from 0 to 3) that study participants made when don- be less than –Z alpha (which in this case was -0.05) to
ning their PPE for both test- and control-group mem- show a statistically significant difference between the
bers. The frequency of mistakes among test-group two groups and thus allow the study researchers to
members were 22 people made no mistakes, 6 individ- reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis stated
uals made one mistake, 2 participants made two mis- that there is no difference between traditional paramili-
takes, and 0 people made three mistakes when don- tary, high-pressure PPE donning drill instruction and
ning their PPE. For control-group members, 11 people relaxed, steady-paced PPE donning instruction. The
made no mistakes, 13 individuals made one mistake, 5 null hypothesis could be expanded further because
participants made two mistakes, and 2 members made time is directly dependent upon an individual’s ability to
three mistakes.
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pass Utah’s state standard for firefighters by complet- whether the paramilitary teaching/learning environ-
ing each step of the exercise. The calculated z-score ment is beneficial or not. However, due to the study-
for the time was -1.645. Based on individuals’ time recruitment process, that study participants were told
(and their pass/fail rate), the data showed that there that they were participating in an experiment, and that
was no statistically significant evidence to reject the volunteers were used, clearly we were limited in the
null hypothesis. However, each individual’s time was level of the stressors we could introduce. In contrast, in
stopped when he or she believed that the task had the real world fire-fighting recruit candidates who wish
been completed according to the standard. Our calcu- to become firefighters as their terminal objective must
lation of mistakes indicates that not all who believed successfully complete the PPE basic-training drill and
they had made the time actually did so due to errors in receive certification. Without the high-stakes conse-
their performance. quences of getting dismissed from the academy and
The second method used to analyze the data was excluded from continuing, the anxiety for the control
the Fisher’s Exact Test, which analyzes the statisti- group was likely less than genuine.
cal difference between the mistakes made by both The experiment provided no ethical or practical
the control and test groups. Mistakes, however, are way that we could have simulated the testing to have
interesting in the fact that they directly determine genuine high-stakes testing anxiety as a part of the
skill mastery. In other words, the amount of mistakes study. In short, a limitation to this study is that real
made directly indicates the degree of deficiency for a firefighter candidates under high-pressure training may
skill requiring mastery. Therefore, one mistake was a have a cumulative effect of high-stakes testing anxi-
failure to demonstrate proficiency but multiple mis- ety, peer social pressure, and the aversion to failing.
takes indicated lower degrees of deficiency as they On the other hand, we can say that real recruits in
accumulated. When testing for differences in mis- high-stakes situations would benefit from having the
takes between the test and control groups, our results performance and social anxiety dimensions moder-
showed a p-value of 0.0000051. This p-value is below ated through a less-pressured learning environment.
0.05, which indicates that there is a statistically signifi- Therefore, our results show that skill proficiency is met
cant difference in mistakes made between test- and more often through mind-body integrated methods of
control-group members. Based on this finding, we practice without added pressures by the staff, but we
can reject the null hypothesis. In other words, the data cannot account for a student’s own test anxieties and
shown suggest that rhythmic steady motor training is a social anxieties in the context of a real academy. Evi-
better method of teaching the skill of donning structural dence presented here supports the idea that Tài Chí
fire-fighting gear. style teaching is still more efficacious while being less
impacting on the recruit’s sense of self-efficacy and
Discussion self-concept as an emerging firefighter. Furthermore,
based on the statistical data analyzed, Tài Chí may,
In general, from a pure numerical point of view (see in fact, be the better alternative simply because it has
Figures 1 though 3), the test group seemed to outper- shown to increase skill proficiency. Perhaps incumbent
form the control group in both the PPE donning speed firefighters who use the mind-body integration (Tài Chí)
rate and in skill mastery, but statistically speaking our style of skills practice might polish and improve their
test group only showed higher skill mastery. Because own skill proficiency in both accuracy and efficiency.
study researchers stopped PPE drill time based on a Test-retest experiments using incumbent firefighters
student indicating he or she believed the task had been can help answer this question.
completed, completion times do not necessarily reflect From a historical standpoint, high-pressure para-
a passing of the skill. In other words, a student could military style training is intended to psychologically
believe that he or she had successfully donned the and emotionally inoculate recruits from stress and help
PPE when in reality he or she had actually forgotten or them build coping abilities and focus under pressure.
insufficiently donned the safety equipment. We believe In lay terms, this type of teaching is meant to toughen
the state of affairs supports the old adage that haste them up for the real world of fire fighting. In some
makes waste in the sense that students leave them- cases, academy staff may be found to deride, insult,
selves vulnerable to injury and possible death by don- challenge, and intimidate recruits with the intentions
ning gear in a rapid but deficient manner. Perhaps over of turning up the heat. In the present study, we did not
time such errors in donning gear would be corrected employ any of these tactics for ethical reasons. More-
with more and more practice. However, as fire-fighting over, we do not believe such tactics are appropriate
instructors and/or researchers, we believe that mastery teaching tools. However, the fire service is full of anec-
first and speed second should be the order of priorities dotal stories of autocratic and even bullying staff in
in fire psychomotor-skills acquisition. basic-training programs. We believe our results show
The control group used in the study was based on this approach undermines student success.
the need for building high-stress, high-stake conse-
quences so as to sufficiently test the hypothesis of

63
International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Perhaps teaching mental skills apart from psycho-

motor fire-fighting skills is a better approach. Teach-
Conclusion
ing people to cope emotionally while trying to learn The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis
a new psychomotor skill might be too much. There that steady psychomotor training is more effective
may be individuals who are excluded from fire-service than high-pressure, high-stress motor instruction when
careers based on not doing well in developing mental/ used to teach firefighters the skills required to success-
emotional resilience while at the same time perform- fully don their PPE. Data analysis showed support for
ing motor learning to increase physical coordination. this hypothesis. These findings could affect the fire
Historically, in the fire service there may have been community and the way fire academies instruct new
needless exclusion of candidates who would have oth- recruits. Additional studies are needed to strengthen
erwise done fine without the ceremonial high-pressure the case for Tài Chí style psychomotor training.
traditions. We suggest that the skills be acquired first to Overall, the purpose of standardized testing is to
the level of mastery and then introduce a high-pressure determine whether a fire recruit meets the minimum
environment. standard of proficiency, which requires that he or she
efficiently perform each step of the task correctly. In
Study Limitations the real world, the aspirational standard is for firefight-
ers to do their work as efficiently and effectively as
We firmly believe that this study has significant impli- possible in an emergency context. While we believe
cations for fire-service training in general. However, there is a time and place for high-pressure simulation
we also recognize that performing such skills in a exercises, there is also a place in firefighter train-
controlled environment is likely to limit the study’s ing that allows recruits to learn how to use their PPE
ecological validity. The rapidly changing and serious and other tools in such a way that creates a greater
nature of real fire scenes does not allow firefighters the degree of coordination in manually manipulating these
opportunities for mistakes that our experimental design resources for safer and more effective work.
provided them. On the other hand, that is exactly why
firefighters must first attend training academies for
instruction before they are allowed on the fireground.
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York: Penguin Compass.
urge others to replicate the study.
Selk, J. (2009). 10-Minute toughness: The mental-training program for
winning before the game begins. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Yerkes, R., & Dodson, J. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to
rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative and Neurological
Psychology, 18, 459–482.

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 Volume 8

About the Authors

Dr. Rodger E. Broomé is a retired battalion chief Zachery Lyman is an adjunct professor at Utah
and now an assistant professor in the department Valley University and alumnus of the institution. He
of emergency services at Utah Valley University. works in a local hospital as a paramedic and is
He is trained in psychology and conducts research currently applying to medical school to become a
focused on first responders. He is engaged in inter- physician.
national work in China, sharing both his research
and strategies for responder mental health and Joshua Told is an alumnus of Utah Valley Univer-
wellness. Dr. Broomé serves as corresponding sity’s emergency services baccalaureate program
author and can be contacted at broomero@uvu. and currently in medical school. He has served as
edu a volunteer firefighter and is now in medical school
to become a physician.

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 Volume 8

Academic Workshop
The Academic Workshop features articles written by masters and doctoral students from domestic or interna-
tional universities that highlight the use of a quantitative or qualitative methodology, a research design, and/or a
conceptual framework applied to fire-service issues and problems. With the continued growth of graduate pro-
grams in fire leadership and management, more and more students will prepare papers that can guide research
focusing on fire and rescue services. In some cases, the student may have not taken his or her project to the
field and gathered data or directly tested her or his research question(s). Nevertheless, these papers represent
solid research designs that can help other students conceptualize and formulate how to study fire leadership and
management problems.
Articles in The Academic Workshop are peer reviewed. As editor of the IFSJLM, I first screen an article for pos-
sible inclusion in this section. Next, two peer reviewers analyze the article. If all three individuals agree that the
manuscript represents a solid learning tool, I invite the author to publish the manuscript in the IFSJLM.
The following article was written by Brian Hutchinson, a front-line firefighter of 14 years in the Vancouver Fire
& Rescue Services in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The research comes from his masters thesis for
his MA degree in Disaster and Emergency Management. The version of the thesis presented here is signifi-
cantly truncated from his original masters paper and was chosen for inclusion in The Academic Workshop as
an example of how a qualitative method, in this case ethnography, can be employed to distill important data that
can be used to impact program planning and implementation. As such, the version of the paper presented here
excises several sections of the paper (e.g., literature review and theoretical framework) from the original longer
manuscript. Rather, the focus is on how Brian is able to develop a three-tiered theme analysis based on his semi-
structured interview data. Brian’s research demonstrates the power and utility of carefully executed qualitative
analysis.

Brian William Hutchinson, MA in Disaster and Emergency Management, Royal Roads University, West Van-
couver, British Columbia, Canada

Career Urban Firefighters’ Perceptions of

Citizen Volunteer Participation in Disaster-Management Response
Abstract
Ethnography is a qualitative methodology facilitating in-depth research into groups sharing a
common organizational culture. The purpose of this ethnographic study is to discover obstacles
and opportunities for the proposed use of citizen volunteers in the Vancouver Fire & Rescue
Services (VF&RS) located in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC), Canada. As proposed, vol-
unteers would be organized into Neighborhood Emergency Assistance Teams (NEATs) and
activated for use in disaster events falling outside the normal scope of emergency response.
Development of the NEAT program is an effort by VF&RS and the City of Vancouver (CoV) to
acknowledge the necessity and critical nature of engaging communities as a means of prepar-
ing for catastrophic events (Reynolds, 2012; VF&RS, 2011). Data gathered from semistructured
interviews of 26 firefighters and 4 subject-matter experts (SMEs), for a total sample size of 30,
were analyzed using thematic network analysis to discover common themes in attitudes and
perceptions among the respondents concerning the use of volunteers in delivering fire and
rescue services. Emerging from the analysis were 16 basic themes that were collapsed into five
organizing themes that, in turn, were organized into two global themes. Global Theme 1, orga-
nizational and cultural aspects of the fire service impede innovation and progress in the area
of disaster management, points to obstacles in the use of volunteers in the VF&RS. In contrast,
Global Theme 2, participatory approaches to disaster management enhance capacity and resil-
iency of the fire service and society, suggests that interviewees believe the use of volunteers
through the NEAT program holds considerable promise for delivering disaster-management
services in Vancouver. The article concludes with 14 policy recommendations that provide the
VF&RS the opportunity to enhance the development of comprehensive disaster emergency
management through strategies incorporating the use of citizen volunteers.

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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Introduction and Study Context cultural groups (Coleman, 2004). Deutsch (2005) notes
that those considered cultural outsiders, in this case
In Canada and the United States there is a grow- citizen volunteers, are at a disadvantage due to a lack
ing recognition that the frequency and magnitude of of knowledge and understanding regarding the norms
disasters may at times overwhelm first responders of behaviour and the system of beliefs fundamental
with social, economic, and even political impacts (Flint to career urban fire-service culture. Moreover, the
& Stevenson, 2010; Litzenburg, 2006; Rotolo & Berg, academic literature examines the culture of the urban
2011). The City of Vancouver (CoV), an urban munici- fire service and highlights its mechanistic nature and
pality geographically located in the province of British adherence to authoritarian and hierarchical practices
Columbia (BC), recognizes that natural and human- and structures (Catts & Chamings, 2006). Thus, from
made disasters can potentially overcome the resources both a cultural and organizational perspective, the
and preparedness capability of the city, leading to career urban fire department is most often character-
extensive destruction and prolonged recovery (Van- ized as insular and closed to nonmembers. As a result,
couver Fire & Rescue Services [VF&RS], 2012). implementation of a participatory approach to service
Vancouver is home to approximately 600,000 citizens, delivery involving the use of citizen volunteers may be
anchors the third largest urban centre in Canada, and resisted and/or create conflict in a unique cultural and
has been identified as having the highest risk of an organizational setting such as the career urban fire
earthquake, which would likely be the most destructive service that tends to guard against and resist change,
natural disaster the nation could experience (Govern- both as a defensive and offensive strategy (Hulett,
ment of Canada [GoC], 2012). The VF&RS employs Marc, Thomas, & Moccio, 2008).
approximately 800 uniformed personnel and provides The purpose of this study is to investigate the
fire and emergency medical services operating out of culture of the career urban fire service and the use
20 fire halls (VF&RS, 2012). In 2011, the organization of citizen volunteers. More specifically, the research
responded to almost 46,000 calls for assistance. examines how the cultural socialization of firefighters
Recognizing the potential vulnerability of the CoV, influences their perceptions towards and their willing-
the VF&RS has attempted to enhance societal resil- ness to work alongside citizen volunteers in disaster-
iency by calling for a more citizen-based, participatory response programs such as CoV’s proposed NEAT
approach to disaster and emergency response that initiative. As Tran and Lee (2011) note, the process of
incorporates community emergency response teams cultural socialization entails specific social information,
(CERTs) within the formal VF&RS response infra- skills, and strategies that are distinct to a social group
structure. This CERT model calls for the use of citizen or subculture. The process of socialization increases
volunteers, which the CoV and the VF&RS have desig- the social competence of group members but is quite
nated as Neighborhood Emergency Assistance Teams often exclusionary of nongroup members. In fact,
(NEATs), that would be activated for use in events that formal recognition of citizen volunteer utility, legitimacy,
fall outside the scope of normal emergency response and capabilities in disaster response remains limited,
(Simpson, 2001). The scenario most often associated with the fire service often ascribing to the viewpoint
with NEAT activation, as perceived by VF&RS and city that volunteers are more of a liability than a resource
staff, is the potential for a catastrophic earthquake to (Flint & Stevenson, 2010; Litzenburg, 2006; Simpson,
impact the geographic area of southwestern BC, the 2001; Wenger, 1991). This level of disconnect between
area in which the CoV is situated. fire-service personnel and community members’ (i.e.,
Development of the NEAT program is an effort by citizen volunteers’) willingness to help in disasters and
both the VF&RS and city leaders to acknowledge the the concepts associated with vulnerability reduction,
necessity and critical nature of engaging commu- increased resiliency, and a participatory approach to
nity members in the preparation for and response to service delivery is the focus of this study.
catastrophic events (Reynolds, 2012; VF&RS, 2011).
According to Flint and Stevenson (2010), this integra- Ethnographic Methodology, Data, and Thematic
tion of citizen volunteers and formal response agencies
supports societal resiliency on both the individual and Network Analysis
community levels. This section outlines the ethnographic methodology,
Despite the potential for NEAT teams to augment data, and thematic network analysis used in the pres-
VF&RS resources, historically the organizational ent study.
survival of career urban fire departments has neces-
sitated the devotion of considerable resources towards Ethnographic Methodology
the defense of their autonomy by actively resisting
the use of volunteers (Dynes, 1994). Moreover, fire Within the wide spectrum of qualitative approaches
fighting has a unique culture based on a shared set to research, ethnography is a methodology that can
of attitudes, values, conventions, and social practices facilitate in-depth research into groups that share a
that support the exclusion of those who are identi- common culture (see Fetterman, 2010; Hammersley &
fied as interlopers, something common among many Atkinson, 2007). As noted previously, this ethnographic

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study investigates attitudes of career urban firefighters studies not exceeding 50 participants (Charmaz, 2006;
employed in the VF&RS about the use of citizen vol- Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2003). The purposive sampling
unteers in the proposed NEAT disaster program. The strategy used to gather study participants centered
literature discussed in the previous section suggests on identifying and engaging individuals considered
that many biases and barriers exist in the urban career information-rich with regard to the research topic (Suri,
fire service that may impede the successful incorpo- 2011). Snowball sampling, often referred to in the
ration of citizen volunteers in disaster management. literature as chain sampling, is the most widely utilized
Examining and identifying fire-service cultural barriers sampling tactic in qualitative research. This sampling
prior to implementation of a citizen-based participa- strategy allows for the addition of new information-rich
tory approach to disaster-management response may study participants based on the recommendations of
enhance sustainability of the proposed program. Find- the originally selected research interviewees (Noy,
ings emerging from this study and subsequent recom- 2008).
mendations may assist both the VF&RS and the CoV in During a three-week period, raw data were collected
planning and implementing participatory approaches to via semistructured interviews conducted with research
disaster response. participants and subject matter experts (SMEs). In
total, 32 semistructured interviews with 28 firefighters
Data (14 males and 14 females) and 4 SMEs (all male) were
The identification and analysis of perceptions held conducted. Subsequently, at their request, 2 subjects
by career urban firefighters about the use of citizen were dropped from the study — for a total sample size
volunteers in a formal, disaster-response program of 30.
was the primary objective of this study.1 In addition, Interviews took place on off-shift hours and away
the research sought to investigate the presence or from the fire-hall setting due to both the unpredictable
absence of cultural barriers within the VF&RS to inclu- nature of the regular work environment and to ensure
sion of participatory approaches in disaster manage- participants could share their thoughts openly. The
ment. Topics discussed during semistructured inter- interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim,
views with research participants included, but were not which, when combined with the researcher’s notes,
limited to, change, disaster response, volunteerism, provided the raw data on which the analytic thematic
fire-service culture, and implementation of VF&RS stra- network analysis was based. In order to de-identify the
tegic objectives. Four questions guided the discussion: data and preserve and protect anonymity, research
participants were assigned a number preceded by
1. What underlying social conventions and the letter P when referencing participant viewpoints
cultural attitudes exist within the fire service through quotes (e.g., P22).
concerning the use of citizen volunteers? Participant feedback on researcher-derived themes
2. How do social conventions and cultural distilled from the interviews was gathered using a
attitudes found within the fire service influence structure laying technique (SLT); that is, all research
firefighters’ perceptions of citizen-volunteer participants were provided with a synopsis of the 16
utility in disaster or emergency response? basic themes derived from their interviews. While some
research participants supplied minor clarifications of
3. How is the willingness of career urban the themes derived from their particular interviews,
firefighters to work alongside citizen volunteers all interviewees agreed that the themes were repre-
in NEATs influenced by the perceptions sentative of their viewpoints and their voices. The SLT
identified in the previous responses. provided the researcher with communicative validation
4. What mechanisms could facilitate integration of participants’ perceptions obtained during the inter-
and interoperability of citizen volunteers and views and was essentially a second interview carried
career urban firefighters in disaster response? out electronically, by telephone or by email.
In addition to the data secured from the 30 research
Initially, five male and five female career urban participants, reports, proposals, and internal memo-
firefighters from within the VF&RS were approached randa produced by the CoV and VF&RS were gathered
purposively for study inclusion. The snowball-sampling and studied. This information provided more detail
process entailed each participant being asked to pass about the NEAT initiative and additional context for the
information concerning the research on to one or two data collected during the interviews. The design and
coworkers assigned to the suppression division of conduct of the study progressed over a 10-month time
VF&RS. Of those referrals, the first 18 male and female frame.
firefighters who approached the researcher for inclu-
sion were accepted as participants, resulting in a sam- Thematic Network Analysis
ple of 28 firefighters. A review of literature related to
Interpretation of the interview data formed the core of
sample-size determination for qualitative research indi-
this qualitative research study. The process of interpre-
cates that optimum sample size for qualitative studies
tation and collection of the data was achieved through
is typically 20 to 25 participants, with most qualitative
three steps: (1) recording the data, (2) transcribing the
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

data, and (3) constructing themes or realities based on Global Theme 1: Organizational and Cultural Aspects of
the transcribed text and researcher notes. Thematic
network analysis was employed to discern common the Fire Service Impede Innovation and Progress in the
themes in text and to organize these to facilitate iden- Area of Disaster Management
tification of significant concepts, patterns, and struc-
As a super-ordinate theme, Global Theme 1 proposes
tures.
that organizational and cultural characteristics of the
Analysis of the data entailed four methods: (1) word
VF&RS department may inhibit progress towards
repetitions, (2) indigenous categories, (3) key-words-
embracing participatory approaches involving citizen
in-context, and (4) metaphors/analogies in addition to
volunteers in disaster management. The foundation for
the concepts associated with pattern coding (Miles &
this global theme is two organizing themes, which in
Huberman, 1994; Ryan & Bernard, 2003). The initial
turn are derived from seven basic themes. Organizing
goal with this aspect of data analysis was to generate
Theme 1 and Organizing Theme 2 describe research
a wide range of themes, with subsequent identification
participants’ perceptions of VF&RS as an organization
of the most important themes worthy of further analy-
and the fire-service culture in which they are embed-
sis (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Subsequently, the focus
ded. Perceptions of disaster preparedness and the
of analysis centered on the construction of thematic
response capacity of the VF&RS underlie discussion
networks. Thematic network analysis is well estab-
points in Organizing Theme 1. Inclusiveness, exclusiv-
lished as a means of illustrating themes in qualitative
ity, and consequences of change in the fire-service
research (Attride-Stirling, 2001) and entails develop-
culture encapsulate the focus of attitudes in Organizing
ment of basic themes, organizing themes, and global
Theme 2.
themes derived from the textual data.
As the primary responders to crises, emergencies,
disasters, and catastrophes, firefighters often work in
Findings the midst of chaos and confusion. The ability to remain
Findings are often defined in the literature as discover- calm and focused during these events is aided by the
ies, judgments, or pronouncements offered by qualita- knowledge that the organization in which they operate
tive researchers as a result of data collection, analysis, is structured in such a way as to provide support in
and interpretation within a research study (Sandelowski a sustainable and robust manner. Interviews with
& Barroso, 2004). Thematic network analysis resulted firefighters in the present study raised questions about
in the identification of 16 basic themes, 5 organizing the ability of front-line firefighters to perform their
themes, and 2 global themes. roles based on inadequate preparations and limited
At the primary stage of analysis, 16 basic themes capacity of the VF&RS in the face of disaster impact.
were identified from the interview data. These basic A consensus among research participants aligned
themes are the lowest-order themes derived from the with the viewpoint of one firefighter who articulated the
interviews through the coding process. Next, came position that “you’re only as strong as your weakest
the process of identifying organizing themes, which link, and I think right now our weakest link is ourselves”
are basic themes grouped together based on com- (P30). Another interviewee echoed similar sentiments
monalities in attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs. Five by noting the VF&RS is intent on “just dabbling in a
organizing themes emerged from the thematic network little bit of everything without . . . the quality of training
analysis. Finally, analysis of the five organizing themes that . . . allows you to become proficient in any one
allowed for the identification of two global themes, also of the . . . [areas] . . . that is expected [of firefighters]”
referred to as super-ordinate themes in the literature (P19).
(see Attride-Stirling, 2001). These global themes Frustration was also expressed throughout the data-
encapsulated key metaphors underlying the inter- collection phase regarding departmental guidelines.
view data as a whole. Figure 1 presents the 16 basic For example, one firefighter observed, “I’ve read our
themes, 5 organizing themes, and 2 global themes dis- SOGs [Standard Operating Guidelines]; they are amaz-
tilled from data collected during the interview process. ingly ambiguous at times about how things are going to
To reiterate, these themes provide an overview of transpire and there is not a really good operational level
how firefighters employed by the VF&RS perceive the understanding of them” (P20).
role of citizen involvement in disaster response. As A perception articulated by numerous research
such, the data are intended to provide the VF&RS with participants concerns how the fire department has
an understanding of how volunteer-based programs dropped the ball on disaster preparedness. Or, in the
such as NEAT are perceived by front-line firefighters words of one senior firefighter, “we have dropped the
and the challenges and opportunities inherent in such ball on this one [disaster-management training] over
programs. Discussion now turns to the thematic net- the last 20 years, since I’ve been in the fire department
work analysis organized around the two global themes. anyway” (P27). It is important to remember that firefight-
ers take great pride in their profession and their role in
society. As such, for a firefighter to express this level of

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Figure 1: Thematic Network Analysis: 16 Basic, 5 Organizing, and 2 Global Themes.

Basic Themes Organizing Themes Global Themes

1. Disaster response capacity is limited.

2. Current disaster response guidelines are 1. Disaster preparedness and response
unclear and unrealistic. capacity of VF&RS are inadequate as
3. Neither the CoV nor the fire department are perceived by VF&RS firefighters.
prepared for a disaster. 1. Organizational and
cultural aspects of the fire
service impede innovation
4. Resistance to change is natural. and progress in the area
5. Tradition and culture affect the pace of of disaster management.
change in the fire service.
2. Fire service culture is insular in nature and
6. Fire service culture restricts access to
resistant to change.
outsiders.
7. Citizen involvement is detrimental to
emergency response.

8. Disaster preparedness and response can

be enhanced through community
engagement.
3. Community participation provides positive
9. It is a natural human instinct to want to
impacts to preparedness and response
help.
capacity when well planned and articulated
10. Define and communicate the role of
to all stakeholders.
volunteers.
11. Clearly defined roles will aid responders
and volunteers.

2. Participatory approaches
to disaster management
12. Engaging firefighters limits misinformation enhance capacity and
and supports employee buy-in. resiliency of the fire
13. Information and education can address 4. Consistency in decision making processes
and desired organizational outcomes need service and society.
fear of change.
14. Organizational consistency demonstrates to be communicated to all stakeholders.
value and importance of initiatives.

15. Fire service culture has attributes that can

5. Community participation provides
facilitate civilian involvement in disaster
leadership opportunities throughout the fire
response.
department.
16. Leadership is essential.

Source: Derived from original semistructured interviewed data collected by the author.

disappointment generally indicates an issue of serious close-minded, and that “perpetuates . . . the exclusion
concern. The level of importance ascribed to disaster of . . . new and alternative ideas” (P15).
preparedness caused one study participant to observe, The word xenophobia was mentioned a number of
“That’s one part of the job I’m highly disappointed in . . . times in the course of data collection as a descriptor of
we are not prepared” (P6). the fire-service culture within the VF&RS. A common
With respect to exclusivity and resistance to change definition of xenophobia refers to the relations and
as characteristics of the fire service (see Organizing perceptions of an in-group (e.g., firefighters) towards an
Theme 2 in Figure 1), the literature suggests cultural out-group (e.g., citizen volunteers), including a fear of
groups can be insular in nature, internally and exter- losing identity, suspicion of the other group’s activities,
nally, and are not generally welcoming to those per- aggression, and a desire to eliminate the out-group’s
ceived as outsiders (Carrizzo & Gerling, 2006; Hulett presence to secure a presumed purity (Braham,
et al., 2008). Embedded within a very traditional fire- Bracalenti, Bolaffi, & Gindro, 2002). This sentiment
department culture, research participants identified is expressed well in one junior firefighter’s concern
numerous concerns around incorporating citizen volun- about the purpose of volunteers and their impact on
teers into their work environment. Culture, as described fire-service cohesion and culture when she/he stated
by VF&RS firefighters, evoked a volume of perceptions. “we’re not a bunch of hippies singing Kumbaya; we
Comparisons were made between the fire department don’t throw open our own arms and hug everybody
and a secret society in which cultural barriers “are so walking in the door” (P30). Therein lays the crux of the
inclusion/exclusion issue in the VF&RS. Professionally,
thick you could cut them with a knife” (P11). A genuine
interacting with the public is a key role, and yet there is
level of concern was expressed by study participants
an underlying sense that “we [firefighters] do not want
for the citizen volunteer who might encounter a cultural
to open . . . up . . . the fire halls . . . [and let people in]”
environment described by one interviewee as hostile,
(P27).
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International Fire Service Journal of Leadership and Management

Interview participants also reflected on the proposi- Organizational inconsistency and reprioritization
tion that the fire service is “exceedingly slow to accept caused many firefighters to ponder what their roles
change, if ever” (P18). Research on the concept of in the organization are, what the department expects
change in the fire service concurs with this senti- from them, and where as an organization the VF&RS is
ment, acknowledging that in many instances efforts to heading. An outcome of this situation is priority fatigue,
implement change have been mediated by the strong wherein firefighters perceive a lack of follow-through by
cultural influences internal to these agencies (Fitzger- the fire department in so many programs that they no
ald & Stirling, 1999). In defense of this state of affairs, longer want to be involved or to commit themselves to
a senior firefighter interviewee declared, “There’s a something that likely will not last.
reason it hasn’t changed much; it’s because it’s always One study participant argued that the fire depart-
worked” (P27). A popular point of view among research ment leadership should be concerned that firefight-
participants is that the reason for change in the VF&RS ers believe the “biggest problem [in the VF&RS] right
is not effectively communicated and is often perceived now is we are not following through on [our program]
as simply “change for change’s sake” (P14). change [initiatives]” (P6). This perspective has resulted
in a widespread perception that the city and the fire
Global Theme 2: Participatory Approaches to Disaster department implement projects as window dressing,
Management Enhance Capacity and Resiliency of the Fire something that looks good from the outside but cov-
ers up a lack of depth or sustainability inside. As such,
Service and Society firefighters find it difficult “to get behind something or
Global Theme 2 clearly shows that study participants someone when you don’t feel like it or them [sic] are
overwhelmingly support the value of participatory behind you” (P19).
approaches and volunteerism in disaster-response When interviews turned to the topic of organizational
efforts in the VF&RS. As such, several avenues are leadership in the VF&RS, lack of consistency and
available to the VF&RS to enhance societal resiliency management skills were noted as problems. Concerns
through participatory approaches to disaster prepared- were also raised about what motivates fire-department
ness and response. The three organizing themes, leadership. One interviewee noted that it seemed to
derived from the nine basic themes shown in Figure 1, him/her that “Doing the right thing is not the motivat-
that define Global Theme 2 are based on the concepts ing factor; looking like you’re doing the right thing is
of (1) planning and communication, (2) organizational what matters” (P26). Many other study participants
consistency, and (3) fire department leadership. were quick to note, however, that leaders who articu-
Research participants describe citizens of Vancou- late vision and demonstrate consistency in action will
ver as wanting to help, eager to volunteer, and ready engender significant support from front-line VF&RS
to lend a hand in times of need. Keltner, Smith, and firefighters.
Marsh (2010) refer to this desire to help others as the
human compassionate instinct: a state of being in Conclusions and Recommendations
which compassion and benevolence is an evolved part
Findings emerging from the thematic network analy-
of human nature. Interviewees noted this benevolent
sis clearly show that VF&RS firefighters recognize
spirit was alive and well in the CoV. For example, one
that vulnerability to natural and human-made hazards
firefighter noted that although the volunteers do not
necessitates an enhanced volunteer-based response
have any particular disaster-management training or
capacity to strengthen resiliency and foster a robust
skills, they have “strong back[s] and big heart[s]” . . .
recovery from disaster impacts. Many of the research
and those characteristics will “win the day” (P8).
participants possess knowledge of the role citizens
As a basic theme, concerns about the lack of orga-
have played in previous disasters globally and under-
nizational consistency by VF&RS are deep-seated and
stand that through programs such as NEAT, com-
prevalent throughout the research sample. Three of the
munity members become a resource rather than just
most prevailing attitudes in the data derive from this
victims (Lichterman, 2000). The analysis of interview
basic theme. Perceptions referred to fire-department
data identified organizational hurdles and cultural bar-
initiatives as “fly-by-night,” “flavor-of-the-day,” or just
riers within VF&RS that can potentially hinder efforts
another item “piled on our plate” (P29). The expres-
to increase the capacity and capabilities of the fire
sion fly-by-night, as articulated by several research
department to effectively use volunteers. Nevertheless,
participants, suggests that some extremely valuable
Global Theme 2 demonstrably shows that study par-
programs lose momentum almost immediately after
ticipants (i.e., VF&RS firefighters) believe participatory
being launched due to being “bumbled from the very
approaches to disaster management enhance capacity
beginning” (P29).
and resiliency of the VF&RS and society in general.
The idea of flavor-of-the-day was expressed by
The task remaining is to overcome perceived organiza-
an overwhelming majority of research participants.
tional and cultural aspects of the VF&RS that impede
It speaks to a tendency for the fire department
innovation and progress in the use of citizen volunteers
to redefine its priorities on an ongoing basis.
in disaster-management programs such as NEAT.

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For example, firefighters in the research sample 9. The NEAT program must be implemented in a
indicated concern and hesitation around practical collaborative manner, engaging firefighters in a
applications of citizen involvement in disaster-response comprehensive manner from the very beginning.
operations. Unfamiliarity with emergency services
10. Screening and selecting citizen volunteers
operational parameters, inadequate training, and the
must be done in a comprehensive
potential of volunteers to exceed their scope were
manner to ensure NEAT legitimacy.
equated by interviewees with an increased risk of injury
or death to both citizen volunteers and career firefight- 11. Front-line firefighters must be the primary
ers. Frustration arose pertaining to fire-department means by which community members are
resources devoted to training citizens while firefight- approached and engaged for the NEAT program.
ers perceived their own training as substandard and
12. NEAT program information and educational
inadequate. Familiarity with past fire-department initia-
sessions must highlight the role of
tives and programs caused research participants to be
professional firefighters in the community.
anxious about how the VF&RS leadership would follow
through with the NEAT initiative, which in turn reflects 13. VF&RS must demonstrate consistency
on the professionalism of firefighters themselves. Inter- and commitment to programming through
viewees were not complimentary regarding thorough- open communication to firefighters
ness, consistency, or quality of the training and educa- acknowledging fire-department failures.
tional product being delivered internally or externally
14. Succession planning and career-
to the community. Engaging front-line firefighters in the
development paths must be developed by
development and delivery of participatory approaches
VF&RS and incorporated into formalized
to disaster management involving citizen volunteers
training sessions for all firefighters.
is a first step in addressing perceived firefighter
problems. The 14 recommendations that follow are These 14 recommendations provide an opportunity
intended to provide opportunities for development of for the VF&RS to enhance development of compre-
sustainable and productive strategies in support of the hensive disaster strategies incorporating a participa-
use of volunteers in the VF&RS: tory approach. The long-term commitment and main-
tenance of these recommendations help ensure the
1. Firefighters need to be educated on what
means by which sustainable change can occur. When
plans and capacities exist regarding disaster
engaged and informed, firefighters will step forward
response within the CoV and VF&RS.
and can be counted on to make programs and projects
2. Disaster-management education must a success; they just need to be armed with the proper
begin upon entry into the VF&RS. tools — information, education, and organizational sup-
port.
3. Education in advanced concepts of disaster
management must be incorporated into the
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4. Disaster-response guidelines for front-line qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 1(3), 385–405. Retrieved
personnel must be reviewed, revised, and from the Ebscohost database.
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5. Roles and expectations of the fire
department towards both front-line Carrizzo, R., & Gerling, K. (2006). Search for values. Fire Chief, 50(7),
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7. Change within the VF&RS needs to through qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
be communicated in a manner that
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addresses concerns of firefighters and Chief, 48(12), 24–28. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.royalroads.ca/
takes into account the unique culture login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=b
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Deutsch, J. (2005). “Please pass the chicken tits”: Rethinking
8. As a key concept underlying NEAT, men and cooking at an urban firehouse. Food & Foodways:
participatory approaches to disaster History & Culture of Human Nourishment, 13(1), 91–114.
management must be incorporated into an doi:10.1080/07409710590915382
educational component for firefighters.
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Dynes, R. R. (1994). Situational altruism: Toward an explanation of Simpson, D. (2001). Community emergency response training (CERTs):
pathologies in disaster assistance. (Preliminary Paper No. 201). A recent history and review. Nat. Hazards Rev., 2(2), 54–63.
Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2001)2:2(54).
(DRC).
Suri, H. (2011). Purposeful sampling in qualitative research synthesis.
Fetterman, D. M. (2010). Ethnography: Step-by-step, 3rd ed. Thousand Qualitative Research Journal (RMIT Training Pty Ltd Trading as
Oaks, CA: Sage. RMIT Publishing), 11(2), 63–75. doi:10.3316/QRJ1102063
Fitzgerald, I., & Stirling, J. (1999). A slow burning flame? Organisational Tran, A. G. T. T., & Lee, R. M. (2011). Cultural socialization as a
change and industrial relations in the fire service. Industrial moderator of friendships and social competence. Cultural Diversity &
Relations Journal, 30(1), 46. Retrieved from https://ezproxy. Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(4), 456–461. doi:10.1037/a0024728
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royalroads.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=1748496&site=e Vancouver Fire and Rescue Services (VF&RS). (2011). Strategic
host-live plan 2011–2015. Retrieved from http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/vfrs-
strategic-plan.pdf
Flint, C. G., & Stevenson, J. (2010). Building community disaster
preparedness with volunteers: Community emergency response Vancouver Fire and Rescue Services (VF&RS). (2012). VFRS annual
teams in Illinois. Natural Hazards Review, 11(3), 118–124. report 2011. Retrieved from http://firenet/Department%20Info/
doi:10.1061/ (ASCE) NH.1527-6996.0000014 Annual%20Report/Annual%20Report%202011.pdf
Government of Canada (GoV). (2012). Get prepared: Earthquakes. Wenger, D. (1991). Emergent and volunteer behavior during disaster:
Retrieved from http://www.getprepared.gc.ca/cnt/hzd/rthqks-eng. Research findings and planning implications. Hazard Reduction and
aspx Recovery Center, Texas A & M University.
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography. New York, N.Y.:
Routledge.
Endnote
Hulett, D. M., Marc, B. Jr., Thomas, S. Y., & Moccio, F. (2008).
Enhancing women’s inclusion in firefighting in the USA. International
1
An original assumption tested in this research was that
Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities & Nations, female firefighters would be more supportive of the use
8(2), 189–207. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.royalroads.ca/ of citizen volunteers than would male firefighters. An
login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=si
h&AN=33979752&site=ehost-live analysis of the survey data proved this assumption was
false. There was no discernible difference between
Keltner, D., Smith, J. A., & Marsh, J. (Eds.). (2010). The compassionate
instinct: The science of human goodness. New York, NY: W. W. men and women firefighters’ attitudes about the use
Norton. Retrieved from http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/ of volunteers to assist in disaster management in the
the_compassionate VF&RS.
Lichterman, J. D. (2000). A “community as resource” strategy for
disaster response. Public Health Reports, 115(2/3), 262. Retrieved
from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1308723/
Acknowledgements
To my colleagues in the VF&RS, thank you for your
Litzenburg, E. J. (2006). Evaluating community emergency response
teams. Santa Fe Fire Department. Retrieved from http://www.usfa. support of this research effort. I would like to extend a
fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo39913.pdf special thank you to my academic advisor, Dr. Michael
Laranaga, who not only agreed to take on the supervi-
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An expanded source book
qualitative data analysis (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. sory role but also provided the guidance and support
that allowed me to complete this project.
Noy, C. (2008). Sampling knowledge: The hermeneutics of
snowball sampling in qualitative research. International
Journal of Social Research Methodology, 11(4), 327–344. About the Author
doi:10.1080/13645570701401305
Brian Hutchinson has been a firefighter with Van-
Reynolds, C. (2012, October 31). Vancouver citizens to train for role couver Fire & Rescue Services (VF&RS) since
as natural disaster reserve force: Vancouver fire department 2000 and currently serves as a Lieutenant in the
preparing to turn helpful bystanders into full-blown volunteer corps.
The Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from http://www.vancouversun.com/ Disaster and Emergency Planning Section, Spe-
news/Vancouver+citizens+train+role+natural+disaster+reserve+fo cial Operations Division. As a founder of Firefight-
rce/7479294 /story.html ers without Borders Canada, he has personally
Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., & Elam, G. (2003). Designing and selecting led six international deployments of fire-service
samples. In J. Ritchie & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research professionals to El Salvador and one to Colom-
practice. A guide for social science students and researchers (pp.
77–108). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. bia, while also providing executive oversight to an
additional ten deployments of trainers to Paraguay,
Rotolo, T., & Berg, J. A. (2011). In times of need: An examination of Peru, Panama, and Thailand. In addition to his past
emergency preparedness and disaster relief service volunteers.
Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(4), 740–750. role as an International Association of Fire Fighters
doi:10.1177/0899764010369179 (IAFF) executive member for Vancouver Fire Fight-
Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes.
ers’ Union Local 18, he currently serves Muscular
Field Methods, 15(1), 85. doi:10.1177/1525822X02239569 Dystrophy Canada at the regional, provincial, and
national levels. Brian can be contacted at brian@
Sandelowski, M., & Barroso, J. (2004). Finding the findings in qualitative
studies. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 34(3), 213–219. doi:10.1111/ iaff18.org
j.1547-5069.2002.00213.x

74
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Institute for Biobehavioral Health
Research
National Development & Research
Institutes
 ISSN 1554-3439

I nternational F ire S ervice

J ournal of L eadership
and M anagement

Volume 8
2014