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Titles in This Series
This series was founded by the highly respected mathematician and educator, Paul J. Sally, Jr.
10 Sue E . G o o d m a n , Beginning Topology
9 R o n a l d S o l o m o n , Abstract Algebra
8 I. M a r t i n Isaacs, Geometry for College Students
7 V i c t o r G o o d m a n and J o s e p h Stampfli, The Mathematics of Finance: Modeling and
Hedging
6 Michael A . B e a n , Probability: The Science of Uncertainty with Applications to
Investments, Insurance, and Engineering
5 Patrick M . Fitzpatrick, Advanced Calculus, Second Edition
4 Gerald B . Folland, Fourier Analysis and Its Applications
3 B e t t i n a R i c h m o n d a n d T h o m a s R i c h m o n d , A Discrete Transition to Advanced
Mathematics
2 D a v i d Kincaid and Ward C h e n e y , Numerical Analysis: Mathematics of Scientific
Computing, Third Edition
1 E d w a r d D . G a u g h a n , Introduction to Analysis, Fifth Edition
This page intentionally left blank
Abstract
Algebra
This page intentionally left blank
 /\Mtce4j
UNDERGRADUATE TEXTS • 9
SERIES

Abstract
Algebra

Ronald Solomon

American Mathematical Society

Providence, Rhode Island
 2000 Mathc?naUcs Subject Classification, Primary 12-01.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.anis.org/bookpages/amstext-9

Library of Congress C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a
Solomon, Ronald.
Abstract algebra / Ronald Solomon.
p. cm. - (Pure and applied undergraduate texts ; v. 9)
Originally published: Belmont. CA : Thomson Brooks/Cole. c2003.
Includes index.
ISBN 97S-0-S218-4795-4 (alk. paper)
1. Algebra. Abstract Textbooks. I. Title.

QA162 S63 2009

512'.02- dc22 2008047399

C o p y i n g and reprinting. Individual readers of this publication, and nonprofit libraries

acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of the material, such as to copy a chapter for use
in teaching or research. Permission is granted to quote brief passages from this publication in
reviews, provided the customary acknowledgment of the source is given.
Republication, systematic copying, or multiple reproduction of any material in this publication
is permitted only under license from the American Mathematical Society. Requests for such
permission should be addressed to the Acquisitions Department, American Mathematical Society,
201 Charles Street, Providence. Rhode Island 02904-2294, USA. Requests can also be made by
e-mail to [email protected].

© 2003 held by the American Mathematical Society. All rights reserved.

The American Mathematical Society retains all rights
except those granted to the United States Government.
Printed in the United States of America.
@ The paper used in this book is acid-free and falls within the guidelines
established to ensure permanence and durability.
Visit the AMS home page at http: //www. ams. org/
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 09
To Andrea Green
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFAC E

There are numerous excellent textbooks presenting the basics of abstract algebra for
college students. Why write another?
Most of the existing texts have a foundational character. They seem designed to
lay a firm foundation for future graduate courses in abstract algebra. This is a noble goal
and well served by many of the exemplars. There is however a large audience for an
undergraduate abstract algobra course consisting of students who will likely never take a
graduate course in abstract algebra. Notable among these are the future high school math-
ematics teachers. These students are better served by a course that emphasizes the roots
of abstract algebra, which live in the rich soil of high school mathematics—Euclidean
geometry, polynomial algebra, and trigonometry. Out of this soil spring naturally the con-
cepts of symmetry, the complex numbers and the cyclotomic number fields, eventually
blossoming into the Galois theory of equations.
The intention of this text is to emphasize the organic and historical development
of the abstract theory of groups, rings, and fields from the substrate of high school
mathematics. In Part I the "history" is fictitious. It is only with imaginative hindsight
that we can attribute the concept of a group of motions to Euclid. In the later parts,
however, the history is genuine, although the notation and terminology is updated.
Novel and exciting ideas and theorems are encountered early and often—the
2-dimensional symmetry groups in Chapter 3, Cardano's formulas in Chapter 5, the
complex numbers in Chapter 6, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in Chapter 7 and
the 3-dimensional symmetry groups in Chapter 8. Section 3 on Number Theory fea-
tures the work of Fermat. Not only his Little Theorem but also the Two Squares and
Four Squares Theorems, as well as some cases of the celebrated Last Theorem and its
polynomial analogue, are presented. The final Grand Synthesis section begins with a
careful treatment of Gauss' proof of the straight-edge-and-compass constructibility of
the regular 17-sided polygon, and culminates with Galois' theory of equations. Con-
structibility of regular polygons is a lovely topic, wonderfully down-to-earth and visual,
yet laden with deep connections to subtle topics in number theory and group theory. A
course that ends with Chapter 16 (even omitting some of the earlier material) will have
presented a rich array of ideas to the students, all closely tied to the most elementary of
questions in Euclidean geometry and the study of numbers and polynomial equations.
At the end of the Introduction, I discuss some possible syllabi for semester-long and
year-long courses.
Typically, Galois Theory appears as the grand finale and raison d'etre for a first
course in abstract algebra. But all too often there is not enough time to reach the finale

ix
X ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

or to give it the attention it deserves. The abstract algebra course then becomes a series
of complicated finger exercises with no beautiful sonata to play at the end. Here, too,
Galois Theory is the grand finale. But along the way, the students get to play many
lovely preludes, nocturnes and sonatinas; so even if the final sonata is never reached, the
journey will have been filled with lovely music.
Besides giving a more organic and evolutionary development of the subject, it
is the intention of this text to emphasize the connections within algebra and between
algebra and other areas of mathematics, especially geometry. The different fields of
mathematics are not hermetically sealed off from each other. Quite the contrary, most
of the truly important achievements in mathematics have been the product of fruitful
interaction of areas.
A textbook is at best a learning aid and at worst a stumbling block. Learning occurs
on the dynamic interface between teacher and student. I have had the good fortune to have
been inspired by many superb teachers, and wish to acknowledge a few here: Blossom
Backal, who taught me high school geometry and first opened my eyes to the beauty
of mathematics; Ralph G. Archibald, who taught me number theory and introduced
me to mathematical research. David Goldschmidt, who taught me local group theory
and gave me glimpses of a truly deep thinker at work; and my thesis advisor, Walter
Feit, who taught me representation theory and forced me to figure out for myself why
V = [y, A] 0 Cy(A) is Fitting's Lemma,
With specific regard to this book, I am deeply indebted to Keith Conrad, David
Pollack and Inna Korchagina for their comments, corrections and encouragement. Had I
saved all of their corrections more systematically, this book would have far fewer errors
than it does. Also I and the book owe much to the students I have taught (and learned
from) over the years of developing this material. I mention only two representatives of
the many who deserve thanks: Jon Spier and Jason Petry.

Ronald Solomon
 CONTENT S

0 Background

Section One Geometry 13

1 What Is Congruence? 14
2 Some Two-Dimensional Geometry 22
3 Symmetry 32

Section Two Polynomials 45

4 The Root of It All 46
5 The Renaissance of Algebra 49
6 Complex Numbers 59
7 Symmetric Polynomials and The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 68
8 Permutations and Lagrange's Theorem 78
9 Orbits and Cauchy's Formula 86
9A Hamilton's Quaternions (Optional) 95

Section Three Numbers 101

10 Back to Euclid 102
11 Euclid's Lemma for Polynomials 113
12 Fermat and the Rebirth of Number Theory 122
13 Lagrange's Theorem Revisited 136
14 Rings and Squares 142
14A More Rings and More Squares 149
15 Fermat's Last Theorem (for Polynomials) 157
15A Still more Fermat's Last Theorem (Optional) 165

xi
Xii CONTENTS

Section Four The Grand Synthesis 169

16 Constmctible Polygons and the Method of Mr. Gauss 170
17 Cyclotomic Fields and Linear Algebra 177
18 A Lagrange Theorem for Fields and Nonconstructibility 191
19 Galois Fields and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Revisited 196
20 Galois' Theory of Equations 207
21 The Galois Correspondence 212
22 Constmctible Numbers and Solvable Equations 217

Index 223
 INTRODUCTIO N

The task of the educator is to make the

child's spirit pass again where its
forefathers have gone, moving rapidly
through certain stages but suppressing
none of them. In this regard, the history
of science must be our guide.
—Henri Poincare

In the course of the years 1770 and 1771 Joseph Louis Lagrange, mathematician to the
court of Friedrich der Grosse of Prussia, read to the Royal Academy of Sciences and
Arts a lengthy memoir entitled: "Reflexions sur la Resolution Algebrique des Equations"
(thoughts on the algebraic solution of equations). This memoir did not solve any impor-
tant problem. It did not explode like a bombshell over the mathematical community of
Europe. But it contained an idea. It planted a seed.
Many shells would be fired over Europe and America in the ensuing decades. A
new nation, based on a new idea of government, would be founded in America, an old
dynasty would come to a bloody end in France, and Europe would be convulsed by 25
years of wars and repeated popular insurrections. New forms of government and industry
were being born in violence.
Meanwhile the seed planted by Lagrange continued to germinate in the minds of
mathematicians in Italy, Germany, France, and Norway. Some were staunch royalists;
some were radical populists. All were assisting at the birth of a new mathematics. Finally

1
2 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

on the night of May 29-30, 1832, as the radicals in Paris took to the barricades one more
time, a young Frenchman, Evariste Galois, set down his final thoughts on the theory of
equations and, in so doing, both laid to rest the problem posed by Lagrange and, much
more important, opened the door to a new world of mathematics. In 1951, 119 years
later, Hermann Weyl, one of the leaders of mathematics and physics in the early 20th
century, would say in a lecture at Princeton University (February 1951):

Galois' ideas, which for several decades remained a book with seven seals but later exerted
a more and more profound influence upon the whole development of mathematics, are
contained in a farewell letter written to a friend on the eve of his death, which he met in a
silly duel at the age of twenty-one. This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of
ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of
mankind.

Great ideas are the enduring legacy of mankind. The empire of Napoleon stretched
briefly from Madrid to Moscow and quickly crumbled like the statue of Ozymandias.
But the concepts of liberte, egalite,fraternite, the proposition that "all men are created
equal," and yes, the idea of a group inspire us and shape who we are today.
The principal goal of this course is to trace the history of an idea, from Lagrange
to Gauss to Galois. The pursuit of this idea led mathematicians from the concrete world
of polynomial equations and regular polygons to the abstract realm of groups, fields,
and rings. This brave new world was so rare and strange that 100 years after Galois'
death, after the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics had revolutionized physics,
after another great European War and a social revolution in Russia, it would still be
called Modern Algebra in the title of the influential textbook by B. L. Van der Waerden
first published in 1931. Like Euclid's Elements, Van der Waerden's book represented a
summation and codification of a body of knowledge that had been accumulating over
the previous 160 years and had finally received an elegant and definitive treatment in
the course notes of two great mathematicians of the early 20th century, Emil Artin and
Emmy Noether.
Like the layered cities of the ancient Near East, Van der Waerden's algebra quickly
subsided into the solid foundation on which a new algebraic edifice would be built
out of categories and functors, varieties and morphisms, sheaves and schemes. Thus
the adjective modern became increasingly inappropriate, and it became fashionable
of late for textbooks to dub this material "abstract algebra." "Abstract" is of course
a relative term. Any student upon first encountering the "unknown" x in grade school
will probably assure you that even this algebra (and hence all algebra) is abstract, so the
adjective is redundant. At the other extreme, practitioners of late-20th-century algebra
will assure you that Van der Waerden's algebra is the concrete foundation for their modern
abstractions. All is relative.
Following Van der Waerden, most modern "abstract algebra" texts emphasize the
"abstract," beginning like Euclid with a set of axioms for a "group" or a "ring"and devel-
oping in true Euclidean fashion a collection of theorems about "groups" and "rings,"
as well as a few examples along the way, since groups and rings are not quite so
commonplace as the triangles and circles of Euclid's Elements.
 INTRODUCTION 3

The traditional approach has the advantage of efficiency but the defect of severing
the material from its historical roots and from its connections with the rest of the body
of mathematics. This text attempts a different approach, letting the abstract concepts
emerge gradually from less abstract problems about geometry, polynomials, numbers,
etc. This is how the subject evolved historically. This is how all good mathematics
evolves—abstraction and generalization is forced on us as we attempt to understand the
"concrete" and the particular.
In many ways this book is a throwback to a less abstract algebra, driven by the
problems that fascinated Lagrange, Gauss, and Abel. They helped fashion a tool—the
group—to solve their problem. Galois began the paradigm shift in which the study of
the internal structure of the tool itself became more interesting than the solution of the
original problem. This is the beginning of abstract algebra and the end of our text. In that
sense our text should be called An Invitation to Abstract Algebra, and the reader who
finds the subject enchanting is advised to study further in texts such as Topics in Algebra
by Herstein.
Section I begins with Euclid's geometry and anachronistically teases out the con-
cept of a group from his intuitive treatment of congruence. Here symmetry appears in its
most visual form with the regular polygons and polyhedra. Later the "hidden symmetries"
of the regular polygons will appear in the work of Gauss.
Section II begins the main theme of polynomial equations much as they were stud-
ied in Western Europe from the 1500s through the 1700s, and we watch the true historical
emergence of the concept of a group as it developed in the conversation of mathemati-
cians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It is appropriate here to acknowledge a
debt and to recommend enthusiastically the book Galois' Theory of Algebraic Equa-
tions by Jean-Pierre Tignol, which does a superb and detailed job of tracing how this
mathematics was made.
In Section III we turn to the elementary theory of numbers, beginning with Euclid
but focusing on its modern reemergence in the cryptic correspondence of Pierre de
Fermat and its clarification in the work of Leonhard Euler and Karl Gauss. The concepts
of domain and ring emerge as organizing principles and help clarify the similarities and
differences between numbers and polynomials. From 1644 to 1994, from Fermat to
Andrew Wiles, the Dulcinea of every number theorist's quest was the "Last Theorem" of
Fermat. Much of the work of Wiles and its immediate antecedents lies in the domain of
still-modern algebra, where this text dares not tread. Nevertheless we do present some
older work that helped clarify the important concept of unique factorization.
Finally we return to the subject of polynomial equations and study some of the
astonishing work of Karl Gauss on cyclotomic equations and the work of Evariste Galois,
which has come to be known as Galois Theory. Here the concept of a field comes to the
fore and a remarkable correspondence between fields and groups emerges.

ADVICE TO STUDENTS
A few words are in order about this book as a learning tool. It is likely that most if not all
of your previous math textbooks have employed the following format. Each section of
4 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

the text contains certain illustrative solved problems, designed to serve as templates for
most of the exercises. The exercises then, in general, are designed to hone the student's
skills at performing the calculations or implementing the algorithms illustrated in the
template problems.
Much of mathematics is facilitated by efficient algorithms and the mastery of
these algorithms for arithmetic, elementary algebra, calculus, linear algebra, etc., is
a foundation on which the study of higher mathematics sits. You have all achieved
reasonable mastery at this level. It is time to move on.
The material in this book has relatively little to do with computation and algorithm,
and quite a lot to do with concept and theory-building. For this task, template problems
are not helpful. What is essential is a careful and critical reading of the text and a precise
assimilation of the definitions and concepts.
By and large, the exercises in each section are designed to enable you to build
your own understanding of the concepts incrementally. Very often exercises depend
heavily on previous exercises. Sometimes you will be advised to use a certain previous
exercise, other times not. Usually the exercises begin with fairly easy applications of the
definitions and build up gradually.
Don't look for models or templates. You have the resources within yourself to
understand the concepts and do the exercises. The material in the first few chapters deals
with the elementary Euclidean geometry of the plane and of 6-space. Draw pictures to
help yourself visualize what the exercise is saying. Use your common sense. Many of the
early exercises are intuitively obvious. Then think about how to translate your common
sense into the formal language of mathematics.
At first this may be challenging. Ask questions of your instructor. Work with your
classmates.
The level of difficulty of the exercises is uneven. Sometimes an exercise may
appear so easy that you will think there is a "trick." Almost certainly there is no trick. It
is just a very easy exercise. Very difficult exercises are generally designated as "Bonus
Exercises," but some of the regular exercises are also quite challenging.
Abstract algebra has deep and important connections to the other branches of
mathematics. Sorry to say (I'm notreally sorry), you will be required to remember some
basic material that you learned in earlier courses—high school geometry, linear algebra,
and even a bit of calculus. Dust off your old textbooks and let's begin!

TO THE INSTRUCTOR
This book is somewhat terse. In consequence I recommend a more leisurely pace than
might be suggested by the number of pages. In particular, Chapters 2 and 3 are par-
ticularly rich in material and ideas, combining geometry, linear algebra, functions as
mappings, and groups. This would certainly be indigestible were it not all grounded
in the very concrete visual world of 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional geometry. Nev-
ertheless these two sections warrant a slow and careful treatment. By way of contrast,
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 are mostly computational algebra and serve as pleasant "comic
relief" after the rich stew of Chapter 3. (Chapter 7 is once again dense with new
 INTRODUCTION 5

ideas.) I believe that Chapter 6 deserves careful attention. To my amazement students

usually enter this upper-level course with essentially no knowledge of the complex
numbers.
At Ohio State, we have two parallel year-long abstract algebra sequences, one
designated "honors", the other not. This text is used in the non-honors version and I
think of the typical student as a future high school math teacher. For this reason, I have
tried to link the material to important themes in high school mathematics—Euclidean
geometry, polynomials, numbers, and functions.
In a year-long course, I still do not in general cover all of the material in the
book. Indeed, I am satisfied if I get through Chapter 16 and delighted if I get through
Chapter 18, while omitting the optional Chapters 9A and 15A.
If you are teaching a one-semester course, I think it is realistic (though I have never
tried this) to cover the following material:
Chapters 1-8, 10-12, and 16.
Chapter 7 can be given a "light", heuristic treatment. It may be viewed more as a
historical interlude rather than a body of material that needs to be presented rigorously
and digested fully. In any case, this set of chapters gives a nice sampling of geom-
etry, polynomial algebra, number theory and group theory, with highlights including
Fermat's Little Theorem, Lagrange's Theorem, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
and Gauss' proof of the constructibility of the regular 17-gon. Rings get short shrift. If
your students already know some or all of the basic number theory in Chapters 10-
12, then you might want to add Chapters 14 or 15 to touch on some ring theory.
Alternatively Chapters 17 and 18 will deepen their grasp of linear algebra and field
theory.
It seems impossible to write an algebra text at this level without culminating in the
beautiful Galois Theory, and likewise almost impossible to cover this material adequately,
except with honors students. I consider it an acceptable loss if future high school math
teachers do not see Galois Theory in this course, though of course I cherish the hope that
they will be inspired to keep the book and read it themselves some day.
Instead of the usual procedure of placing all of the exercises for a section at the
end of the section, I have interwoven the exercises into the body of the text. They
are however numbered sequentially throughout each section. I apologize for the extra
effort this entails in finding the exercises. As mentioned in the advice to the students
above, exercises very often build on previous exercises, even if this is not explicitly
indicated in the text. Skipping some exercises is a peril. It may make later otherwise
easy exercises difficult, if not impossible, for the students. I have learned that students
need to learn that it is not necessary, indeed counterproductive, to keep reinventing the
wheel. Theorems in the text and earlier exercises are meant to be used as tools to do later
exercises.
Usually, I do one or two of the exercises in class for the students, either before or
shortly after they are assigned, by way of illustration or template, especially in the early
part of the course. Then I usually give out solutions for most or all of the exercises, after
the students have submitted their work.
This material presents two challenges for the students. For me the most important is
the intuitive assimilation of the concepts, the internalization of such abstractions as group,
6 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ring, and field as almost palpable concrete objects that the students can play with and
study. The second is the mastery of the language and syntax of mathematical proof—the
translation of intuitive understanding into a formal system which communicates clearly
to other mathematicians. These are quite different challenges and the mastery of either
in the absence of the other is useless.
 CHAPTE R

o
BACKGROUN D

Although this course will proceed in a somewhat historical path, tracing the evolution of
certain basic algebraic ideas such as number, equation, and symmetry from early Greek
mathematics to the mid-19th century, we shall from the beginning freely make use of
algebraic notation, which did not emerge until the time of Descartes (early 1600s), and
of concepts such as set, function, equivalence relation, etc. of an even later vintage. (The
term function was perhaps first used by Leibniz in the early 1700s.)
Most, if not all, of these concepts should be familiar to you from earlier math
courses-precalculus, calculus, linear algebra, and/or foundations of higher mathematics.
For this reason, we provide only a very brief review of the most important notations and
concepts here. If you need more examples or lengthier explanations, ask your instructor
to recommend a good book to consult.
We assume an intuitive notion of the concept set. Some important sets for this
course are the sets Z of integers, N of natural numbers (nonnegative integers), Q of
rational numbers (fractions), R of real numbers, and C of complex numbers.

Definition. If D and T are two sets, then their Cartesian product is the set
Dx T = {(d,t) :de D,t eT}.

Perhaps the most famous and important Cartesian product is R x R = R 2 . If we

view R = R 1 geometrically as the "real number line," then R 2 is the "Cartesian plane."
Absolutely crucial to all that follows is a profound understanding of the concept
of a function, so we shall devote some time to this now. There are many ways to think
of a function. A function / may be thought of as a rule or correspondence that assigns
to each object x in some specified set D a uniquely determined object f(x) in some
(possibly different) set T. The set D is then called the domain of / and T is sometimes
called the target set of / . The subset
R = {/(*) eT :x e D)
is called the range of / . Thus D could be the set of all people living in the United States
on January 1,2001, T could be the set of all colors, and / could assign to each person his
or her hair color on January 1, 2001, assuming this could be determined unambiguously.

7
8 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

From this point of view, a function is simply a glorified two-column list, though the
set D may be unlistably large. The crucial feature is that the rule that determines f(x)
given x must yield the same answer no matter who is applying the rule. In your calculus
courses, you have become accustomed to examples of functions with domain R or R 2
in which the defining rule is given by a formula written in algebraic notation, such as

x
or

f(x,y) = 2x+y +x2y-4.

Closely related to a function / is its graph Gr(f), which is the following subset
ofDxI:
Gr(f) = {(x,f(x)):xeD}<DxT.
Clearly / and Gr(f) determine each other uniquely, and some mathematicians, who
like to derive all of mathematics from an axiomatic version of set theory, will identify /
and Gr(f), avoiding the undefined term rule or correspondence.
These ways of thinking about functions, though logically equivalent to all others,
are rather static. We shall prefer a dynamic concept of a function as a map or mapping.
We shall often wish to think of / as moving the "point" P in D to the point f(P) in T.
Indeed usually in this course, the sets D and T will coincide, and we shall think of /
as a "deformation"of D or as a "reshuffling" or permutation of the points of D. This
dynamic view is implicit in the notation / : D -» T.
For example, we may think of the function / : R -* R given by the rule
fix) = x2
as a rule for folding the real number line R = R 1 onto its nonnegative half, "pinning" it
together at 0 and 1, stretching out the subset (1, oo) and squeezing the points of (0, 1)
closer toward 0.
Likewise we may think of the function r : R 2 -> R 2 given by the rule
r(x,y) = (-y,x)
as a rule for rotating the Euclidean plane R 2 90° counterclockwise about the point (0, 0).
With this dynamic terminology, we shall speak of a point x in the domain of the
function / as a fixed point of / or as fixed by / if f(x) = x. Thus in the first example,
the fixed points of / are the points 0 and 1, and in the second example, the unique fixed
point of r is the point (0, 0).

Exercises
0.1. Consider the function T : R 2 —> R 2 defined by the rule T(x,y) = (—x, v).
Describe T geometrically as a mapping of the plane. What are the fixed points
ofT?
0.2. Consider the function S : R 2 -> R 2 defined by the rule S(x, y) = (x2, y). Describe
S as a mapping of the plane and determine the fixed points of S. •
 BACKGROUND 9

We shall be particularly interested in invertible functions. The following definitions

are relevant in this context.

Definition. We say that / is an onto or surjective function if R = T. For each r e /?,we set
f-\r) = {deD:f(d)=r}.
We say that / is a one-to-one or injective function if / _ 1 ( r ) contains only one element for
each r e R. If / is both one-to-one and onto, then we say that / is bijective or a one-to-one
correspondence or an isomorphism between D and T .If D = T and / : D -* D is bijective,
then often / is called a permutation of the set D, especially if D is a finite set. Whenever
/ : D -+ T is bijective, the set
{(t,f-\t)):teT}<TxD
is the graph of a function f~l : T -> D. We call f~l the inverse of the function / .

Definition. We say that the sets D and T have the same cardinality if there is a one-to-one
correspondence / : D —• T. We write |D| to denote the cardinality of the set D. If D has the
same cardinality as the set of natural numbers { l , 2 , . . . , w } , then we write \D\ = n.

Pigeon-Hole Principle. If A is a subset of the finite set B and if A and B have

the same cardinality, then A = B.

Note that the Pigeon-Hole Principle is true only for finite sets. For example the set
N of natural numbers and the set 2N of even natural numbers have the same cardinality
but are obviously not equal.
If D = T, then we can form the composition / o g of two functions / : D -> D
and g : D -> D:
fog(d) = f(g(d)).
Of course we can also form g o / , and usually these two functions are not equal. Again
it is useful to think of / o g dynamically as "first do g to D, then do / . " This operation
of composition of functions will be of absolutely crucial significance to us.
For any set D, there is a distinguished bijective function / : D —>• D, called the
identity function, defined by the rule
I(x) = x
for all x e D. Thus, speaking dynamically, / is the function that "does nothing" to D.
Every point of D is a fixed point of / .
If / : D -> D is a bijective function, then the inverse function / ~ 1 is characterized
by the functional equation
/ o Z"1 = / = Z"1 o /.
Note that in all cases, equality of functions

f = 8
means
f{x) = g(x) for all x e D,
where D is the domain of both / and g.
10 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

We continue this background section with a brief discussion of the concept of a

relation on a set Z), with particular attention to equivalence relations.

Definition. A relation i?ona set D is any subset of D x D. If (a,b) e R, we say that a is in

the relation Rtob.
R is said to be reflexive if R contains the diagonal set
A = {(d,d) :deD}.
R is symmetric if the following holds:
If (a,b) e R, then (b, a) € R.
R is transitive if the following holds:
If (a, b) e R and (b, c) e R, then (a, c) e R.
Finally we call R an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

If E is an equivalence relation on D and if a e D, then the set

Ea = {d e D : (a,d) e E]

is called the (E)-equivalence class containing a. Obviously every element of D lies in

exactly one E-equivalence class. Thus the set of E-equivalence classes forms a partition
of D into disjoint subsets. Conversely any partition P of D into disjoint subsets defines
an equivalence relation Ep via (a,b) e Ep if and only if a and b lie in the same subset
of the partition P.
Equivalence relations are central to mathematics. The quintessential equivalence
relation is equality, denoted by =. It is the finest of equivalence relations: An object is
equal only to itself. All other equivalence relations may be thought of as "filters" through
which we look at mathematical objects, ignoring certain differences and allowing only
the similarities to show through. Thus in Euclidean geometry, the congruence filter
ignores the position of objects and observes only their size and shape, while the even
darker similarity filter also ignores size and observes only shape. Equivalence relations
are crucial to our ability to make generalizations, to prove general theorems.
At a deeper level, an equivalence relation on one mathematical entity may be
used to define a new mathematical entity whose members are the equivalence classes
themselves. We shall see some examples of this type of construction, which appeared
first in the work of Gauss around 1800 and was one of the key constituents of the newly
emerging abstract algebra.
We shall repeatedly be considering sets with "operations" in the following sense.

Definition. A set D is said to be closed under a binary operation x (sometimes denoted + or o,

etc.) if x is a function:
x : D x D -+ D.
Usually we denote x (a, b) by a x b. We say that x is an associative operation if
a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c
 BACKGROUND 11

for all a, b, c e D, and we say that it is a commutative operation if

a x b=bxa
for all a, b e D.

Finally let's tie functions, equivalence relations, and sets with operations together.
Often an equivalence relation is defined by a collection T of bijective functions such that
two objects A and B are said to be equivalent (or more frequently, isomorphic) if there
is a function / e T with f(A) = B. When the objects A and B are sets with operations
(so that we have (A, x) and (B, +), for example), then we will require the function /
to satisfy
f(a x a!) = f(a) + f(af) for all a, a! e A.
Some of this may be bewildering. Don't worry. It is the purpose of this course to provide
examples that shed light on these abstractions.
The material of calculus beyond the functional concept will play very little role in
this course, although the derivative of a polynomial will surface occasionally. A larger
role will be played by linear algebra. Many of the fundamental concepts will be reviewed
when needed. A basic familiarity with matrix algebra (addition and multiplication) and
the elementary properties of the trace and determinant of a matrix will be assumed.

Exercises
0.3. Make up an example of a relation that is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
Make up another that is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. Make up a third
that is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive. •

Occasionally proofs in the text, and proofs requested of you as exercises, will best
be done by Mathematical Induction. Sometimes students come to believe that Mathe-
matical Induction is a "silver bullet" which should be used for all proofs. This is far from
the case. Rarely is "induction" the appropriate tool in any of the exercises. When it is,
you will usually be advised to use it.

The Principle of Mathematical Induction. Suppose that {P(0), P ( l ) , . . . } is a

set of mathematical statements indexed by the natural numbers. Suppose further
that the following two statements are true:
(a) The statement P (0) is true.
(b) For any natural number n, the truth of P(n) implies the truth of P(n + 1).
Then all of the statements P(0), P(l), . . . are true.
In fact this is really just a statement about sets of natural numbers:
Let S be a set of natural numbers about which the following statements are true:
(a) 0 is in S.
(b) Ifn is in S, then also n + 1 is in S.
Then S is the set N of all natural numbers.
12 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

An equivalent statement, the Well-Ordering Principle for N, will be formulated

later in the text.
Another equivalent statement is the following.

The Principle of Complete Mathematical Induction. Suppose that {P(0),

P ( l ) , . . . } is a set of mathematical statements indexed by the natural numbers.
Suppose further that the following two statements are true:
(a) P(0) is true;
(b) For any natural number n, the truth of P(k) for all k less than n implies the
truth of P(n).
Then all of the statements P(0), P ( l ) , . . . are true.

You will see some examples of proofs by (complete) mathematical induction in

the text, and you will have some opportunities in the exercises to practice creating such
proofs yourself.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 ¡Arcas! ¡Víctima sangrienta! Plantas, flores, ecos, liras;
—Malhadado y cruento crimen del infausto Lycaón;
en Arcadia los amores y los cánticos que inspiras,
y en el cielo, con Calixto, la inmortal constelación—.
Los dos osos son asombro para el Toro y el León.

¡Va Criniso! Muchas ansias lleva el mozo y vida mucha;

si cual toro lucha fiero, como oso mejor lucha
quien de Egesta será esposo;
cruje el monstruo entre sus brazos en la lucha que se escucha:
¡Lucha, oso! ¡Lucha, oso! ¡Lucha, oso! ¡Lucha, oso!

Bellos osos de oro rojo que ya estáis en el regazo

del azul donde el zodiaco sublimiza su visión;
de lira hacedme oir el son;
dad saludos a la Virgen en mi nombre, y un zarpazo,
si podéis, al Escorpión.

Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.
 Danzad suave y cuerdamente;
que la peluda alpargata
cubra la prudente pata
cuyo paso no se siente.
Y bajo la huyente frente
mirad con ojo mañero
al gitano,
que canta con voz de Oriente
un raro canto lejano
y hace sonar el pandero
con la mano
con que remienda el caldero.
A los sueldos de los pobres
encomienda alrededor vuestra persona,
y en el parche del pandero caen los cobres
por los osos, por el perro y por la mona.

Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.
 gitanilla pintoresca,
gitanilla de Cervantes,

A vuestro lado va la gitanilla.

Brilla
su mirada de negros diamantes,
y su boca roja es fresca;
gitanilla pintoresca,
gitanilla de Cervantes,
o Esmeralda huguesca.
Ya vosotros bien sabéis de quién os hablo,
Pues cien veces junto a ella contemplasteis cola y cuernos
del señor don Diablo,
protector de las lujurias en la tierra y los infiernos.
 Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.

Danzad, osos, oh cofrades, oh poetas;

id, chafad en las campiñas los tomillos y violetas,
y tornad entre las flores del sendero,
y danzad en el suburbio para el niño y el obrero,
para el hosco vagabundo de las escabrosas rutas,
para el pálido bandido que regó sangre y espanto,
y para las prostitutas
que mastican pan de crimen y de llanto.
Pues vuestra filosofía
no señala diferencia ni da halago ni reproche
a la mística azucena que adornó el pecho del día,
o a la lúgubre mandrágora de la entraña de la noche.

Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.
 Osos ermitaños
que ponéis pavores
en pastores
y rebaños;
el agudo cazador advierte
que os ponéis en cruz ante la muerte,
o para dar el formidable abrazo
que ha de exprimir la vida
contra vuestro regazo;
vais en dos patas como el adanida,
es así que he admirado
vuestro andar de canónigo, o bien de magistrado.
Con la argolla al hocico sacudís vuestra panza.
¡Osos sabios, osos fuertes y cautivos, a la danza!

Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.

Y al pasar un entierro
os he visto en la senda con la mona y el perro,
entre el círculo formado por hombres zarrapastrosos.
Grotescos enterradores
iban conduciendo el carro de podredumbre y de flores;
como signo de respeto
descubríanse un mendigo y un soldado.
El gitano se acordó de su amuleto.
Y tú, oso danzarín domesticado,
se diría que reías como estando en el secreto
del finado,
de la losa, de la cruz y el esqueleto.
 Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.

Mas no el requiem, ni el oremus, ni el responso del gangoso

Chantre llegue a vuestro oído,
sabio y suave oso;
mas el canto de las zíngaras, o la música del nido,
o la estrofa del poeta,
o el ruido de los besos, o el ruido
del amor errante ardiente en la carreta.

Bien sabéis: la vida es corta,

y teniendo en vuestras fauces una torta,
o un panal,
profesáis vuestros principios más allá del Bien y el Mal.

Osos,
osos misteriosos,
yo os diré la canción
de vuestra misteriosa evocación.
RITMOS ÍNTIMOS

María, en la primavera
era
como una divina flor.
MARÍA, EN LA PRIMAVERA
era
como una divina flor.
En la primavera estamos,
amos
de la vida y del amor.

María, sé la gallarda;
arda
tu corazón sin razón,
y ten la dicha que espero,
pero
dentro de tu corazón.

¡Oh, primaveral María!

Dios
te diera tantos diamantes
como los
amantes
que te besarán los pies.

Y después,
con muchas cosas supremas,
un palacio de oro y gemas.
Y después ...
Un príncipe enamorado
a tu lado,
para besarte los pies.

Estupendos pavos reales

a tus males
llevarán consolación,
y soberanos lebreles
siempre fieles,
soñarán tu corazón.
 Estatua viva y gallarda,
por ti arda
una misteriosa flor.
Y vibrante y anhelante
sé la amante
de la vida y del amor.

Deshójate como rosa.

Sé la esposa
de toda ilusión fugaz,
pues el tiempo al amor muerde,
y la ilusión que se pierde
ya no nos vuelve jamás.

Y así, María, sé blanca,

sé rosada y sé gentil,
sé melodiosa y sé franca
y de mañana y de Abril.

Sé muy fragante y muy buena,

parecida a la azucena.
Sé apasionada y sé fina,
parecida a la englantina.
Sé rosada y orgullosa
como si fueras la rosa.

En fin, María, sé bella,

sé parecida a la estrella;
toda luz, toda claror.
¡Vuela del mundo pequeño,
sé parecida al ensueño
al ensueño y al amor!
BALADA DE LA
BELLA NIÑA
DEL BRASIL
 Es una princesita rosa
que amara Katy Grenaway.

EXISTE UN PAÍS ENCANTADO

donde las horas son tan bellas
que el tiempo va a paso callado
sobre diamantes, bajo estrellas.
Odas, cantares o querellas
se lanzan al aire sutil
en gloria de perpetuo Abril,
pues allí la flor preferida
para mí, es Ana Margarida,
la niña bella del Brasil.

Dulce, dorada y primorosa,

infanta de lírico rey,
Es una princesita rosa
que amara Katy Grenaway.
Buscará por la eterna ley
el pájaro azul de Tyltil,
si tú, oboe, arpa, añafil,
cuando Aurora a vivir convida,
adorable a Ana Margarida,
La niña bella del Brasil.

ENVÍO
 ¡Princesa en flor, nada en la vida
hecho de oro, rosa y marfil,
iguala a esta joya querida:
La pequeña Ana Margarida,
La niña bella del Brasil!
Existe un mágico Eldorado
en donde Amor de rey está,
donde hay Tijuca y Corcovado,
y donde canta el sabiá.
El tesoro divino da
allí mil hechizos y mil
sueños; mas nada tan gentil
como la flor de alba encendida
que he visto en Ana Margarida,
la única bella del Brasil.
DANZAS GYMNESIANAS
BOLERAS
DANZAN, DANZAN LOS PAYESES
las boleras mallorquinas;
forman sus ochos y eses
al son de las bandolinas.

Danzar veo una pareja;

él danza como los majos;
ella está toda bermeja
y tiene los ojos bajos.

Cantan los músicos alto

a acompasados compases;
el bailarín da su salto
y hay pases y contrapases.

Otra mujer se aficiona,

si algo gallarda algo fea,
y aunque es un poco jamona
muy bien que se zarandea.

Luego va una adolescente

calipigia y de ojo brujo,
con una cara inocente,
de hacer pecar a un cartujo.

Y al vocerío sonoro
ella gira y se gobierna
con tal cuidado y decoro
que apenas se ve la pierna.

La payesita galana
No mueve, en su fuga arisca,
el talle, a la gaditana,
los senos, a la morisca.

Sino que ella como el

 Sino que ella, como el
compañero payesito,
desempeñan el papel
como quien oficia un rito.

Se regocija la sala
cuando hecha rosa y jazmín
sale una alegre zagala
con un payés chiquitín.

A ella en sus vueltas graciosas

el dulce ritmo la impele,
y él hace unas raras cosas
con sus brazos de pelele.

Los mozos están gozosos,

las niñas tienen ojeras,
y hay indicios voluptuosos
en estas graves boleras.

Ya no hay buenos feligreses,

ya no hay beatas Catarinas ...
Danzan, danzan los payeses
las boleras mallorquinas.
 ÍNDICE
Páginas
POEMA DEL OTOÑO
Dedicatoria: A Mariano Miguel de Val 7
Intermezzo tropical:
I.—Mediodía 33
II.—Vesperal 39
III.—Canción otoñal 45
IV.—Raza 53
V.—Canción 57
VI.—A doña Blanca de Zelaye 65
VIII.—A Margarita Debayle 69
IX.—En casa del doctor Luis H. Debayle—Toast 81

Varia:

Santa Elena de Montenegro 89

Gaita galaica 101
A Mistral 105
El clavicordio de la abuela 109
OTROS POEMAS
La Cartuja 121
Pequeño poema de carnaval 131
Valldemosa 145
Los motivos del lobo 151
La rosa niña 165
La canción de los osos 174
Ritmos íntimos 189
Balada de la bella niña del Brasil 197
Danzas gynesianas 205
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POEMA DEL OTOÑO
Y OTROS POEMAS ***

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