Absolutely!

Here's a detailed and comprehensive guide to Plastic, covering its

origins, types, production, uses, environmental impact, and global efforts to
manage plastic pollution.

🧴 Comprehensive Guide to Plastic

Plastic is one of the most widely used and transformative materials in modern
society. Lightweight, moldable, durable, and cheap to produce, it’s found in
everything from packaging and electronics to construction and healthcare. But its
durability also leads to persistent environmental problems.

1. 🧪 What Is Plastic?
🔬 Definition:
Plastic is a synthetic or semi-synthetic material made from polymers — long
chains of repeating molecules derived mostly from petroleum or natural gas.

🔁 Key Properties:
●​ Lightweight​

●​ Moldable into any shape​

●​ Resistant to water, chemicals, and decay​

 ●​ Inexpensive to manufacture​

2. 🕰️ History of Plastic
Year Milestone

1869 Celluloid invented by John Wesley Hyatt as ivory substitute

1907 Bakelite: First fully synthetic plastic by Leo Baekeland

1930s–50s Rise of PVC, polyethylene, nylon during WWII

1970s–90s Global plastic production explodes due to packaging, electronics,

and consumer goods

2000s–Tod Growing awareness of plastic pollution and search for

ay alternatives

3. 🧱 Types of Plastics
🔁 Thermoplastics (can be melted and reshaped)
 Plastic Abbreviatio Common Uses
n

Polyethylene PE Bags, bottles, containers

Polypropylene PP Straws, yogurt cups,

automotive parts

Polyethylene PET Soda bottles, clothing fibers

Terephthalate

Polystyrene PS Foam cups, packaging

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC Pipes, cables, medical tubing

🔒 Thermosetting Plastics (set permanently when molded)

Plastic Use

Epoxy Adhesives,
electronics

Bakelite Electrical
insulators
Melamin Kitchenware,
e laminates

4. 🏭 How Is Plastic Made?

🔄 Plastic Production Process:
1.​ Extraction: Oil and gas are extracted.​

2.​ Cracking: Hydrocarbons are broken down into monomers like ethylene and
propylene.​

3.​ Polymerization: Monomers are chemically bonded into polymers.​

4.​ Forming: The plastic is shaped through molding, extrusion, or 3D printing.​

5.​ Finishing: Plastics are cut, painted, or combined with additives.​

5. 📦 Where Is Plastic Used?

🛍️ Major Sectors:
Sector Example Uses
Packaging Food wraps, bottles, containers (largest
use ~40%)

Constructi Pipes, insulation, windows

on

Automotiv Bumpers, dashboards

e

Healthcare Syringes, IV bags, PPE

Electronic Casings, cables, circuit boards

s

Textiles Polyester, nylon in clothing

6. 🌍 Environmental Impact
🗑️ Waste Crisis:
●​ Over 8.3 billion metric tons of plastic produced since the 1950s.​

●​ Only 9% has been recycled; most ends in landfills or nature.​

🐢 Plastic Pollution:
 ●​ Plastic does not biodegrade, it breaks into microplastics.​

●​ Found in oceans, soil, air, and even human blood and breast milk.​

🌊 Marine Life Impact:

●​ 100,000+ marine animals die yearly from plastic entanglement or ingestion.​

●​ Microplastics harm fish, plankton, and seabirds, disrupting ecosystems.​

♨️ Climate Change:
●​ Plastic production and incineration emit greenhouse gases.​

●​ Estimated to contribute 1.8 billion metric tons CO₂ annually.​

7. 🔁 Recycling and Alternatives

♻️ Recycling Symbols:
Cod Type Recyclable?
e

1 PET Widely recyclable

2 HDP Widely recyclable
E

3–7 Varie Rarely or conditionally

s recycled

🔄 Circular Solutions:
●​ Mechanical recycling: Melts and reshapes plastic.​

●​ Chemical recycling: Breaks down plastic to original monomers.​

●​ Bioplastics: Made from plants (e.g., corn starch, sugarcane).​

●​ Compostable plastics: Break down under specific industrial conditions.​

8. 📜 Global Responses
🌐 International Agreements
●​ UN Global Plastic Treaty (in progress)​

●​ Basel Convention: Controls cross-border movement of plastic waste.​

🏛️ National Bans and Policies

 ●​ Plastic bag bans: Implemented in 100+ countries.​

●​ Single-use plastic bans: Includes straws, cutlery, and microbeads.​

●​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Makes producers pay for waste.​

9. 💡 Innovations in Plastic Alternatives

●​ Mushroom-based packaging​

●​ Seaweed-based films​

●​ Bacterial plastic (PHA, PLA)​

●​ Edible packaging for food​

●​ Recycled ocean plastics used in fashion and furniture​

10. 🧠 What You Can Do

●​ Avoid single-use plastics (bags, bottles, straws)​

●​ Choose reusable alternatives (metal, glass, fabric)​

 ●​ Support plastic-free brands and zero-waste stores​

●​ Separate and clean recyclables​

●​ Participate in or organize clean-up efforts​

🌐 Fast Facts About Plastic

Fact Data

Year plastic was 1869

invented

Plastic in oceans per ~11 million

year tons

Time plastic takes to 400–1000 years

degrade

Global production ~400 million

(2023) tons

Most common plastic Polyethylene

(PE)
Would you like a visual infographic of plastic types and recycling symbols, or a
timeline showing plastic's impact over the decades?

Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic materials that use

polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be
molded, extruded, or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This
adaptability, combined with a wide range of other properties, such as being
lightweight, durable, flexible, nontoxic, and inexpensive to produce, has led to
[1]
their widespread use around the world. Most plastics are derived from natural

gas and petroleum, and a small fraction from renewable materials, with one such
[2]
material being polylactic acid.

Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have
been made, with more than half of this amount being produced since 2004. In
2023 alone, preliminary figures indicate that over 400 million metric tons of
[3]
plastic were produced worldwide. If global trends in plastic demand continue, it

is projected that annual global plastic production will exceed 1.3 billion tons by
[3]
2060. The primary uses for plastic include packaging, which makes up about

40% of its usage, and building and construction, which makes up about 20% of its
[1]
usage.

The success and dominance of plastics since the early 20th century has had
major benefits for mankind, ranging from medical devices to light-weight
construction materials. The sewage systems in many countries relies on the
resiliency and adaptability of polyvinyl chloride. It is also true that plastics are the
[4]
basis of widespread environmental concerns, due to their slow decomposition

rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused. Some is
unsuitable for reuse. Much is captured in landfills or as plastic pollution.
Particular concern focuses on microplastics. Marine plastic pollution, for
example, creates garbage patches. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14%
[5]
has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.

In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and

roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl
[6] [6]
siding. Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic ), furniture, and
[6]
toys. In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of
[6]
India's consumption is used in packaging. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is

produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years.

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907,
[7] [8]
by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term "plastics". Dozens of different types

of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in

product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes
because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the
materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who
has been called "the father of polymer chemistry", and Herman Mark, known as
[9]
"the father of polymer physics".

Etymology
The word plastic derives from the Ancient Greek πλαστικός (plastikos), meaning
"capable of being shaped or molded." In turn, this derives from πλαστός
 [10]
(plastos), meaning "molded." As a noun, the word plastic most commonly
[11]
refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.

The word plasticity, as a noun, specifically refers to the deformability of the

materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding,
extrusion, or compression into a variety of shapes, including films, fibers, plates,
tubes, bottles, and boxes, among many others. In materials science, plasticity
also has a more technical definition, describing the nonreversible change in form
of solid substances when subjected to external forces. However, this definition
extends beyond the scope of this article.

Structure
See also: Polymer

[12]
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers

are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of
oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units
formed from monomers. Each polymer chain consists of several thousand
repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the main path,
linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a
plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone;
they are usually attached to the monomers before the monomers themselves are
linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains
influences the properties of the polymer.

Classifications
Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's
backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the
acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics
can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as
[13]
condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking. They can also be classified by

their physical properties, including hardness, density, tensile strength, thermal

resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can additionally be
classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes,
[14]
such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. Other

classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or

product design for a particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics,
thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics, engineering plastics
and elastomers.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

A plastic handle from a kitchen utensil, deformed by heat and partially melted

One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical

processes used to make them are reversible or not.
Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when
heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE),
[15]
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after
[16]
they have solidified, they stay solid and retain their shape permanently. If

reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. Examples of thermosets

include epoxy resin, polyimide, and Bakelite. The vulcanization of rubber is an
example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber
(polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material, and after vulcanization, the
product is dry and rigid.

Elastomers consist of
Thermosets consist
wide-meshed
of closely
cross-linked polymers. Thermoplastics consist of
cross-linked
The wide mesh allows non-crosslinked polymers,
polymers.
the material to stretch often with a semi-crystalline
Cross-links are
under tensile load. structure (shown in red).
shown as red dots in
the figure.
 They have a glass transition
temperature and are fusible.

Commodity, engineering, and high-performance plastics

Commodity plastics

Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics

Approximately 80% of global plastic production includes commodity plastics, a

type of plastics primarily chosen for their low cost and ease of manufacturing.
These plastics are mass-produced and used in everyday applications such as
packaging, food containers, and household products. Most commodity plastics
are identifiable by their Resin Identification Codes (RICs), a standardized
numbering system developed by ASTM International.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

 High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD),

Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)

Beyond the six most widely recognized listed above, there are more commodity
plastics that are also mass-produced and commonly used, such as polyurethanes
(PURs). PURs are a class of plastics also designated as commodity plastics due
to their low cost, ease of manufacturing, and versatility. However, they lack RICs
because they encompass many chemically diverse formulations such as foams
and adhesives.

Packaging represents the largest application of commodity plastics, consuming

146 million metric tons (36% of global production) in 2015 alone. Beyond
packaging, however, these plastics are critical in various other fields such as
agriculture, construction, consumer goods, and healthcare.

Although many traits such as durability and resistance to biodegradability are

desirable in various applications, they have led to significant environmental
issues. An estimated 8 to 12 million tons of plastic enter oceans annually,
primarily from mismanaged packaging waste. Commodity plastics account for the
majority of this pollution, as their recycling rates remain low (e.g., only ~9% of all
plastics are recycled globally). Microplastics derived from their degradation
further threaten ecosystems and human health.

A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many
having exceptional properties.

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on

reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the
Chart extension, can be found on Phabricator and on
MediaWiki.org.

Polymer Production Percentag Polymer Thermal

(Mt) e of all type character
plastics
(%)

Low-density 64 15.7 Polyolefin Thermoplast

polyethylene ic
(LDPE)

High-density 52 12.8 Polyolefin Thermoplast

polyethylene ic
(HDPE)

polypropylene 68 16.7 Polyolefin Thermoplast

(PP) ic
Polystyrene 25 6.1 Unsaturated Thermoplast
(PS) polyolefin ic

Polyvinyl 38 9.3 Halogenated Thermoplast

chloride (PVC) ic

Polyethylene 33 8.1 Condensatio Thermoplast

terephthalate n ic
(PET)

Polyurethane 27 6.6 Condensatio [1

Thermoset
(PUR) n 8]

PP&A 59 14.5 Condensatio Thermoplast

[19] n ic
Fibers

All Others 16 3.9 Various Varies

Additives 25 6.1 - -

Total 407 100 - -

Engineering plastics

Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to manufacture products such
as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In
some cases, they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together
(ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering
their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of
modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle
[20]
weight.

●​ Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g.,

computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipes
●​ High-impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator liners, food packaging, and
vending cups
●​ Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security
windows, traffic lights, and lenses
●​ Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of
PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and
exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies
●​ Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery
blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings
●​ Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact lenses (of the
original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various
trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, and Oroglas),
fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also
forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints, when
suspended in water with the use of other agents.
●​ Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants
but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin
for industrial paints
●​ Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a
multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for
plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings
High-performance plastics

High-performance plastics are a category of polymers exhibiting superior

properties compared to commodity and engineering plastics. These plastics can
withstand high temperatures, often above 302°F (150°C), are highly resistant to
chemical corrosion and degradation, have excellent mechanical and electric
properties, and are lightweight and extremely versatile.

●​ Aramids: best known for their use in the manufacture of body armor,
this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers also has
applications in aerospace and military and includes Kevlar, Nomex, and
Twaron.
●​ Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes (UHMWPE)
●​ Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant
thermoplastic; its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant
applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive
commercial polymers.
●​ Polyetherimide (PEI): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer
that does not crystallize
●​ Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton
tape
●​ Polysulfone (PS): high-temperature melt-processable resin used in
membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other
high-temperature applications
●​ Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE): heat-resistant, low-friction coatings
used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape, and water
slides
●​ Polyamide-imide (PAI): high-performance engineering plastic
extensively used in high-performance gears, switches, transmissions,
[21]
and other automotive components and aerospace parts
 ●​ Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS): extreme chemical resistance, flame
retardancy, and thermal stability (up to 428°F).
●​ Polyethersulfone (PES): best known for their clarity, high-temperature
resistance (up to 392°F), and biocompatibility. Commonly used in
medical devices, food-grade equipment, and aerospace lighting.
●​ Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): a nonreactive thermoplastic
fluoropolymer known for extreme chemical resistance, ultraviolet
stability, and piezoelectric properties. Commonly used in semiconductor
tubing, lithium-ion battery binders, and architectural coatings.
●​ Liquid-crystal polymers (LCPs): a class of polymers combining the
properties of both liquids and crystals, known for extreme dimensional
stability, low thermal expansion, and high dielectric strength. Commonly
used in miniature electronics, fiber-optic cables, and surgical devices.
●​ Polyimides (PIs): a class of high-performance thermosets, able to
operate up to 572°F and best known for their excellent dielectric
properties and radiation resistance. Commonly used in flexible printed
circuits, space suit layers, and jet engine components.
●​ Polybenzimidazole (PBI): extremely high heat resistance (up to 752°F
short-term), low outgassing, and flame resistance. Commonly used in
firefighting gear, semiconductor tools, and aerospace thermal shields.
●​ Bismaleimide (BMI): known for its high glass transition temperature
(around 482°F) and low moisture absorption. Commonly used in
composite aircraft matrices and military radar systems.
●​ Cyanate esters: known for their low dielectric loss and space-grade
radiation resistance. Commonly used in satellite components and radar
antennas.

Amorphous and crystalline plastics

Many plastics are completely amorphous, meaning they lack a highly ordered
[22]
molecular structure. Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly

spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene

terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics
are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving
them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature
above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially
increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some
polyurethanes.

Conductive polymers
Main article: Conductive polymer

Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are organic polymers that conduct

electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kilosiemens per centimeter (kS/cm) in
[23]
stretch-oriented polyacetylene has been achieved, it does not approach that of

most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred

[24]
kS/cm.

Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics

Main article: Biodegradable plastic

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to
biological factors, such as sunlight, ultra-violet radiation, moisture, bacteria,
enzymes, or wind abrasion. Attacks by insects, such as waxworms and
mealworms, can also be considered forms of biodegradation. Aerobic
degradation requires the plastic to be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic
degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some
companies produce biodegradable additives to further promote biodegradation.
Although starch powder can be added as a filler to facilitate degradation of some
plastics, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers
have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable
plastics, such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB); however, As of 2021, these were
[25]
still relatively expensive.

Bioplastics

Main article: Bioplastic

While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made
[26]
substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch. Due

both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse
gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of
[27][28]
bioplastics is a growing field. Global production capacity for bio-based

plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of

polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading
petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in
[29]
2015.

Plastic industry
The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding, conversion
and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most
of the required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is
concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge
number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:

Production
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been
made, with more than half of this having been produced since 2004. Since the
birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased
enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381
[5][17]
million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives). From the 1950s, rapid

growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and

[5]
construction, and in other sectors. If global trends on plastic demand continue,

it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1-billion
[5]
tonnes annually.

●​ Polypropylene plants

●​ ​
A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia
●​ ​

​
A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan
 Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on
reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the
Chart extension, can be found on Phabricator and on
MediaWiki.org.

[17]
Annual global plastic production 1950–2015. Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975
recession and the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic
production.

Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting

materials (monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such
facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries, with
sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows
them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic production is not
particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global
[30]
production. This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises.

Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the
largest single producer. Major international producers include:

Region Global
production

China 31%

Japan 3%

Rest of Asia 17%

NAFTA 19%

Latin America 4%
 Europe 16%

CIS 3%

Middle East & 7%

Africa

●​ Dow Chemical
●​ LyondellBasell
●​ ExxonMobil
●​ SABIC
●​ BASF
●​ Sibur
●​ Shin-Etsu Chemical
●​ Indorama Ventures
●​ Sinopec
●​ Braskem

Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics

production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with
[31]
China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020. Regional

differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the
price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical
industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the
United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of
raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been
made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6-million people with a
turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over
15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in
[5]
revenue.
In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers
that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all
[5]
plastics.

Compounding

Plastic compounding scheme for a thermosoftening material

Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with
various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives.
These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as
stabilizers, plasticizers and dyes, which are intended to improve the lifespan,
workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing
different types of plastic together to form a polymer blend, such as high impact
polystyrene. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to
production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that
specialize in this work are known as Compounders.
The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it
remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials,
which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary to melt the
plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere
between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar
flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion
equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a
properly dispersed product.

The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels
can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are
concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch granules
can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during
processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than
working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the
introduction of color.

Converting

Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)

Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle

Converters (sometimes known as processors) are companies or specialists that

fabricate finished plastic products from raw materials, often in the form of resins,
pellets, or films.
 ●​ Injection molding: involves injecting molten plastic into a mold cavity
under high pressure. The plastic solidifies in the mold to form the
desired shape.
●​ Blow molding: involves heating a plastic tube called a parison and
inflating it inside a mold to form hollow products such as bottles and
toys.
●​ Rotational molding: involves rotating a mold on two axes while it is
heated. Plastic powder is added to the mold and melts and sticks to the
walls as the mold is rotated, which forms thick-walled hollow parts such
as intermediate bulk containers.
●​ Casting: involves pouring liquid resin into a mold where it solidifies into
a predesigned shape.
●​ Film blowing: involves heating a polymer and blowing it into a thin,
continuous sheet. Commonly used for making polyethylene and
polypropylene films used in packaging.
●​ Spinning: involves transforming a polymer melt or solution into
continuous strands
●​ 3D printing: involves three-dimensionally printing an object layer by
layer following a digital model using computer-aided design software.

For thermosetting materials, the process is slightly different, as the plastics are
liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the
equipment is broadly similar.

The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging

made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made
from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g.
bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around
36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates,
cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many
for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles,
transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of
the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer
life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g.
textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction
[5]
materials, industrial machinery).

Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form
of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e. the
North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of
global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe
(18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption
(94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita
consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its
[5]
large population.

Gallery

●​ ​
Water bottles made of PET
●​ ​

​
 High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers;
transparent containers may be made of PET.
●​ ​

​
Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric.
●​ ​

​
Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE
●​ ​

​
Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE);
blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE.
●​ ​

​
A Ziploc bag made of LDPE
●​ ​

​
Food wrap made of LDPE
●​ ​

Metalized polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material.[32]

●​ ​

​
Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene
●​ ​

​
A polypropylene chair
●​ ​

​
Stools made of HDPE
●​ ​

​
Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")
●​ ​

​
Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")
●​ ​

​
Thermocol take-away food container
●​ ​

​
Egg tray made of PETE
●​ ​

​
A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE
●​ ​

​
A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam
●​ ​

​
Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating
 ●​ ​

​
iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody" shell
●​ ​

​
To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-meter deep Monterey Bay
Aquarium tank has windows made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick.
●​ ​

​
PVC pipes
●​ ​

​
PVC blister pack

Applications
The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in
a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and
windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware,
toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors),
[17]
electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts. In optics,
[33]
plastics are used to manufacture aspheric lenses.

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on

reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart
extension, can be found on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on

reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart
extension, can be found on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

Additives
Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to improved their performance or
[34][35]
appearance. Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used
[36]
so widely. Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different

chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product

generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of
[5]
additives are generally not listed on products.

[37][5]
In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes. In a global market
[38]
analysis, 5,500 additives were found. At a minimum, all plastic contains some
polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without
suffering polymer degradation.Additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used widely
[5]
for sanitary plumbing, can constitute up to 80% of the total volume.
[citation needed]
Unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is rarely sold.

Leaching

Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix.
Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it
and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or
[39]
following improper disposal in the environment. Additives may also degrade to

form other compounds that could be more benign or more toxic. Plastic
fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives
to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some
additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in
organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent
review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed
that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906
likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health
[5]
hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".

Recycling
Main article: Plastic recycling

As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during

recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and
fabricating used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled
products due to their difficulty to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it
is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Plastic
waste, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and
amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent
properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different
colored plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a
discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted both by
[5]
polymer type and color prior to recycling.

Lack of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of
knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final products. For example,
products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into
new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in
electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials
which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent
study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from
recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants.
Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of
chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative
effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine
[5]
system.

Health effects

Plastics have proliferated in part because they are relatively benign. They are not
acutely toxic, in large part because they are insoluble and or indigestible owing to
their large molecular weight. Their degradation products also are rarely toxic. The
same cannot be said about some additives, which tend to be lower molecular
weight.

Controversies associated with plastics often relate to their additives, some of

[40][41][34]
which are potentially harmful. For example, some flame retardants, such

as octabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether, are unsuitable for

food packaging. Other harmful additives include cadmium, chromium, lead and
mercury (regulated under the Minamata Convention on Mercury), which have
previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions.
However, they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging, including for
[citation needed]
food.

Poor countries

Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is

uncontrolled or takes place in low-technology incinerators, as is common in
many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of
hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash, which can contain persistent
[5]
organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins.

A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment

are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from
chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely
distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife,
[5]
and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. The use of

bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world but
[5]
is not restricted in some low-income countries.

Animals

In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused by the ingestion of plastic waste, was
discovered in seabirds. Birds affected with this disease were found to have
scarred and inflamed digestive tracts, which can impair their ability to digest
[42]
food. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the
digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become
[43]
scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."