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 Series
SeriesISSN:
Series ISSN:1946-7680
ISSN: 1946-7680
1946-7680

JOHNSON
JOHNSON ••• HENDERSON
JOHNSON
SSYNTHESIS
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C
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About
AboutSYNTHESIs
About SYNTHESIs
SYNTHESIs
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printed versionof
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of workthat
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of Engineeringand
Engineering andComputer
and ComputerScience.
Computer Science. Synthesis
Science. SynthesisLectures
Synthesis Lectures
Lectures

Mor
Morgan
Mor
provide
provide concise,
provideconcise, original
concise,original presentations
originalpresentations
presentationsof of important
ofimportant research
importantresearch and
researchand development
anddevelopment
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topics, publishedquickly,
published quickly,in
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in digitaland
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visitwww.morganclaypool.com
visit www.morganclaypool.com
www.morganclaypool.com
SSYNTHESIS
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ECTURES ON
ON

&Claypool
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ISBN:
ISBN: 978-1-60845-749-6
ISBN: 978-1-60845-749-6
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90000
90000
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HUMAN-
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CENTERED
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457496
John
JohnM.
John M.Carroll,
M. Carroll,Series
Carroll, SeriesEditor
Series Editor
Editor
Conceptual Models
Core to Good Design
 Synthesis Lectures on
Human-Centered Informatics
Editor
John M. Carroll, Penn State University

Human-Centered Informatics (HCI) is the intersection of the cultural, the social, the cognitive,
and the aesthetic with computing and information technology. It encompasses a huge range of
issues, theories, technologies, designs, tools, environments and human experiences in knowledge
work, recreation and leisure activity, teaching and learning, and the potpourri of everyday life. The
series will publish state-of-the-art syntheses, case studies, and tutorials in key areas. It will share
the focus of leading international conferences in HCI.

Conceptual Models: Core to Good Design

Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson
2011

Geographical Design: Spatial Cognition and Geographical Information Science

Stephen C. Hirtle
2011

User-Centered Agile Methods

Hugh Beyer
2010

Experience-Centered Design: Designers, Users, and Communities in Dialogue

Peter Wright and John McCarthy
2010

Experience Design: Technology for All the Right Reasons

Marc Hassenzahl
2010

Designing and Evaluating Usable Technology in Industrial Research: Three Case Studies
Clare-Marie Karat and John Karat
2010
 iii
Interacting with Information
Ann Blandford and Simon Attfield
2010

Designing for User Engagement: Aesthetic and Attractive User Interfaces

Alistair Sutcliffe
2009

Context-Aware Mobile Computing: Affordances of Space, Social Awareness, and Social

Influence
Geri Gay
2009

Studies of Work and the Workplace in HCI: Concepts and Techniques

Graham Button and Wes Sharrock
2009

Semiotic Engineering Methods for Scientific Research in HCI

Clarisse Sieckenius de Souza and Carla Faria Leitão
2009

Common Ground in Electronically Mediated Conversation

Andrew Monk
2008
Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in
printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Conceptual Models: Core to Good Design

Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781608457496 paperback

ISBN: 9781608457502 ebook

DOI 10.2200/S00391ED1V01Y201111HCI012

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON HUMAN-CENTERED INFORMATICS

Lecture #12
Series Editor: John M. Carroll, Penn State University
Series ISSN
Synthesis Lectures on Human-Centered Informatics
Print 1946-7680 Electronic 1946-7699
Conceptual Models
Core to Good Design

Jeff Johnson
UI Wizards, Inc.

Austin Henderson
Rivendel Consulting & Design

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON HUMAN-CENTERED INFORMATICS #12

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
People make use of software applications in their activities, applying them as tools in carrying
out tasks. That this use should be good for people – easy, effective, efficient, and enjoyable – is
a principal goal of design. In this book, we present the notion of Conceptual Models, and argue
that Conceptual Models are core to achieving good design. From years of helping companies create
software applications, we have come to believe that building applications without Conceptual Models
is just asking for designs that will be confusing and difficult to learn, remember, and use.
We show how Conceptual Models are the central link between the elements involved in
application use: people’s tasks (task domains), the use of tools to perform the tasks, the conceptual
structure of those tools, the presentation of the conceptual model (i.e., the user interface), the language
used to describe it, its implementation, and the learning that people must do to use the application.
We further show that putting a Conceptual Model at the center of the design and development
process can pay rich dividends: designs that are simpler and mesh better with users’ tasks, avoidance
of unnecessary features, easier documentation, faster development, improved customer uptake, and
decreased need for training and customer support.

KEYWORDS
conceptual model, conceptual design, concepts, task-domain, tasks, tools, task-to-tool
mapping, object/operations analysis, interaction design, user interface design, applica-
tion design, software design, design, usability, software development method, software
development process
 vii

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Using Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Task Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Task-to-tool Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Describing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.1 Task-Based Descriptions of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.2 Model-Based Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Seeing the Model Through the User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Implementation Architecture and Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.10 Mental Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11 Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Start with the Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Design (and Implement) Functionality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Duplicate the Existing Activity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Design (Sketch) the User Interface? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Start with Conceptual Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Important Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Conceptual Design’s Place in Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 What a Conceptual Model Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 High-Level Description of an Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
viii
3.1.2 Basis for Users’ Understanding of the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.3 Close Relative: Information Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.4 Summary: What a Conceptual Model Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 What a Conceptual Model Is Not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1 Not Task-Level Scenarios or Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.2 Not Users’ Mental Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.3 Not a Design Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.4 Not the User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.5 Not the Implementation Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.6 Not Product Designer’s “Concept Design” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Design Goals for Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.1 Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.2 Task-Focused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Purpose & High-Level Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Major Concepts and Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Objects/Operations Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3.1 Declares Concepts that the Application will Expose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 Introduces New Concepts, if Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.3 Hides Concepts that Once Were Necessary but No Longer Are . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.4 Shows Relationships Between Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4 Example of Objects/Operation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.5 Conceptual Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.6 Mapping from Task-Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1 Overall Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2 High-Level Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.3 Major Concepts and Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4 Object-Operations Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.1 Formatting Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.2 Object-Operations Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.5 Mapping: Task Hierarchy Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.6 Resolved Conceptual Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.7 Open Conceptual Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
 ix
6 Essential Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1 Basic Object/Operations Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1.1 Assign Operations and Attributes to Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1.2 Assign Operations to the Appropriate Object(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1.3 Decide How to Model Similar Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1.4 Decide Whether to Include the Generic Object Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.1.5 Decide What Type of Values an Attribute Has . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.1.6 Decide How Detailed to be in Modeling Common Operations . . . . . . . . . 52
6.1.7 Include All Task-Relevant Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.1.8 Part-of and Containment Relationships Need Not Always be
Distinguished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2 Supporting Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2.1 Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2.2 Progressive Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2.3 Component Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2.4 Surrounding Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2.5 Object-Oriented vs. Task-Oriented User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3 Conceptual Model vs. User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3.1 View vs. Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3.2 Interactive Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4 Object Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.4.1 Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.4.2 Synchronizing Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.4.3 Inheriting Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.4 What Work is Saved, When? And Can I Reverse It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7 Optional Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1 Going Meta: Activity as Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1.1 Managing Trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1.2 Anticipating Trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.1.3 Macros: Capturing Work Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Evolving the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2.1 Managed Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2.2 Anticipated Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2.3 Versioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.2.4 Unanticipated Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2.5 Embedding in Social Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
x
8 Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.1 First Step of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2 Start with User Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3 The Conceptual Model Needs a Place at the Project Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.1 Coordination is Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.3.2 One Team-member Should Drive the Conceptual Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.3.3 Include Developers, but Keep the Conceptual Model Focused on Tasks . . 74
8.4 Use the Conceptual Model to Coordinate Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.5 Representing Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.6 Iterate, Iterate, Iterate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.7 Including Conceptual Models in Agile Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.8 Testing Conceptual Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

9 Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.1 Produces a Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2 Facilitates Creation of High-Level Task Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3 Facilitates Creation of User Documentation, Training, and Support . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.4 Focuses the User Interface Design: Gives Designers a Clear Target . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.5 Jump-Starts and Focuses the Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.6 Saves Time and Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

10 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Authors’ Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
 xi

Preface
We have been interested in Conceptual Models for years. We both lived through the rough and
tumble days of inventing the future at Xerox and understand just how hard it has been for the
world to develop applications that work as well as they do. A continuing subject of discussion for all
concerned has been the “model of the system,” the view of the application that the designers hope
people will adopt when using the application.
Yet in all this time, there has been a lack of clarity about exactly what these models are. This is
not entirely surprising, seeing as there are so many different kinds of models, and modeling is such
an endemic effort in the development of systems.
For that reason, in 2002 we wrote an article for interactions magazine – a 2500 word attempt to
encourage designers to “begin by designing what to design”. In the intervening decade, we have re-
ceived sporadic reports that that article has been helpful to some designers and developers. However,
conceptual models do not seem to have become common in accepted practice.
We also noticed that our own interest in conceptual models continued to evolve. We realized
that there was much more to say than we said in the Interactions article. We felt that conceptual
models should be discussed more thoroughly and in a place that was readily available to all engaged
in developing applications or studying how to develop them.
This book is the result.

Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson

November 2011
 xiii

Acknowledgments
We thank Jack Carroll for offering to publish this in his “Human-Centered Informatics” series at
Morgan & Claypool. His encouragement has been supportive. We thank Diane Cerra for her help in
setting direction and managing the mechanics of this undertaking. We thank our colleagues Robin
Jeffries, Jon Meads, Susan Fowler, and Nigel Bevan for their helpful feedback on our first draft. We
also thank Jon Meads for allowing us to use two of his diagrams (Fig. 8.3 courtesy of Jon Meads,
copyright © 2011 Jon Meads). We thank those who helped edit and design this book.
Finally, we each have people we would like to acknowledge.
Austin Henderson: I want to acknowledge many people for conversations over the years that
have touched on conceptual models, particularly,Tom Moran, Stuart Card, John Rheinfrank, Shelley
Evenson, Don Norman, David Asano, Hugh Dubberly, Jed Harris and, of course, most centrally,
Jeff Johnson. I want to thank my wife Lynne for invaluable support and encouragement while this
work has been underway.
Jeff Johnson: I acknowledge the many insights I have gained as a result of discussions — and
arguments — about interaction design and conceptual models over the years with many colleagues
with whom I have worked: Robin Jeffries, Bonnie Nardi, Steve Whittaker, Terry Roberts, Chuck
Clanton, Stuart Card, and of course, Austin Henderson. I also acknowledge the support and patience
of my wife Karen Ande as this book was being written.

Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson

November 2011
 1

Introduction
This book presents and argues that a good Conceptual Model (CM) should be at the core of
the design of every artifact that people use to help them get their work done. This includes software
products, electronic appliances, and web services, but also products more generally and even human
services1 .
Those unfamiliar with interaction design often consider it to be designing the user interface
or “skin” of an application: the controls, displays, error messages, use of colors, layout, etc. However,
the interaction design for an application is more than just the controls, displays, etc. that comprise
its user interface. The interaction design goes deeper than the skin: it includes all concepts that the
application’s user interface exposes to users, and it includes the sequences of operations that users
execute to accomplish the application’s supported tasks. The interaction design has roots that extend
deep into an application’s architecture and implementation — including into any back-end services
the application uses. Thus, an interaction design consists of concepts, task-flow, and presentation.
A key part of interaction design is creating a conceptual model of an application. The purpose
of conceptual design — of creating a conceptual model — is to get the concepts and their rela-
tionships right, to enable the desired task-flow. Obviously, it makes sense to get the concepts and
their relationships right before designing how those concepts will be implemented or presented. In
other words, start by designing how the user would ideally think about the application and its use in
supporting tasks. Indeed, shape the whole development process around creating and delivering a
good conceptual model.

A FEW EXAMPLES
Let’s consider examples of conceptual models. Here are a number of possible pairs of alternative
conceptual models, any of which could be quite acceptable given different circumstances. However,
the designer must choose one of them (or invent yet another alternative) because these alternative
conceptual models are incompatible.
Assume you are designing the following:

• Support for discussion grouped around topics. Is the structure:

a) a set of topics, each with a flat list of responses, or

b) a hierarchy of postings, each potentially with responses?

1 For simplicity, this book uses the term “application” to cover all such technologies.
2 INTRODUCTION
• An application for creating newsletters. Is a newsletter:

a) a list of items, or
b) a set of pages, each with layout of items?

• A calendar for managing events and appointments. Is the calendar:

a) a list of days, or
b) a list of events?

• An application for creating and editing organization charts. Is an organization chart:

a) a tree structure of organizations and employees, and attributes thereof, or

b) a set of organizations and employees, linked together in a variety of ways?

THE BENEFITS OF CONCEPTUAL MODELS

This book argues that a conceptual model:

• helps focus the design of the application by coupling the design to the tasks that the
user is doing;

• supports having a good process for developing that design into a product; and

• makes using the application easier for the user.

Since the design, process, and experience of use are all informed by the conceptual model, these all
feed off each other and grow together.

ORGANIZATION
The book is organized as follows. (Please see the figure on page 3.)
Chapters 1 and 2 set the context within which conceptual models are important. Chapter 1
(Using Tools) reviews the role of tools in helping people to get work done. It introduces key concepts
and terms (e.g., task domain, task, application, mental model, conceptual model, user interface,
implementation). With the place of tools established, Chapter 2 (Start with the Conceptual Model)
provides sketches of several alternative ways that people carry out design, starting with the task, the
user interface, or the implementation; instead it is argued that the place to start is by designing the
conceptual model.
These initial two chapters are intended to provide those new to the design of tools with
sufficient background knowledge to understand the rest of the book. Those experienced in the
theory and/or practice of designing tools may want to skip Chapters 1 and 2 and start with Chapter 3.
However, first they may want to check how our terms align with those with which they are familiar.
 INTRODUCTION 3
Chapters 1-2. Context of CMs: Designing 
tools to help people get tasks done:
1. Using tools to do work; 1. 2.
Using Start with
2. Where to start design. tools the CM

Chapters 3-5. Shape of CMs: Introduction

to conceptual models: 
3. What they are and are not;
4. Their parts and structure; 3. 4. 5.
Definition Structure Example
5. A full example.

Chapters 6-9. Building CMs: Applying

conceptual models to the practical realities 

of design: 6. 7. 8. 9.
6. Essential modeling issues; Essential Optional Process Value
Modeling Modeling
7. Optional modeling issues;
8. Recommended processes;
9. Value of CMs.

Chapters 3 – 5 explain what conceptual models are. Chapter 3 (Definition) introduces concep-
tual models and the purpose they serve. Chapter 4 (Structure) describes how they are structured (ob-
jects/attributes/operations) and some common ways of denoting them (e.g., UML, concept maps).
Both Chapters 3 and 4 are filled with parts of examples. Chapter 5 (Example) provides a much
more complete, and so larger, worked example. Most readers will want to focus on Chapter 4, with
Chapters 3 and 5 providing scaffolding.
Chapters 6 – 9 discuss building and using conceptual models. Chapter 6 (Essential Modeling)
describes how common configurations of concepts (e.g., types, specialization) can be expressed using
the objects/attributes/operations structure of conceptual models. Chapter 7 (Optional Modeling)
raises some advanced issues that designers may choose to address in their conceptual models. Chap-
ter 8 (Process) discusses how the conceptual model can and should play a continuing role in enabling
the many perspectives on a design to create and maintain alignment with each other throughout the
course of the development of tools. Chapter 9 (Value) discusses the benefits that conceptual models
can bring to the development of tools, and therefore to users in their work of getting their tasks
done.
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