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PART TWO Understanding the Dialogue   65
THE SELF AND MESSAGES   

Chapter 4 Symbolic Interaction Theory    68

History of Symbolic Interaction Theory    70
Themes and Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory    71
Key Concepts   76
Mind   76
Self   77
Society   79
Integration, Critique, and Closing    79
Scope   80
Utility   80
Testability   81
Closing   81
Discussion Starters   81

Chapter 5 Coordinated Management of Meaning    83

All the World’s a Stage    84
Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning    85
The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning    88
Content   89
Speech Act   90
Episodes   90
Relationship   91
Life Scripts   91
Cultural Patterns   92
Charmed and Strange Loops    93
The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence    95
Influences on the Coordination Process    96
Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns    97
Integration, Critique, and Closing    100
Scope   100
Parsimony   101
Utility    101
Heurism    102
Closing   102
Discussion Starters   102

Chapter 6 Cognitive Dissonance Theory    104

Assumptions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory    108
Concepts and Processes of Cognitive Dissonance    109
Magnitude of Dissonance   109

Contents    vii
 Coping with Dissonance   110
Cognitive Dissonance and Perception    111
Minimal Justification   112
Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Persuasion    113
Integration, Critique, and Closing    115
Utility   115
Testability   117
Closing   118
Discussion Starters   118

Chapter 7 Expectancy Violations Theory    119

Space Relations   121
Proxemic Zones   121
Territoriality   123
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory    124
Arousal   127
Threat Threshold   127
Violation Valence   128
Communicator Reward Valence   129
Integration, Critique, and Closing    130
Scope   131
Utility   131
Testability   131
Heurism   131
Closing   132
Discussion Starters   132

RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT   

Chapter 8 Uncertainty Reduction Theory    135

Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    138
Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem    140
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    140
Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    142
Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    143
Antecedent Conditions   143
Strategies   144
Developed Relationships   145
Social Media   147
Context   148
Integration, Critique, and Closing    150
Utility   151
Heurism   153
Closing   153
Discussion Starters   153

viii    Contents
Chapter 9 Social Exchange Theory    155
Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory    158
Evaluating a Relationship   161
Exchange Patterns: SET in Action    163
Exchange Structures   165
Integration, Critique, and Closing    166
Scope   167
Utility   167
Testability   168
Heurism   168
Closing   169
Discussion Starters   169

Chapter 10 Social Penetration Theory    170

Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory    172
“Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy    175
A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards    177
Stages of the Social Penetration Process    179
Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit    180
Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges    181
Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability    182
Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy    183
Integration, Critique, and Closing    184
Scope   184
Heurism   185
Closing   186
Discussion Starters   186

Chapter 11 Relational Dialectics Theory    187

Assumptions of Relational Dialectics Theory    190
Core Concepts of Dialectics    191
Basic Relational Dialectics   192
Autonomy and Connection   192
Openness and Protection   194
Novelty and Predictability   194
Contextual Dialectics   195
Beyond Basic Dialectics   196
Responses to Dialectics   198
Integration, Critique, and Closing    200
Parsimony   201
Utility   201
Heurism   201
Closing   202
Discussion Starters   202

Contents    ix
Chapter 12 Communication Privacy
Management Theory   204
Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory    206
Assumptions of CPM   207
Key Terms and Principles of CPM    208
Principle 1: Private Information Ownership    209
Principle 2: Private Information Control    209
Principle 3: Private Information Rules     211
Principle 4: Private Information Co-ownership and Guardianship    212
Principle 5: Private Information Boundary Turbulence     214
Integration, Critique, and Closing    214
Logical Consistency   215
Utility   216
Heurism    216
Closing   216
Discussion Starters   216

Chapter 13 Social Information Processing Theory    218

Theoretical Turbulence: The Cues Filtered Out    221
Assumptions of Social Information Processing Theory    223
Hyperpersonal Perspective: “I Like What I Read
and I Want More”    227
Sender: Selective Self-Presentation   227
Receiver: Idealization of the Sender    228
Channel Management   229
Feedback   229
Warranting: Gaining Confidence Online    230
Integration, Critique, and Closing    231
Scope   232
Utility   232
Testability   233
Closing   234
Discussion Starters   234

GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS   

Chapter 14 Groupthink   237
Assumptions of Groupthink   240
What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink    243
Group Cohesiveness   243
Structural Factors   244
Group Stress   245
Symptoms of Groupthink   245
Overestimation of the Group    246
Closed-Mindedness   247
Pressures Toward Uniformity   248

x    Contents
 (Group) Think About It: It’s All Around U.S.    249
Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent
Groupthink   249
Integration, Critique, and Closing    251
Scope   252
Testability   252
Heurism   253
Test of Time   253
Closing   253
Discussion Starters   254

Chapter 15 Structuration Theory   255

Assumptions of Structuration Theory    259
Central Concepts of Structuration Theory    262
Agency and Reflexivity   262
Duality of Structure   263
Social Integration   267
Application of Time and Space    267
Integration, Critique, and Closing    268
Scope   269
Parsimony    269
Closing   270
Discussion Starters   270

Chapter 16 Organizational Culture Theory    272

The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs
and Organizations   275
Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory    276
Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick    279
The Communicative Performance   281
Ritual Performances   282
Passion Performances   282
Social Performances   283
Political Performances   283
Enculturation Performances   283
Integration, Critique, and Closing    284
Logical Consistency   285
Utility   285
Heurism   285
Closing   286
Discussion Starters   286

Chapter 17 Organizational Information Theory    287

The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations)    290
General Systems Theory   290
Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution    291

Contents    xi
 Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory    292
Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information    294
Information Environment: The Sum Total    294
Rules: Guidelines to Analyze    295
Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust    297
The Principles of Equivocality    298
Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information    299
Enactment: Assigning Message Importance    299
Selection: Interpreting the Inputs    300
Retention: Remember the Small Stuff    300
Integration, Critique, and Closing    301
Logical Consistency   302
Utility   303
Heurism   303
Closing   303
Discussion Starters   303
THE PUBLIC   
Chapter 18 The Rhetoric   306
The Rhetorical Tradition   308
Assumptions of the Rhetoric   309
The Syllogism: A Three-Tiered Argument    311
Canons of Rhetoric   312
Invention   312
Arrangement   314
Style   315
Memory   316
Delivery   316
Types of Rhetoric   317
Integration, Critique, and Closing    320
Logical Consistency   320
Heurism   321
Test of Time   322
Closing   322
Discussion Starters   323

Chapter 19 Dramatism   324
Assumptions of Dramatism   326
Dramatism as New Rhetoric    328
Identification and Substance   328
The Process of Guilt and Redemption    329
The Pentad   331
Integration, Critique, and Closing    333
Scope   333
Parsimony   334
Utility   334
Heurism   336

xii    Contents
 Closing   336
Discussion Starters   337

Chapter 20 The Narrative Paradigm    338

Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm    341
Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach    344
Narration   344
Narrative Rationality   345
The Logic of Good Reasons    347
Integration, Critique, and Closing    348
Scope    349
Logical Consistency   349
Utility   350
Heurism   351
Closing   351
Discussion Starters   351

THE MEDIA   
Chapter 21 Agenda Setting Theory    355
History of Agenda Setting Research    356
Pretheoretical Conceptualizing   357
Establishing the Theory of Agenda Setting    358
Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory    359
Two Levels of Agenda Setting    360
Three-Part Process of Agenda Setting    361
Expansions and Refinements to Agenda Setting Theory    364
Integration, Critique, and Closing    365
Scope   366
Utility   366
Heurism   367
Closing   368
Discussion Starters   368

Chapter 22 Spiral of Silence Theory    369

The Court of Public Opinion    372
Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory    374
The Media’s Influence   377
The Train Test   379
The Hard Core   380
The Spiral of Silence and Social Media    382
Integration, Critique, and Closing    383
Logical Consistency   384
Heurism   385
Closing   386
Discussion Starters   386

Contents    xiii
Chapter 23 Uses and Gratifications Theory    387
Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory    389
Stages of Uses and Gratifications Research    392
Media Effects   393
Key Concepts: The Audience as Active    396
Uses and Gratifications and the Internet, Social Media,
and Cell Phones   397
Integration, Critique, and Closing    399
Logical Consistency   400
Utility   401
Heurism   401
Closing   401
Discussion Starters   402

Chapter 24 Cultivation Theory   403

Developing Cultivation Theory   406
Assumptions of Cultivation Theory    407
Processes and Products of Cultivation
Theory   409
The Four-Step Process   409
Mainstreaming and Resonance   410
The Mean World Index    412
Cultivation Theory as Critical Theory    413
Integration, Critique, and Closing    416
Logical Consistency   416
Utility   417
Heurism   417
Test of Time   417
Closing   419
Discussion Starters   419

Chapter 25 Cultural Studies   420

The Marxist Legacy: Power to the People    423
Assumptions of Cultural Studies    424
Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses    426
Counter-Hegemony: The Masses Start to Influence
the Dominant Forces   429
Audience Decoding   431
Integration, Critique, and Closing    433
Logical Consistency   433
Utility   434
Heurism   434
Closing   435
Discussion Starters   435

xiv    Contents
Chapter 26 Media Ecology Theory    436
Assumptions of Media Ecology Theory    439
Making Media History and Making “Sense”    442
The Tribal Era   442
The Literate Era   443
The Print Era   443
The Electronic Era   443
The Medium Is the Message    444
Gauging the Temperature: Hot and Cool Media    445
The Circle Is Complete: The Tetrad    447
Enhancement   448
Obsolescence   448
Retrieval   448
Reversal   449
Carrying the McLuhan Banner: Postman and Meyrowitz    450
Integration, Critique, and Closing    452
Testability   453
Heurism   453
Closing   454
Discussion Starters   454

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY   

Chapter 27 Face-Negotiation Theory   459

About Face   461
Face and Politeness Theory    462
Facework   463
Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory    464
Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures    466
Face Management and Culture    469
Managing Conflict Across Cultures    470
Integration, Critique, and Closing    472
Logical Consistency   472
Heurism   473
Closing   474
Discussion Starters   474

Chapter 28 Communication Accommodation Theory    476

Social Psychology and Social Identity    478
Assumptions of Communication Accommodation Theory    480
Ways to Adapt   483
Convergence: Merging Thoughts Ahead    483
Divergence: Vive la Différence   487
Overaccommodation: Miscommunicating with a Purpose    488

Contents    xv
 Integration, Critique, and Closing    490
Scope   490
Logical Consistency   491
Heurism   492
Closing   492
Discussion Starters   492

Chapter 29 Muted Group Theory    494

Origins of Muted Group Theory    496
Makeup of Muted Groups    498
Differentiating Between Sex and Gender    499
Assumptions of Muted Group Theory    499
The Process of Silencing    503
Ridicule   504
Ritual   504
Control    505
Harassment   505
Strategies of Resistance   506
Integration, Critique, and Closing    506
Utility   507
Test of Time   508
Closing   508
Discussion Starters   508

Chapter 30 Feminist Standpoint Theory    510

Historical Foundations of Feminist Standpoint Theory    512
The Critique of Theory and Research by Feminist Theorists    513
Assumptions of Feminist Standpoint Theory    514
Feminist Standpoint Theory and the Communication Field    518
Key Concepts of Standpoint Theory    519
Voice   519
Standpoint   519
Situated Knowledges   520
Sexual Division of Labor    521
Integration, Critique, and Closing    521
Utility   522
Closing   524
Discussion Starters   524
Afterward ConnectingQuests   527
Glossary   G-1
References   R-1
Name Index   I-1
Subject Index   I-11

xvi    Contents
Preface

As we present the sixth edition of Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis

and Application, we remain excited by its enormous success. The previous five
editions demonstrate that communication theory courses are vibrant, that teachers
of communication understand the importance of theoretical thinking, and that both
instructors and students appreciate the consistent and organized template we employ
throughout. This text explores the practical, engaging, and r­ elevant ways in which the-
ory operates in our lives. It is written primarily for students who have little or no back-
ground in communication theory. We originally wrote the book because we thought
that students need to know how theorizing helps us understand ourselves, as well as
our experiences, ­relationships, media, environment, and culture. We also wrote this
book because we believe that students should have a text that relates theory directly
to their lives. We felt that some books insulted the student and trivialized theory while
other books were written at a level that was far too advanced for an undergraduate. In
this book, we take great care to achieve the following additional objectives:
∙∙ Familiarize students with the principles and central ideas of important theories
they are likely to encounter in the communication discipline.
∙∙ Demystify the notion of theory by discussing it in concrete and ­unequivocal
ways.
∙∙ Provide students with an understanding of the interplay among theory, commu-
nication, and application.
∙∙ Introduce students to the research process and the role of theory within this
process.
∙∙ Assist students in becoming more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers.
The sixth edition of this book maintains its original focus of introducing com-
munication theory to students in an accessible, appealing, and consistent way. We
believe that students understand material best when it is explained in a clear, direct
way through a number of realistic and applicable examples. Our hope is that students
will take away a basic knowledge of, and appreciation for, communication theory
from reading our text.
The theories in communication studies have roots in both communication and in
other fields of study. This interdisciplinary orientation is reflected in the selection of
the various theories presented in the text. We not only include the unique contribu-
tions of communication theorists, but also theories with origins in other fields of study,
including psychology, sociology, biology, education, business, and philosophy. Com-
munication theorists have embraced the integration of ideas and principles forged by
their colleagues across many disciplines. Yet, the application, influence, and inherent

xvii
 value of communication are all s­ ustained by the theorists in this text. In other words,
although theories cut across various academic disciplines, their relevance to communi-
cation remains paramount and we articulate this relevancy in each theory chapter. We
do not presume to speak for the theorists; we have distilled their scholarship in a way
that we hope represents and honors their hard work. Our overall goal is to frame their
words and illustrate their theories with practical examples and instances so that their
explication of communication behaviors becomes accessible for students.
Together, we have over 60 years of experience in teaching communication ­theory.
During this time, we have learned a great deal. Introducing Communication Theory:
Analysis and Application utilizes and applies all that we as teachers have learned from
our students. We continue to be indebted to both students and colleagues whose sug-
gestions and comments have greatly influenced this newest edition.

The Challenges of Teaching and Learning

Communication Theory
The instructor in a communication theory course may face several challenges that are not
shared by other courses. First, because many students think of theory as distant, abstract,
and obscure, teachers must overcome these potentially negative connotations. Negative
feelings toward the subject can be magnified in classrooms where students represent
a variety of ages and socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Introducing
Communication Theory addresses this challenge by offering a readable and pragmatic
guide that integrates content with examples, capturing the essence and elegance of theory
in a straightforward manner. In addition, the book takes an incremental approach to learn-
ing about theory, resulting in a thoughtful and appropriate learning pace.
A second challenge associated with teaching and learning communication
theory relates to preconceived notions of research: Students may view scholarship
as difficult or remote. This book demonstrates to students that they already possess
many of the characteristics of researchers, such as curiosity and ambition. Students
will be pleasantly surprised to know that they operate according to many personal
theories every day. Once students begin to revise their misconceptions about re-
search and theory, they are in a position to understand the principles, concepts, and
theories contained in this book.
A third challenge of teaching and learning communication theory is capturing
the complexity of a theory in an approachable way without oversimplifying the theo-
retical process. To address this problem, instructors often present a skeletal version
of a theory and then fill in the missing pieces with personal materials. By providing
a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of classroom
demographics, Introducing Communication Theory facilitates such an approach.
A final challenge relates to a theory’s genesis and today’s students. Clearly, in
this technological age, students look for and usually crave a desire to find a “tech
angle” to communication theory. Although many theories were conceptualized de-
cades ago, in each chapter, we have provided the most recent research that represents
a theory–technology framework. Further we have added questions in each chapter
that are technological in nature, facilitating further student interest in the material.

xviii Preface
Major Changes in Content in the New Edition
The sixth edition has undergone significant modification, namely in the content of the
theory chapters and in the various learning aids available. EACH chapter has been
updated to reflect the most current thinking. In particular, the following chapters have
undergone major changes:
Chapter 2 (Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts) includes the most
current scholarship in each of the seven contexts of communication.
Chapter 3 (Thinking About Theory and Research) is completely reorganized to reflect
both the quantitative and qualitative thinking influencing theoretical development.
Chapter 4 (Symbolic Interaction Theory) has been completely reorganized so that it
disentangles the assumptions and themes of SI.
Chapter 8 (Uncertainty Reduction Theory) has been overhauled and provides a more
thoughtful presentation of the various axioms and theorems related to the theory.
Chapter 12 (Communication Privacy Management Theory) has been substantively
reorganized. In addition, new information on the criteria used to for developing
privacy rules is discussed in detail.
Chapter 14 (Groupthink) includes new information on NASA and the Military
Whistleblower Protection Act and their relationship to groupthink.
Chapter 15 (Structuration Theory) provides the newest thinking on various caution-
ary tales related to social integration.
Chapter 20 (The Narrative Paradigm) delineates new research and practices related
to storytelling.
Chapter 21 (Agenda Setting Theory) presents a reorganization and reconceptualiza-
tion of the three levels of agenda setting.
Chapter 22 (Spiral of Silence Theory) employs the legalization of marijuana as an over-
arching template while discussing the influence and pervasiveness of public opinion.
Chapter 24 (Cultivation Theory) includes extensive additions throughout on how
technology and “mass-mediated storytelling” influence individuals.
Chapter 25 (Cultural Studies) uses both the Flint, Michigan water crisis and mar-
riage equality to demonstrate several of the issues and themes related to the theory.
Chapter 29 (Muted Group Theory) includes a brief history of sexual harassment as
computer jargon’s male-centeredness to exemplify several concepts associated with
MGT.

Features of the Book

To accomplish our goals and address the challenges of teaching communication the-
ory, we have incorporated a structure that includes number of special features and
learning aids into the sixth edition:
∙∙ Part One, Foundations. The first three chapters of the book continue to pro-
vide students a solid foundation for studying the theories that follow. This

Preface xix
“The first three groundwork is essential in order to understand how theorists conceptualize and
chapters of the book test their theories. Chapters 1 and 2 define communication and provide a frame-
continue to provide work for examining the theories. We present several traditions and contexts in
which theory is customarily categorized and considered. Chapter 3 provides an
students a solid foun- overview of the intersection of theory and research. This discussion is essential
dation for studying in a theory course and also serves as a springboard for students as they enroll in
the theories that fol- other courses. In addition, we present students with a template of various evalua-
low. This groundwork tive components that we apply in each of the subsequent theory chapters.
is ­essential in order ∙∙ Part Two, Theories and Theoretical Thinking. Updated coverage of all ­theories.
to ­understand how Separate chapters on each of the theories provide accessible, thorough cover-
­theorists conceptu- age for students and offer flexibility to instructors. Because of the feedback we
alize and test their received from the previous edition, we ­retained the original theories from the
theories.” fifth edition This updating results in a more thoughtful, current, and applicable
presentation of each theory. As noted earlier, in many cases, we have provided
the most recent information of the influences of culture and/or technology upon
a particular theory, ­resulting in some very compelling discussions and examples.
“Every theory chapter ∙∙ Section openers. The theory chapters in Part Two are organized into six sec-
is self-contained tions. We have written section openers to introduce these groups of chapters.
and includes a The overviews provide students with an explanation for our choices, placing
the theories in context and allowing students to have a foundation in order to
consistent format see the connections ­between and among theories.
that begins with a
∙∙ Chapter-opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an extended vignette, which
vignette, followed is then integrated throughout the chapter, providing examples to illustrate the the-
by an introduction, a oretical concepts and claims. We have been pleased that instructors and students
summary of theoreti- point to these vignettes as important applications of sometimes complex material.
cal assumptions, a These stories/case studies help students understand how communication theory
description of core plays out in the everyday lives of ordinary people. These opening stories help
drive home the i­mportant points of the theory. In addition, the real-life tone of
concepts, and a
each vignette entices students to understand the practicality of a particular theory.
critique (using the
∙∙ A structured approach to each theory. Every theory chapter is self-contained
criteria established and includes a consistent format that begins with a story, followed by an intro-
in Part One). This duction, a summary of theoretical assumptions, a description of core concepts,
consistency pro- and a critique (using the criteria established in Part One). This consistency
vides continuity for provides continuity for students, ensures a balanced presentation of the theo-
students, ensures a ries, and helps ease the retrieval of information for future learning experiences.
balanced presenta- Instructors and students have found this template to be quite valuable since it
eliminates the stream-of-consciousness frequently found in other published
tion of the theories, resources.
and helps ease the
∙∙ Student Voices boxes. These boxes, featured in every chapter, present both new
retrieval of informa- and returning ­student comments on a particular concept or theoretical issue. The
tion for future learn- comments, extracted from journals in classes we have taught, illustrate the practi-
ing experiences.” cality of the topic under discussion and also show how theoretical issues relate to
students’ lives. In a sense, this feature illustrates how practical theories are and how
much their tenets apply to our everyday lived experiences.

xx Preface
 ∙∙ Theory in Popular Press. Students will be introduced to further applications
of the various theories and theoretical concepts by examining popular press
stories. Stories and articles exemplifying various parts of a theory are provided
from a number of different outlets, including Forbes, USA Today, the (U.K.)
Guardian, the Chicago Tribune, the New York Times, among many others.
∙∙ Visual template for theory evaluation. At the conclusion of each theory chap-
ter, a criteria for theory evaluation (presented in Chapter 3) is ­employed. In
addition, the theory’s context, scholarly tradition (based on Robert Craig’s
typology), and approach to knowing are articulated.
∙∙ Theory at a Glance boxes. In order for students to have an immediate and
concise understanding of a particular theory, we incorporate this ­feature at the
beginning of each theory chapter. Students will have these brief explanations
and short summaries before reading the chapter, thereby allowing them to have
a general sense of what they are about to encounter.
∙∙ Afterword: ConnectingQuests. This final section of the book provides students
with an integration of the various theories in order to see the interrelationships
between theories. We believe that theories cut across multiple contexts. To this
end, students are asked questions that address the intersection of theories. For
instance, to understand “decision making” from two theoretical threads, stu-
dents are asked to compare the concept and its usage in both Groupthink and
Structuration Theory. These questions form a foundation for future conversa-
tions about communication theory.
∙∙ Tables, figures, and cartoons. To increase conceptual organization and enhance
the visual presentation of content, we have provided several tables and figures
throughout the text. Further, we have provided cartoons to provide another en-
gaging reading option. Many chapters have visual aids for students to consider,
helping them to understand the material. These visuals provide a clearer sense
of the conceptual organization of the theories, and they support those students
who best retain information visually.
∙∙ Running glossary. Throughout each chapter, a running glossary provides stu-
dents immediate access to unfamiliar terms and their meanings.
∙∙ End-of-book glossary. Students have expressed interest in having a compiled
list of definitions at the end of the text. This glossary provides easily accessed
definitions of all the key terms contained in the book.

In addition to the aforementioned features, several new additions exist in the new
edition of Introducing Communication Theory:

∙∙ NEW Quantitative and Qualitative Research. In Chapter 3, we have reorga-

nized the information to make it more understandable for students. We first
discuss quantitative research methods and then qualitative research methods.
We also added an evaluative statement at the conclusion of each theory chapter
which notes whether the theory has primarily been investigated using a frame-
work that is qualitative, quantitative, or both.

Preface xxi
 ∙∙ NEW Theory-Into-Practice (TIP). We include this feature to provide further
application of the information contained in the chapter. We identify a conclu-
sion or two from the theory and then provide a real-world application of the
particular claim. This feature sustains our commitment to enhancing the prag-
matic value of a theory.
∙∙ NEW Socially Significant Themes and Noteworthy Celebrities. In an effort to
provide students with examples that are compelling and memorable, we make
a concerted effort to illustrate points with timely topics and recognizable news-
makers. Themes such as marriage equality, social media, medical marijuana,
whistle-blowing, internships, civility, among many others are woven through-
out the book. Important global issues, including Black Lives Matter, climate
change, the world refugee crisis, among others are woven throughout the text.
Cultural figures such as Dr. Oz, Samantha Bee, Maya Angelou, Jimmy Fallon,
Dr. Phil, Martha Stewart, and others are also identified at appropriate points
along the way. Although we never “dumb down” the theoretical material, we
feel it’s important for students to read examples that are somewhat contempo-
rary and not dated.
∙∙ NEW Tech Quest. Each chapter concludes with several Discussion Starters and
a new question that probes how the theory relates to technology. Students will
be asked to discuss the interface between a theory and several social media, for
instance, including Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, LinkedIn, among others.
∙∙ NEW Cartoons. Eight new cartoons have been added to the text, providing a
humorous break from the theoretical content.
∙∙ NEW Incorporation of over 200 new references. The explosion in communica-
tion research, in particular, is reflected in the incorporation of dozens of new
studies, essays, and books that help students understand the theory or theoreti-
cal issue. We also provide students with easy access to a citation by integrating
an APA format (the acceptable writing style of the communication field) so
that they can see the relevancy and ­currency of a theory. When appropriate, we
also have provided URLs for websites that have information which can be read-
ily available.
∙∙ NEW Theoretical Thought. Each theory chapter begins with a statement
made by a theorist or theorists that highlights the essence of the chapter’s
content. These quotations reflect further effort to honor the words of the
theorist(s).

The 6th edition of Introducing Communications Theory: Analysis and Application is

now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment
and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which
is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students

xxii Preface
study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available
through Connect, including:
∙∙ An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with general guidelines for teaching
the basic theory course, sample syllabi for quarter and semester courses, chap-
ter outlines, and classroom activities.
∙∙ A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central con-
cepts and ideas in each chapter.
∙∙ Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.

Organization
Part One, Foundations, provides a conceptual base for the discrete theory chapters in
Part Two. Chapter 1 begins by introducing the discipline and describing the process
of communication. Chapter 2 provides the prevailing traditions and contexts that
frame the communication field. In this chapter, we focus on Robert Craig’s guide to
the ways in which communication theory can be considered. The chapter then turns
to primary contexts of communication, which frame the study of communication in
most academic settings across the country. Chapter 3 explores the intersection of the-
ory and research. In this chapter, we provide students an understanding of the nature
of theory and the characteristics of theory. The research process is also discussed,
as are perspectives that guide communication research. Our goal in this chapter is to
show that research and theory are interrelated and that the two should be considered
in tandem as students read the individual chapters. Chapter 3 also provides a list of
evaluative criteria for judging theories as well as for guiding students toward assess-
ment of each subsequent theory chapter.
With Part One establishing a foundation, Part Two, Theories and Theoretical
Thinking, introduces students to 27 different theories, each in a discrete, concise
chapter. Many of these theories cut across communication contexts. For example,
Relational Dialectics Theory can be understood and applied in an organizational
context as well as in an interpersonal context. However, to facilitate understanding,
we have grouped theories into six sections according to primary focus: The Self
and Messages, Relationship Development, Groups, Teams, and Organizations, The
Public, The Media, and Culture and Diversity. We undertake this approach to align it
with the contexts identified in Chapter 1.
It was challenging for us to decide which theories to include because there are
so many from which to choose. In making our selections, we were guided by four
broad criteria: (1) whether the theory is significant in the field, (2) whether it reflects
the interdisciplinary nature of the field, (3) whether it is important in the context of
current thinking in the field, and (4) whether it contributes to a balance of pioneering
and contemporary theories in the book. In addition, we were sensitive to the need to
include theories developed by a diverse group of scholars. We know that there are
many theories that we were unable to include. Yet, our book provides an expansive
and respectful array of theories that in the end, we believe provides an important in-
troduction to this challenging and worthwhile area known as communication theory.

Preface xxiii
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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
in which they carried her, having no foot rest, the injured leg came
in frequent contact with the porters, causing her the intensest pain.
It is not surprising that she looked more dead than alive on reaching
the ward.
The injury and the rough methods of investigation combined
produced a feverish and most painful condition in the patient. The
case was taken over by another doctor (Dr. Sullivan) who at least
handled the injury much less brutally, but no attempt was made to
treat it surgically. A slight wound in the lower part of the leg was
occasionally dressed and bandaged by the hospital wardress, who
visited us twice a day when temperatures were taken and drugs
distributed. There was no other nursing whatever. The doctor’s
examinations consisted only of measurements to compare the length
of the injured leg with the healthy one. Nothing was done, in
recognition of fracture, to reset the bones or keep the limb in one
position, no weight was applied to stretch the shorter injured leg;
there seemed to be no aim in the doctor’s recommendations beyond
that of helping to restore a bruised bone by as nearly a natural use
of it as the patient could be urged to make. A circular air-cushion
was supplied and extra pillows; also a night table by the side of the
patient’s bed, and a bed pan was kept in the ward which could be
used for bed-patients with the voluntary assistance either of the
wardress in charge or of the fellow-prisoners. Mrs. Macdonald was
kept in bed for the first few days, but the extremely painful pressure
from lying on the injured bone with the legs in flat position caused
her incessant restlessness, and before long she begged leave to get
up and sit in an armchair. This was allowed and soon she was urged
to move about, walk and use the leg as much as possible. In spite of
the most heroic efforts, the last recommendation was impossible.
She moved about leaning on a chair by way of crutch and getting up
or sitting down with the help of her fellow-prisoners. The complete
loss of control over the injured leg pointed, in my estimation, to
much more serious harm than mere bruising. I felt the greatest
indignation from that first evening of her entrance among us at the
way this prisoner was treated. Her suggestion about the X-rays was
ignored, her request to the Governor, and eventually her petition to
the Home Secretary, that she might be visited by her own doctor
was refused. When the doctors talked with her about her case they
seemed to pay no attention to her own views, but rather
accentuated the official prison manner of ignoring individuals as
though she had been a child or an irresponsible person. Yet there
was no trace of exaggeration or a tendency to work up grievances
over her own case. Through all her acute and continuous physical
suffering she showed keen powers of observation and a sense of
humour that constantly relieved the nightmare of horror with which I
watched her pain. Her heroism under physical suffering surpassed
anything I have ever come across or imagined possible. During the
nights I was with her in the ward, about four or five, I slept very
little myself and whenever I looked at her she was awake. I did not
once see her asleep by day or night while I was with her in prison. It
is only since seeing her in free life that I have been able to compare
her face under normal conditions and realised the intensity of
distress which must have caused the continually strained expression
she had in Holloway, varied at times by contortions due to acute
pain. Yet she spoke little of her sufferings, seldom complained of
anything, never once was irritable under her trials or indignant at
the treatment of them, never once groaned or cried. She was
uniformly patient, gentle, self-contained, considerate of others.
I still was unable to get any sleep at night, but when a few days
had gone by I ventured to make up my bed so that I faced the wall
instead of the ward. This gave a greater sense of privacy and
sheltered my eyes from the blinding light of the naked gas jet. I very
much missed a habit I have of doing various physical exercises
before going to bed. About halfway through the night I made
amends for this by going to the little ante-room near the sink and
lavatory, the door of which communicating with the ward was left
unlocked at night. Here, taking it corner ways, there was just room
for me to stretch my arms full length. I consider it was thanks to this
midnight practice that I was able to keep my digestion in better
order than is usual among prisoners.
 Hospital patients are not allowed to go to the daily service in
chapel, but occasionally we were taken down to a morning service,
in the nature of family prayers, which was held in the ward below
ours. This was given over mostly to feeble-minded patients, several
of whom were in bed. My place was always the same, close to the
bed of a woman whose face will haunt me, I think, as long as I live.
I never saw her move, she lay quite flat, her head alone appearing
above the bed clothes. She took no part in the service and seemed
to be unconscious of it. She was young, her skin was remarkably
smooth and devoid of expressive lines, but yellow as if she had
jaundice. Her appearance illustrated to me the meaning of despair
more clearly than I have seen it hitherto in any living being. She was
entirely passive and unresentful, but if hope had tried to enter into
her mind it would find no lodging there. It seemed to me that
neither life nor death had anything to offer her, nor was there
anything she possessed of which they could rob her. While I stood or
sat through the service my back was turned on her, but when I knelt
down I was facing her. One could not feel pity for her—there was a
rigid dignity and detachedness about her as of someone living in an
atmosphere different from our own. All my thoughts and prayers
were bent towards her, but I never had the sensation of in any way
communicating with her.
I noticed regretfully that there were no hymns, hardly any
passages from the Bible were read, the prayers selected were of a
dolorous order, and the greater part of the time was taken up by an
address from the chaplain. He spoke to us of the temptation in the
wilderness, how that Christ was tempted in the same way that we
are, but that He was good and we were bad. He instanced how
wrong it would be if, when we were hungry, we yielded to the
temptation of stealing bread. At this remark an old woman stood up.
She was tall and gaunt, her face seamed with life, her hands gnarled
and worn with work. One saw that whatever her crimes might have
been she had evidently toiled incessantly. At this moment her face
wore an expression of strained intensity as though some irresistible
tide of inward emotion had forced her to act. The tears streamed
down her furrowed cheeks as she said in a pleading, reverent voice,
“Oh, sir, don’t be so hard on us.” The wardresses immediately came
up to her, took her by the shoulders and hustled her out of the
ward; we never saw her again. The Chaplain did not answer nor
even look at her, and continued his address as if nothing had
happened. A feeling of passionate indignation took hold of me,
succeeded by the feeling of helplessness and irresponsibility which
stifles vitality and above all every good impulse in prison. Sympathy
for the ejected prisoner, disagreement with the man who officially
represented the teaching of Christianity, neither of these thoughts
could find vent in words or actions; they become stored up in a
brooding, malignant attitude of resentment towards the whole prison
system, its infamous aim, its profound unreason, and the cruelly
devitalising distortion of its results.
When we were back in our ward the Chaplain came to visit us.
This time, he knew who I was. I asked him about the prison library
which was under his charge. I wished to send some books when I
was free, amongst others George Moore’s story of “Esther Waters.” I
thought that novel ought to be in every woman’s prison because of
the heroic and triumphant struggle depicted in it of the mother of an
illegitimate child. I asked the Chaplain if he knew it and would allow
me to send it. He answered that he did not know the book, and
added, “But your ladyship is such a good judge of literature, I should
leave the choice of books entirely to you.” Whenever officials visited
the ward we were supposed each to stand at the foot of the bed
allotted to us. Complete silence was the rule. This remark of the
Chaplain’s was, therefore, overheard by many of my fellow-
prisoners. From that moment I was nick-named “your ladyship.” As
soon as the official round was over several of us came together and,
as was inevitable, compared the attitude of the Chaplain towards the
prisoner who had appealed to him during his address and towards
myself. It was on this occasion I first noticed that the dress-jacket I
wore was different from those of my companions; mine was
evidently quite new and without the broad arrow markings. A fellow-
prisoner, Miss Povey, member of the Freedom League, to whom I
had brought a glass of water during the first night, came to my
rescue. She was now sufficiently recovered to be out of bed during
part of the day. She had a great sense of humour and immediately
responded to my need. We seized a brief moment when the
wardress was standing in the doorway, we took shelter behind the
open door and swopped each other’s serge shirts. She was small
made and for once this portion of the clothing had been more or less
well adapted to our respective sizes. The sleeves of my shirt were
half a length longer than she required, and though she put a large
tuck in them they retained their superfluity of size. The sleeves of
her shirt did not reach my wrists and as the solitary button at the
neck did not secure the closing of the jacket down the front, I had
continually to be pulling it together again in the course of the day. It
was marked in many places with the broad arrow, but had been so
well worn, as the lining of the neck and cuffs attested, that the white
paint of the markings had almost chipped off in several places. From
this time onward it became a sort of game to watch for the
privileges that were accorded to me. Prisoners who had been in
before explained that until I came there were never knives and forks
supplied as we now enjoyed, the fare, too, had been made more
luxurious.
After three or four days I had practically recovered from the
effects of the treatment meted out to the Deputation, and, but for
the want of sleep and its results, had regained my normal health. I
was very anxious to leave the hospital, partly because I wanted to
share the lot of the bulk of my Suffragette companions and to
ensure that they should benefit by whatever unusual privileges were
accorded to me. Secondly, I wished to know from my own
experience the routine life of ordinary prisoners and to see more of
them, which I supposed would be possible away from the ward.
Finally, my appetite for solitude grew from hour to hour. I feared that
continued lack of sleep (I am a slave to sleep) might tell on me in a
way to seriously handicap my health and cause my friends and
belongings anxiety after my release, which could easily be avoided.
Consequently, every morning when the Governor and doctor came
on their round I asked leave to go to “the other side,” as the
ordinary cell buildings were called. My monotonous request was as
monotonously refused from day to day. The Governor replied that I
must first obtain consent from the doctors, the doctors insisted that
my heart was in a condition to make the routine of floor-washing,
plank bed, etc., injurious to me. One of the doctors did not trouble
to continue feeling my pulse, he simply dismissed my request to be
moved with the statement, “As for you, you are suffering from
serious heart disease, you can’t be let out of hospital.”
To harden myself for the cell routine I shared more and more in
the cleaning processes of the ward. Besides the emptying of basins
and dusting the walls as high as my arms could reach, the big table
had to be moved for floor polishing, and I helped the little 3rd
Division ward-cleaner with this. She was very small and worked
unremittingly all day. She used to flush very much over the floor-
polishing, although she was most dexterous with the heavy, long-
handled polisher, and did all her duties with admirable labour-saving
skill and sequence. I wondered how much her heart condition was
considered. I felt a great interest in her. Her face, expression, and
manners were those of an essentially good woman, she was
intelligent, had a sense of humour, was loyal to both the officials and
her fellow-prisoners; she seemed in every way above the average of
mortals. I wondered what offence against the law could have
brought her to prison, she had several bars on her sleeve, implying a
long sentence. I found she had committed one of the most grievous
crimes which it is possible to commit, the most unnatural, and
opposed to all that lies at the root well-being of a race or nation. She
had killed her own child. Yet when I came to know the facts, it
seemed to me that her actions were fully accounted for, and even
had her child-killing been more deliberate than it actually was, it was
impossible to condemn this action in a human being who had been
squeezed by such opposing forces. Her story was told me in
snatches partly by the other prisoners, partly by one of the
wardresses, and partly by herself as I used to kneel by her side to
put floor refuse into the fire at the rare moments when the
enormous padlock of the fender door had been released. Her story
was this. She was a servant, and had been seduced by her master.
She, of course, was dismissed from his service. When the child was
born, he had at first contributed to its support, but after a while had
ceased to do so and disappeared, leaving no address. She had taken
the greatest pride in bringing up her child, a boy, to whom she was
devoted. Her cell was one of those just outside the general ward. It
was sometimes used for the reception of visitors to hospital patients
who were too ill to go across the way. When this happened she
always asked the prisoners eagerly on their return, “Did you see the
photo of my boy?” Having been in prison many months she was
allowed to receive and keep this photograph. To return to her story,
as time went on the struggle to maintain herself and her child was
considerable. She made a friend, a man of her own class, who knew
her history, respected her for her good motherhood and promised to
marry her as soon as a sufficiently good job came his way. Before
long the job was said to have been offered him, marriage was in
sight, and they plighted their troth with the seal which knows no
undoing. The work failed, marriage prospects paled, her friend
deserted her and she found herself faced with the prospect which
she now understood only too well, of disabled health,
unemployment, disgrace, and a second child to maintain unaided.
She kept on at her employment—in a laundry—until the very hour of
her premature confinement. Then worn out in body and spirit, and
quite alone at the moment of her trouble, she had in her distraction
and misery strangled her baby. She went on with her work at the
laundry. It was the father of her child who gave her up to the police;
according to one rendering, he did so because she was so ill he
thought it the only way to secure for her “a rest.” She had an uncle,
a citizen of London, a publican, who used his influence on her behalf
at her trial so that she was condemned on the charge of
“concealment of birth,” not of child-murder. Prisoners are allowed
visitors once a month, but no one had been to see her for several
months. I determined I should be one of her visitors as soon as I
was again free, so that we might hold a sustained conversation of a
kind impossible to fellow-prisoners.
 I often tell the story of this girl as an example of the neglect of
women’s interests and the consequent need for the recognition of
their citizenship so that legislation and administrators of the law
should be responsible to both sexes. My listeners have sometimes
commented: “But what difference could the vote make? and how
could legislation alter these admittedly tragic situations?” At this very
time (March, 1909) the women of Norway who had recently been
enfranchised, but had not yet exercised the vote, were drafting a bill
for the protection of illegitimate children. I think there could not be a
better example of how a fundamental change could be made in both
the educative and protective side of legislation as between men and
women, pre-eminently just and without any reactionary
vindictiveness on the part of women. The essence of this law is
simply recognition of the fact that every child has two parents and
that the burden and responsibility of producing children should,
therefore, be shared by both in so far as law can secure equality.
According to this Norwegian law, the mother is given the right during
pregnancy to inform the local authorities of the name of the father.
The man whose name is given may deny responsibility within
fourteen days. If he does not, he is registered as the father; if he
denies it the burden of proof rests with the mother. The father can
be compelled to support the mother for three months before (in
England the law gives her no claim upon the father until after the
birth of the child), and, in certain instances, for nine months after
confinement, and he is bound to support the child until it is sixteen
years old. A man at the time of intimacy is comparatively willing to
undertake his share of these situations; after the lapse of many
months he is more inclined to try and shirk them. In the case of
denial on the part of the man, how much easier it would be for the
woman to prove her case when the friendship had been recent and
witnesses could be brought forward in support of corroborating
evidence. Ten or twelve months later such witnesses have often
dispersed or their memories grown hazy. Owing to the undefended,
economically unsupported position of these mothers, certain results
inevitably follow—loss of respectable situations and consequent
necessity for the women to have recourse to more precarious, more
laborious, and worse paid employment, with their lowered social
status pressing heavily upon them in every direction. These
conditions, reacting on the exceptional physical state of the mother,
claim their inevitable toll from the life-blood of the child. It is not
surprising that the deaths of illegitimate children are nearly double
those of children born in wedlock; for 1911, the statistics, the latest
issued, show deaths of infants under one year in England and Wales,
in wedlock 249.37 per thousand births, illegitimate 489.99. With the
mother’s maintenance secured, something tangible is being done to
save the health as well as the life of future generations. The woman
can draw the amount of her claim through the local authorities who
recover it from the father. This is an immense safeguard. Constantly
under the legal conditions here, when the mother’s claim has been
proved, admitted by the father and paid by him for a few weeks, he
moves away before long, leaving no address and the woman, even if
she knows of his whereabouts, cannot enforce her claim without
irksome and difficult legal procedure. It is far easier for the public
authority to pursue him, but even if this proves in some cases
impossible, it is better for the State to lose its money than the life or
health of its citizens. The State always pays in the end. The child has
the right to bear the father’s name and, in the event of his intestacy,
has the same rights of succession as his legitimate children. Just
imagine how this clause would alter the outlook of parents when
educating their sons, more especially in those spheres of society
where such unions on the part of men are almost invariably with
women of a lower class than their own, and it is these unions which
produce tragic and evil results far more socially and racially injurious
than illegitimate unions among men and women of the same class.
[6]

Footnote:
[6] This bill, I believe, was passed in Norway, with some alterations.
 Another of the hospital patients, a member of our Deputation,
Miss Leslie Lawless, was gravely ill with her lungs. She seemed in a
high fever and we were very anxious about her. The prison clothes
hang loosely upon one, and, though this is healthy in principle, they
seem draughty and cold after modern garments, such as close-fitting
undervests, etc. She had caught a severe chill waiting about for
more than an hour in the draughty passages after the reception
bath. She had been very ill and suffered much in her cell before
being brought, only after the third day, to hospital. Mrs. Duval, a
member of the Freedom League, was another really suffering
patient. She had come up to London to see the results of the
Freedom League Deputation. She was walking about the street when
the Deputation had already been arrested. She was not taking part
in any form of disturbance or demonstration. She was arrested on
the ground that she was “known to be one of them.” Two
gentlemen, total strangers, who witnessed her arrest, volunteered to
come into court and speak on her behalf. She was nevertheless
found guilty and sentenced to six weeks’ imprisonment. She had
twice been in prison before; she had not intended to risk arrest as
she was in a very delicate state of health, having suffered
considerably from her previous imprisonments. She was now in
hospital with acute neuritis and a most irritating rash. She had many
children at home and was anxious about them, not having been able
to make adequate arrangements for them owing to her sudden and
unexpected imprisonment. When I looked into her suffering face and
heard from our whispered conversation that this was her third
imprisonment I felt overcome. I envied her courage, but felt myself
quite incapable of following her example.
Flowers were provided by the prison authorities, both in our ward
and the one below; sometimes, too, our friends sent them to us. We
were not allowed to know from whom they came, and they could
not be destined for any particular prisoner, but flowers are expert
ambassadors, and their messages of good-will from our friends were
generally understood. They had to be taken out of the ward at night
and returned to the ward in the morning; they had to be refreshed,
the water changed and dead leaves picked off. I usurped this office.
I feel ashamed, on looking back, to remember with what selfish
greed I took it over, never giving the others a choice or chance in
the matter. The joy of handling the flowers seemed like food and
rest rolled into one. All the patients rejoiced in them. When a new
lot were sent in they were handed round for each prisoner to see
them and smell them at close quarters. Their appearance in prison
used to remind me of Filippino Lippi’s Florentine picture of the Virgin
appearing through the sky with a trail of coloured angels behind her
to St. Bernard in his ascetic and joyless surroundings. They brought
moments of rapture which revitalised one’s spirit and counteracted
many of the stunning effects of prison existence. Some people
whom I told of this have resented the fact that prisoners should be
given the joy of flowers, but unless it be recognised as part of the
punitive system to impose physical illness, I think the prison hospital
authorities are to be congratulated on their wisdom in this respect;
the flowers did more than the drug-basket to heal our complaints.
One of the reasons I took on as many housemaiding jobs as I
could was that it enabled me to be let out of the ward for the
emptying of slops, and this afforded a good opportunity for seeing
and occasionally communicating with ordinary prisoners. They
seemed to come and go pretty quickly from our floor of the hospital,
and I seldom saw any of them more than twice or three times. The
prisoner’s dress has a wonderfully disguising and unifying power, and
it was a never-ending interest to try quickly to diagnose the type of
prisoner, so as to make the most of any possible communication by
whispers. Washing up was done in the bath-room cell and the door
left open. Sometimes the handling of plates would prove that such
work was unaccustomed and uncongenial, others were skilled but
sullen and grudging in their service, some again would be keen and
willing and showed the pathetic eagerness of a newcomer to inquire
as to rules, to be friendly with her fellow-prisoners, to court the
approval or advice of the wardresses. But such liveliness was not the
fashion and was always repressed. One could watch the light and
spirit of these human beings wane, as a lamp wanes for want of oil.
Sometimes many days would go by without opportunity for the
smallest communication with ordinary prisoners, then again there
would be occasions of unexpected good luck. Once when emptying a
basin at the sink a little woman, newcomer, who was dusting the top
of the walls and fittings with a long-handled broom, came close up
behind me. In prison one seems to develop eyes at the back of one’s
head and that kind of cunning which is engendered in human beings
and animals who are much restricted. I realised that no official eye
for the moment was upon us. The splashing of the tap covered the
sound of our low voices; without looking round, without changing
expression or gesture so as not to arouse suspicion, the following
conversation took place. Self: “The dust collects quickly here,
doesn’t it?” Prisoner: “Yes, how long have you got?” (The invariable
first question for all prisoners.) Self: “A month.” Prisoner: “I’m on
remand for a week.” Self: “What is it for?” Prisoner: “Attempted
suicide.” Self: “Poor you. Why did you do that?” Prisoner: “Well, I
had a pot of trouble and I thought it was the quickest way out.” Self:
“I remember feeling like that too, once, but I don’t now.” Prisoner:
“And nor do I now, life’s sweet while it lasts, isn’t it?” This with a
beaming smile. We had meanwhile exchanged furtive glances at
each other. She had a round, rose-like face, with a look of abundant
health and kindliness. Apparently, the “pot of trouble” had been of
no long duration. Self: “It seems odd to send people here for
suicide?” Prisoner (eagerly): “Yes, it does indeed. It seems a shame.”
Then, with some hesitation, “What are you in for?” Self:
“Suffragette.” She looked at me wonderingly, as if she supposed this
to be the technical term for some form of vice unknown to her,
though her sympathy and respect were not withdrawn. We were,
however, interrupted at this point and I was summoned to return
with my much scrubbed basin to the ward. I never saw the little
rose-like face again.
Beside the sink there was a tiny sash window about the level of
my head. When this was open I could catch sight of the yard where
remand prisoners exercised. I was surprised to see that many of
them wore prison dress. This meant either that they had been made
to change their clothes, or that remand and convicted prisoners
were exercising together. Seeing a great number of prisoners in a
group was a most depressing sight. They were packed quite close,
touching each other as they went round the narrow asphalt path in
single file. They nearly all of them looked ill. Their faces wore an
expression of extreme dejection; the lifeless, listless way they
walked, enhanced the look of entire detachment of one from the
other; in spite of being so closely herded, each seemed in a world of
her own individual sorrow. Anxiety, suffering, bitterness, and a
harrowing tale of want or degradation was told by the clothes of
those not in prison dress. The procession was more heartrending
than anything my imagination could have conceived; it took away
my breath to look at them. Why are they there? What has driven
these poor wrecks into this harbour? What is being done for them
here to give them courage, self-reliance, hope, belief in better
possibilities for themselves and their children, opportunity to mend
their own lives, better conditions of work, fairer payment, and above
all a more honourable recognition of their services as women, of
their needs, and of their rights; the vitality to fight for their own
welfare against unjust handicaps, prejudiced ignorance of their
wants and tyrannous repression of their attempts to cry out for
wider labour markets?
We of the remand hospital No. 2 most often exercised in this same
yard in the afternoon. We were only about six in number, sometimes
only two or three, but, since seeing the procession of the morning,
their personalities seemed to haunt the yard. I thought of them as
beads of a necklace, detached, helpless and useless, and wondered
how long it would be before they were threaded together by means
of the women’s movement into a great organised band, self-
expressive yet co-ordinated, and ruled by the bond of mutual
service. The test of a chain’s strength is in its weakest link. Where is
our chain weakest? Not in the wretched victims who daily paced this
yard, not in the debtor, the drunkard, the thief, the hooligan, the
prostitute, the child murderer. These miseries were mostly the direct
outcome of harmful and unjust laws. Amongst the few that remain
of spontaneously criminal type, their number is insignificant, their
influence negligible; they act as cautions rather than instigators,
although they call for all the remedial forces which the State or
individuals can devote to them. They themselves are diseased
exceptions, but they belong to groups of women, home workers,
wage earners, skilled craftswomen, who have kept alight the old
traditions of serviceableness, utility, and the powers of women. They
have already made many efforts to unite and to preserve their
nobility of independence. They, moreover, are quick to respond and
eager to serve the modern women’s movement. No, the weakest link
in the chain of womanhood is the woman of the leisured class.
Isolated and detached, she has but little sense of kinship with other
women. For her there is no bond of labour, no ties of mutual service;
her whole life is spent in the preservation of appearances, and she
seems hardly ever to probe down to the bone of realities. Child-
having remains her glory, the one bit of full-livedness in an otherwise
most arid desert. This is the one basis on which she feels herself
united to other women, and the wrongs and sufferings of child-
bearers stand out as the exception on which you can sometimes get
her to move on behalf of other women. Until these women can be
educated as to the lives of the bulk of women, brought up against
the laws with regard to them that now disgrace the statute book,
made to feel the horror of custom which still undermines their own
existence, and to burst through the gilded bars which hold their own
lives in bondage, they act upon the social organism in a way that is
almost wholly harmful. Only when their eyes have been opened will
their “influence” and “example” bear out a reasonable meaning of
those words and their position of privilege make them worthy to
lead.
As I had watched the prisoners I saw before me a counter-
procession of women of this leisured class, herded as I have so often
seen them at ball-rooms and parties, enduring the labours, the
penalties, of futile, superficial, sordidly useless lives, quarrelling in
their marriage market, revelling in their petty triumphs, concerned
continually with money, yielding all opinion to social exigencies,
grovelling to those they consider above them, despising and
crushing those they think beneath them, pretending to be lovers of
art and intellect, but concerned at heart only with the appearance of
being so. Subservient to a superficial morality, tested not by the
question, “What has been done?” but “What is the general opinion
about what has been done?” And immediately the procession of
Holloway yard seemed human, dignified, almost enviable by the side
of that other. It is these leisured women the women’s movement has
hitherto cast aside. They are the dross, the dead fruit. All others
have responded in some way, however feeble their power of service,
when they have heard the call; but these have not. As I thought of
them my pity moved from the procession in Holloway to these other
women. Success is impossible for a social system that takes no heed
to its outcasts, the pathological victims of national existence are the
symptoms which can lead us to diagnose its fundamental flaws.
Whether or not the women alive to-day in the ruling class can be
cured is of comparatively little importance, but clearly the causes
which have brought them forth must be altered at the root. The
conditions which go to produce a ruling caste are shifting their
ground throughout the world. Such things are moulded by
involuntary forces; they cannot, except in the immediate future, be
foreshadowed or decreed. But it is now obvious that, whatever this
basis, women must have a fair and honourable share in it. Rulers of
the best are not reared by bondwomen. The bi-sexual powers must
be released at all costs in those sections of the community which,
whether by intellect, by birth, or by wealth, have the guiding reins of
national life in their hands. The question of what that basis shall be
is an altogether separate matter. Who can turn the force of our
women’s movement in that direction, who can be a missionary to
preach war in their peace-bedeadened country? The answer that
came to me in Holloway, and ever since it has seemed to me the
only answer, was this—the example of working class organisations,
and above all, of those few splendid women who have given their
lives to lead this movement. Where doctrine, precept and example
all fail to penetrate, the spirit of sacrifice, which wakes an echo in all
human hearts, will find a way.
 CHAPTER VIII
“A TRACK TO THE WATER’S EDGE”

On March 2, as a result of my pleading to be dismissed from the

hospital, I was put to sleep in a separate cell along the passage of
our ward. This cell had a floor of unpolished wooden boards,
contained a fixed iron bedstead, movable washing stand furnished
with tin utensils, a wooden chair, a square plank fixed to the wall
near the door as a table, and a corner shelf under the window to
hold Bible, prayer and hymn book, prayer card, list of rules, salt
cellar, toilet paper, slate and slate pencil. A small basket to contain
my clothes was kept under the bed. A bell near the door
communicated with the outer passage. The cell was lit by a thickly
barred window of small panes of glass, having in the centre a box-
like apparatus, with a lid, opened by a rope pulley to let in the air
without enabling one to see out, as in church windows. There was a
grating ventilator below the window. In the wall of the cell giving on
to the passage was a glazed aperture, through which the cell was
lighted at night from a gas-jet, as in the “reception” cell. Besides the
heavily metalled door, these hospital cells had iron gates, so that the
door could be left open when patients had to be watched. At eight
o’clock the night wardress went her rounds, lifting the spy hole and
shouting through the door “All right?” to which the prisoners have to
answer “Yes.” If they are asleep, the question is repeated until they
wake and answer it. The gas was then lowered to a light by which it
would have been difficult to read, but not extinguished. It was
explained to me afterwards, when I pleaded for darkness, that I was
an “observation” case on account of my “serious heart disease.” The
luxury of privacy after five nights and days of unrelieved publicity
seemed very great, and as soon as this last “inspection” was over
my imagination conjured up into my presence every friend I have
ever had, including my dog who died twenty years ago. I held
intercourse with them, “dreamed true,” and had a happy time. I then
rolled round and gave myself up to perfect sleep.
After, as it seemed, a very short night, I woke with a start and a
feeling of great horror. I supposed I had had a bad dream, but
quickly realised that the nightmare was on the waking side of my
existence. I sat up in bed. There was a sound of footsteps which I
could not at first locate or interpret. They came nearer, clear foot-
falls and a shuffling sound in between, as if some of the feet were
reluctant and were being dragged along. Then a voice in great
distress, half shriek, half groan, that came in broken snatches. The
sounds came rapidly nearer and grew more definite. The massive
walls of the building seemed to become thin and the doors flimsy
with the penetrating noise. I expected that any moment these night-
wanderers might enter my cell, I supposed it was a case of delirium
tremens or madness. The footsteps stopped. A violent scuffle was
apparently taking place. Then followed a jangle of keys, the banging
of a gate, more turning of keys, and I realised that a frenzied
woman had been shut into the cell below mine. She immediately
seized hold of the gate and shook it so that it rattled on its hinges,
suggesting almost more than human strength. The wolf-like barking
sounds of her voice turned into a human yell as she screamed out,
“Nurse! Nurse! Let me out.” It seemed a most reasonable remark.
The words broke the spell of horror and woke instead my intensest
sympathy. She was expressing the one desire that is constantly
uppermost in prisoners’ minds, the walls echoed it as a thought most
familiar to them. The gate shivered unceasingly under her onslaught
as she hurled herself against it, and her words came at intervals,
“Nurse! Nurse! Open the gate.” The sounds suggested in turn
madness, fury, despair. I strained to interpret and understand, but
there was no clue. I yearned to console her. Presently footsteps
came outside my door, a rattling of keys and locks, my door was
burst open and a wardress I had not seen before put her head in,
saying, “I thought you might be startled.” Her face was inflexible and
revealed nothing. I threw out questions, “Was it a maternity case?”
“Was she ill?” “Why was she so wild?” but the door was slammed to
without any answer being given. However, even this attention was a
relief and unfroze my blood a little. I wondered if the other
prisoners, if the poor distracted woman herself in the cell below, had
been offered as much consolation.
I was kept in bed that morning until after the rounds of
inspection. The Governor was very civil. He urged me to give the
required assurance and bind myself over “to be of good behaviour,”
that I might leave the prison. He asked if I had “considered” my
mother. I have no doubt he thought it his duty to talk in this way,
and probably he was trying to be kind as well. At the time, however,
his insinuation seemed more like a blow in the face. The words
rushed to my lips: “If you knew my Mother, if you had seen her only
once, you would know that it was impossible to risk causing her
anxiety without immensely considering it,” but I restrained myself
and merely said: “I am not the only woman here who has a mother.”
I remembered that when Mrs. Pankhurst had been imprisoned she
had been punished for exchanging a few words with her daughter.
The Governor then brought out a stethoscope to examine my heart.
This was surprising, as I had not realised that he was a doctor. He
urged tonics, but did not insist. Eventually I consented to take
maltine and a banana after the mid-day meal, as they were
distressed that I was so thin.
The shrieks and cries from the cell below had grown less towards
morning, but they were renewed at intervals throughout the day.
When I went into the general ward the horror of the night was still
hanging over my companions. A wardress told one of us that the
woman had killed her child and been put into the condemned cell
after being sentenced to be hanged. After my release it was officially
stated that the woman who had been sentenced to death for baby-
murder had been perfectly quiet and that the “condemned cell” was
in a part of the prison far removed from the remand hospital. The
shrieks we had heard were those of a mad woman, under remand
for larceny, who had since been removed to a workhouse infirmary.
The distressful cries went on intermittently for several days, after
which they lapsed into groans like those of the dying. My longing to
communicate with her became at moments almost unendurable. I
hoped she would die; she seemed too far gone in distress for any
other remedy. One morning before it was light I thought I heard the
throaty sound of the death rattle from her cell. After that she was
removed, whether dead or alive I could never find out until after my
release.
I went into the general ward for the greater part of the day. I
made my bed and dusted my cell, but was not allowed to wash the
floor or clean the tin utensils because of my “heart disease.” The
quieter nights enabled me to eat more food, and I think I gained in
weight and became generally restored to quite normal health. It was
obvious that no ordinary prisoner nor Suffragette prisoner would, in
my state of health, have been put in hospital, and that I was being
kept there either to give me a soft time or for some other
impenetrable reason. I told the Senior Medical Officer that unless I
were allowed to the “other side” I should feel obliged to protest by
means which he would probably regret when it was too late. He
looked very much alarmed, but my threat produced no practical
result. I then asked leave to petition the Home Secretary, a right
allowed to all prisoners. Blue official paper, ink and a pen were
brought to my cell, only one sheet of paper being allowed, but it was
a large one. I forget the wording of my letter. I stated that I had
been rather severely knocked about by the police while on a
peaceable Deputation to the House of Commons to petition that,
when the accepted conditions for which voting rights are granted
have been fulfilled the vote should follow, in the case of women as
of men, a claim which he, the Home Secretary himself, and a
majority of the Cabinet and House of Commons had recognised as
just. That I therefore was grateful for the privilege of being placed in
hospital during the first few days, where the careful and kindly
treatment of the officials and excellent food had quickly restored me
to my normal health. I told how I had asked permission to join my
companions in the cells, but hitherto had asked in vain. I explained
that the cell routine of floor scrubbing, tin polishing, etc., would be
no exceptional exertion in my case, since I was an amateur scrubber,
having patronised that craft in much the same spirit in which other
unemployed women took up water-colour drawing or hand-
embroidery. I found that my fellow prisoners were kept in the cells
when much more seriously ill than I was, and I was driven
reluctantly to the conclusion that the preferential treatment meted
out to me was for no better reason than that I had influential friends
whose criticism, if my health should suffer in prison, was feared by
the authorities. I resented such favouritism on the part of officials,
both as a Liberal in politics, as a believer in the teachings of Christ,
and as a woman, and if the special treatment of my case continued I
should feel bound on my release to make it known from every
platform of our campaign throughout the country. I found there was
a tradition amongst prisoners that petitions to the Home Secretary
were always in vain. As I put forward a moderate and reasonable
request, consistent with the prison regulations, I hoped it would
serve as an instance for proving this tradition to be false. This letter,
perhaps, gave a slightly coloured version of the hospital régime, but
I knew that, in spite of their aims to the contrary, officials are
human, and that if I could express some sort of praise that was fairly
justified, my letter would be more likely to reach the higher
dignitaries and be attended to by them. Perhaps, I thought, the
combination of a very reasonable request with an allowance of
judicious flattery might even result in the request being granted.
The following day I noticed a peculiar and welcome expression on
the faces of various officials as of a smile hidden behind the mask,
plainly indicating that my letter had been read in Holloway, however
much the valentine might be destined for waste-paper basket
furniture at the Home Office. I piled on my good behaviour and ate
as much food as I could, to conciliate the prison authorities. On the
third day following I received a written answer, a formal statement
that my petition had been received, but that the Home Secretary did
not see his way to granting it. This led to further altercations with
the Governor and doctor. They insisted that the cell regime would be
too severe for me. I replied that unless they allowed me to
experience it for myself I should probably carry away an
exaggerated version of the hardships imposed on my companions.
They pleaded that my exceptional physique and heart disease
required “rest.” I answered that prison was not a “rest cure” and
that in the case of my fellow prisoners, more especially of Miss
Lawless and Mrs. Meredith Macdonald, no such reverend attention
had been paid to their physical needs. Every day I put forward the
request and argued the point, always in vain. I felt that the time had
come to carry out my threat. My mind brooded on what form it
should take, but for various reasons it had to be deferred. I had
contracted the cold which was rampant in the ward. The prisoner’s
handkerchief, a duster hanging from the waist of the skirt which did
service for a week, was an inevitable conveyer of infection. This
forbidding form of handkerchief became doubly a trial with a cold in
the head. I used when at exercise to hold it out as I walked, in the
style of a bull-fighting matador, in order to dry it and shake it out,
and I used toilet paper in its stead whenever opportunity offered,
but no efforts could counteract the disgusting overuse and exposure
of the duster. I determined not to press my request to go to the cells
while there was any rational excuse for keeping me in hospital.
When my cold was wearing off I had the misfortune to meet with an
accident and cut myself with some broken crockery. This
necessitated bandaging, and again I put off my threat. The days
went by with unvarying monotony. Although I had known for several
weeks of my decision to go on the Deputation and had full time to
prepare for a likely imprisonment, I was continually remembering
some concern of my home life, the wheels of which would be getting
clogged in my absence. At first these thoughts were very worrying
and kept my mind continually on the fret at my inability to
communicate with the outside world, but the realisation of one’s
helplessness gradually subdued these desires. One day, however, I
heard from a more experienced “gaol-bird” that permission to write
a letter was sometimes granted if “on business.” I promptly
determined to try for this privilege, since it had been granted to
other Suffragists. I chose a matter connected with the village in
which I lived, so that the fact of my being “all right,” as the cell
inspectors put it, might be conveyed to my mother. I asked leave to
write to the Rector’s wife about a flower show committee of which I
was secretary. Leave was granted. I was asked to confine myself
exclusively to the “business” for which permission had been given;
the luxury of writing it was nevertheless very great. Later on I was
allowed to write a second letter to a friend on the Stock Exchange
who manages my money affairs. I wanted some money for a
prisoner friend who was to be released before me. Cheque books
were, of course, not available in prison, and although a letter to my
banker would probably have been sufficient, I thought a personal
friend would be more likely to let the news of my continued “all
right”-ness filter through to my mother, although I was not allowed
to send a definite message. There seemed, too, something attractive
in addressing a letter direct from Holloway to the Stock Exchange, as
I did not know my friend’s private address. This letter, of course,
required an answer which I was allowed to receive and keep. The
rule for prisoners is that letters addressed to them by a spontaneous
correspondence from outside are forbidden, but if permission is
granted to a prisoner to write a letter which requires an answer, that
answer can be received and kept. This answer was about the money
I had asked for, duly enclosed, and contained also a casual reference
to a remote relative. “I suppose you have heard that X. has been
down with influenza.” Evidently the writer assumed that I had been
carrying on my correspondence as usual. I ungratefully wished that
if I was to be allowed news of the outside world it might have been
an item connected with my more immediate belongings. But the
letter gave me a pleasure difficult to describe, bringing, as it did, a
ventilating whiff of ordinary human, free existence into prison life. I
clung to every particle of it, envelope and all, and generally carried it
about in my clothes for fear it should be destroyed while I was out
of my cell; no love-letter was ever more watchfully guarded by a girl
of sixteen. It, of course, had been opened and read before it was
delivered to me.
I pleaded that as the cell prisoners were allowed a change of
vegetables, cabbage, onions, haricot beans, succeeding each other
in turn at the midday meal, the hospital patients might be allowed
the same, anyhow the bed patients, to whom the daily cabbage
became extremely distasteful through monotony. The medical officer
who took the inspection rounds that morning was not favourable to
petitions of this kind. He answered gruffly, “If you were given the
variety, depend upon it you’d be petitioning before long to be put
back on one kind only,” and the daily cabbage continued. But one
gets used to snubs in prison and before long I tried again. For three
days in succession we had been given salt butter of a rather rancid
kind, instead of fresh butter as had been supplied before. I kept a
small sample of it in a saucer and showed it to the Senior Medical
Officer when he came round. This man, according to my experience,
was uniformly obliging, just as if he had been an ordinary man and
not a prison official. He did not scoff, but took the saucer in his
hands and marched out of the ward with it, saying: “I think I had
better see to this myself.” We were not given salt butter again.
Emboldened by this success when next he came I put the vegetable
question before him. He said nothing, but from that time forward we
were given a change every day.
One day there was a stir in the atmosphere owing to an unusual
event, the fortnightly visit of the Visiting Magistrates was due. This
was an opportunity for prisoners to air their grievances. Experience
had taught us that, at any rate as regards Suffragettes, prison
officials and Visiting Magistrates were one and the same authority,
indeed prison officials, Prison Commissioners, Home Office, police,
and police Magistrates, all played to the same tune as conducted by
the attitude of the Government, and we knew that there was no
tribunal of an independent character to which we could make
appeal. Nevertheless, as a matter of principle, we left no stone
unturned to get injustice redressed by constitutional means. Among
the hospital patients there were several cases of glaring injustice.
The false charge before mentioned on which Mrs. Duval (Freedom
League) had been arrested and sentenced to six weeks’
imprisonment. Mrs. Pethick Lawrence’s sentence of two months
when other second offenders in the same Deputation were given
only four weeks and some six, and when Mrs. Despard, also a
prominent leader, had been sentenced to only one month (second
imprisonment) and released after one week “on medical grounds,”
her health at the time being excellent. Finally, the disgraceful
medical diagnosis and treatment of Mrs. Macdonald after her
accident in the yard. Mrs. Macdonald and Mrs. Duval were unable to
leave their beds to appear before the Magistrates. Mrs. Macdonald
decided not to appeal on her own behalf. The Magistrates were not
medical men and an appeal against the doctor would have been
useless and perhaps would have aroused fresh prejudice against her.
She was allowed to send a written communication suggesting some
excellent reforms on general lines for prison management.
That afternoon, when I was locked into my cell, at an unexpected
hour a wardress ushered in a gentleman, apparently an official,
whom I had not seen before. I expected him to order my dress to be
opened and to begin stethoscoping my heart—that was the usual
procedure when a male official appeared. Instead he stood before
me and said with some dignity: “I am Sir Alfred Reynolds.” The
name conveyed nothing to me, so I did not answer, but merely
bowed. He went on to ask if I wanted anything, to say he might be
seeing Lord Lytton soon and did I want any message conveyed to
him or to my home. The sense of bewilderment which prisoners feel
when the unusual happens, breaking into the monotonous routine of
their lives without explanation, overcame me. I did not know with
what object the stranger put these questions, the wildest
interpretations rushed through my mind—that the authorities were
seeking some fresh excuse to release me, that my home people had
heard some untrue report and were in a panic, that there was some
underlying purpose connected with my fellow prisoners, to which I
had no clue. My instinct was to be on my guard, and to shield myself
against intrusion. I answered coldly that I was “All right, thank you,”
and that I had no messages to send. That evening I was told that
this gentleman was one of the Visiting Magistrates. After my release
I realised that he was a neighbour in our county of Hertfordshire and
knew my brother. It was very kind of him to visit me in that
considerate way and I much regret that I did not respond to his
friendliness at the time.
Mrs. Lawrence put her case, guarded by a wardress, standing
before the seated board of Magistrates. They had nothing to say in
explanation or defence of her sentence, but offered no redress.
On Friday, March 12, I had an unexpected and altogether
delightful surprise. In the afternoon I was summoned out of the
ward and taken across the yard. Was I being changed to the other
side? A deliriously joyful thought suggested itself, could it be a
visitor? I had already had my due in this respect, but several visitors
were occasionally allowed to prisoners. Since privileges towards me
were the order of the day it was a possibility. I was shown into the
same “solicitor’s” room as before; this time it was empty. I was left
in charge of a wardress I had not seen before; she was very
amiable. I felt quite distraught with the unusual excitement, and
with the torrent of questions that ramped through my brain.
Although I had had no reason to expect another visitor, I had
recently longed for one with accelerated zest because of the patient
with the injured leg. I had grown daily more exasperated over the
attitude of the authorities towards her case, and felt that the
seeming brutality on their part was probably due to an official
inability to realise all that it entailed to this suffering woman, that if
only one could get the facts known outside the prison a
reconsideration might bring about the granting of some of the very
moderate requests she had made with regard to her release, and
also by exposure of her treatment make it unlikely that physically
injured prisoners should be subject to the same hardships in future.
She was a woman of abnormal courage, and in spite of her crippled
condition was planning to go straight home by rail to Marlow on the
day of her release. She did not keep a servant; her three children
who had been cared for by friends were to return with her. It
seemed to me she was unfit for her ordinary life and I was most
anxious that she should see a surgeon before attempting the
journey by rail. I urged her, too, to make some arrangement for
being nursed in her own house or to go for a while to a “home” or
hospital. For all these matters it was imperative that she should see
her husband and discuss possible plans with him. She asked leave of
the Governor to write to him. This was refused unless she obtained a
permit from the Home Secretary. It took three days to write to and
obtain an answer from the Home Office. When the reply came,
permission was granted to write to her husband, but no mention
was made as to his visiting her. The prison authorities would not
allow this without a further permit from the Home Office. There was
no time to receive and act upon this before her release. When I
compared such treatment of an urgently needful situation with my
own, the ease with which I obtained leave direct from the prison
authorities to write two letters, one of them of no particular
importance, and the ease with which two of my relatives had been
allowed to visit me, I felt exasperated. The action of the authorities
made no pretence at inflexible, even-handed justice, and the
partiality shown was all on behalf of the prisoner who needed it
least.
After a few minutes, to my surprise and intense delight, my eldest
brother was shown in. He gave me good news of those at home.
Before long I was pouring out to him the facts and my pent-up
commentary concerning Mrs. Macdonald, in spite of frequent
protests from the wardress, who exclaimed from time to time that it
was against the rules to make communications to outsiders about
fellow-prisoners or the prison authorities. This time I was careful not
to reprove my loved visitor for anything, and before our all-too-short
interview came to an end I was able to send a message to my sister
to make good my regrets about her visit.
The variety of leniency of the different officials, and of the same
officials on different days, gave a certain savour of adventure to the
dreariness of prison life. Here are two instances of the brighter side.
Mrs. Lawrence and I were one afternoon allowed to walk up and
down the length of the ward side by side talking in low voices. She
told me about the early days of the militant movement and
supplemented my book-study of that miraculous fairy tale in which I
was now privileged to take part. As I listened and reproached myself
continually with the thought, “Women had all this to face and I was
not helping them,” there seemed a positive charm in the trials of
imprisonment—the suffering about my home people, the grim sights
and sounds of our surroundings, the rudeness of prison officers, the
physical discomforts of unaccustomed clothing, thunder-stuffed
pillows, etc. Now that I passed the nights in a cell and came into the
ward only for meals and part of the day, I noticed with keener
insight how remarkably the atmosphere of leadership clung round
Mrs. Pethick Lawrence. Her clothes and the disciplined routine were
exactly the same in her case as in ours, she conformed to all the
rules and seemed to adapt herself to the life as if it had been of her
choice and not imposed upon her. Yet the authority, and above all,
the wisdom in her personality seemed to shine out more prominently
even than they did in free life when she was controlling the many
departments of the office at Clement’s Inn for which she was
responsible, or of the public movement from a platform. Everyone
came to her for advice, even the prison officers seemed instinctively
to refer matters to her. It was, for once, quite intelligible why they
had separated her from the bulk of the Suffragist prisoners by
putting her in hospital. It was obvious that her control over them
would far outweigh the authority of prison rules and rulers should
she choose to exert it. The reason given, however, was that she too
was suffering from heart disease, but this medical verdict did not
prevent her being sent to the cells, where the full prison labour of
floor washing and tin polishing was exacted of her, as soon as our
shorter sentences had expired and she was left to finish her
unjustifiably longer term in solitude.
Another unexpected privilege had been carefully planned so that
the joy of it was spread over several days. The Freedom League
prisoners were soon to be released. We schemed a jollification to
take place on the Sunday evening before their departure. The
Sabbath day reflected national customs in prison as outside. The
morning was characterised by clean clothing and an unusual rigidity
of behaviour, but towards the latter half of the afternoon the air of
solemnity wore away, some of the officers had an afternoon off,
bringing back with them an indefinable sense of the outer world,
and the evening hours sometimes produced an atmosphere almost
of amiability. Much would depend on whether a lovable wardress,
who often did duty in our ward and had shown herself invariably
friendly towards us, should be “on” or “off.” The patients, who had
increased to nine, were all of them now out of bed during part of the
day. We were to gather round the fire, and to tell yarns, stories or
poems, as if we were in camp in the free world. A sense of
excitement and expectancy pervaded the ward all day. I felt as
children do before a self-schemed escapade into the dominions of
forbidden joys, my delight only slightly marred by the prospect of
having to contribute to the recitations, a performance not at all in
my line. I spent the spare moments of the day trying to remember
and write down on my slate Coventry Patmore’s poem “The Toys.”
Parts of it had constantly floated into my mind while in Holloway
from the striking resemblance between prisoners and children. I
treasured more especially the actual list of toys which the child, a
seven times breaker of the law, when punished and dismissed “with
hard words and unkiss’d,” had put beside his bed:—

“A box of counters and a red-vein’d stone,

A piece of glass abraded by the beach,
And six or seven shells,
A bottle with bluebells,
And two French copper coins, ranged there with careful art
To comfort his sad heart.”

When evening came after the supper meal our little plot
developed with unexpected smoothness. The kindly wardress was in
charge, activity and “inspection” in the passage outside subsided
altogether and we were left to our own devices. What chairs there
were we set round the fire and the rest of the company sat on the
floor. An unwonted expression of happiness beamed from the fire-lit
faces of these prison-clad individuals, drawn together from many
parts of the country and from widely-differing walks of life. Each one
contributed her share to our spontaneous entertainment. Even the
wardress, completely casting aside her official manner and
addressing herself deferentially to Mrs. Lawrence, for whom she had
a great admiration, told a pathetic little story with a surprising gift of
narration and concentrated expression. I remember I had dreaded
lest one or two of the company besides myself should not be “up” to
an adequate contribution, and that our little entertainment would be
marred by those uncomfortable moments of both conscious and
unconscious failure such as are common to “social” gatherings, no
matter where they take place. However, everyone played up. There
was great variety in the different speakers, each in turn adding a
new element to the programme, each was good of its kind and there
was no need for pity anywhere. My friend with the injured leg
contributed a remarkable political poem of her own making, but far
the most artistic items were given by Mrs. Lawrence. She told us
first an Arab story which she had heard from a Dragoman sitting
round a real camp fire in Egypt. It was full of the detail dear to the
East, which suited the associations of superfluous time in our then
experience. It was intricate and humorous, lifting our minds
completely out of our present surroundings. She was pressed for
“more.” She then repeated Olive Schreiner’s “Three Dreams in a
Desert.” I had read this allegory many years ago when it was first
published. I remember that the painter Watts and my father had
been enthusiastic over the poetical beauty of these “Dreams.” Their
lyrical force, the imaginative woof and warp of their parables and the
dignified cadence of their language had impressed me in my youth
so that I read them many times for sheer emotional joy, but their
meaning had evidently not penetrated to me. Olive Schreiner, more
than any one other author, has rightly interpreted the woman’s
movement and symbolised and immortalised it by her writings. Now
after even so short an experience of the movement as I had known,
this “Dream” seemed scarcely an allegory. The words hit out a bare
literal description of the pilgrimage of women. It fell on our ears
more like an A B C railway guide to our journey than a figurative
parable, though its poetic strength was all the greater for that. The
woman wanderer goes forth to seek the Land of Freedom.... “‘How
am I to get there?’ The old man, Reason, answers, ‘There is one way
and one only. Down the banks of Labour, through the water of
suffering. There is no other.’ ... ‘Is there a track to show where the
best fording is?’ ... ‘It has to be made....’ And she threw from her
gladly the mantle of ancient-received opinions she wore, for it was
worn full of holes. And she took the girdle from her waist that she
had treasured so long, and the moths flew out of it in a cloud. And
he said, ‘Take the shoes of dependence off your feet.’ And she stood
there naked but for one white garment that clung close to her, the
garment of Truth, which she is told to keep. She is given a staff,
Reason, ‘a stick that curled.’ ‘Take this stick, hold it fast. In that day
when it slips from your hand you are lost. Put it down before you,
where it cannot find a bottom, do not set your foot.’ The woman
having discarded all to which she had formerly clung cries out: ‘For
what do I go to this far land which no one has ever reached? I am
alone! I am utterly alone!’ But soon she hears the sound of feet, ‘a
thousand times ten thousand and thousands of thousands and they
beat this way.’ ... ‘They are the feet of those that shall follow you.’ ...
‘Have you seen the locusts how they cross a stream? First one
comes down to the water’s edge, and it is swept away, and then
another comes and then another, and at last with their bodies piled
up a bridge is built and the rest pass over.’ ... And of those that
come first some are swept away, and are heard of no more; their
bodies do not even build the bridge? ... ‘What of that? They make a
track to the water’s edge.’” And in the last dream she sees in that
land of Freedom where Love is no longer a child but has grown to a
man. “On the hills walked brave women and brave men, hand in
hand. And they looked into each other’s eyes, and they were not
afraid.”
We dispersed and went back to our hard beds, to the thought of
our homes, to the depressing surroundings of fellow prisoners, to
the groans and cries of agonised women—content. As I laid my head
on the rattling pillow I surrendered my normal attitude towards
literature, and thought “There is some point, some purpose in it
after all.”
 Since I had left the general ward there were more opportunities
for the officers to show kindness without being detected in
“favouritism,” and I had come to be on very good terms with several
of them. Even the ward superintendent, who made a special hobby
of outward severity, had relaxed on several occasions. For instance,
she stood in the doorway one morning watching me make my bed.
She remarked, with the same outward air of contempt that was
habitual to her, but with a kindly look in her eyes: “You’re not much
used to that, I expect?” I answered: “Do you think I do it so badly?”
She smiled and seemed distressed that I had interpreted her that
way. Her anxiety that I should put on flesh while under her charge
made her almost motherly at times. I accounted for my small
appetite by explaining that I did not spend myself in prison life.
“Don’t know about spending yourself, but how about your
sensitiveness? Doesn’t that ‘spend’ you?” This taunt was because
when she renewed the plasters on my cut, which she did very
skilfully, I winced a good deal. The sticky plaster adhered closely and
the process of removing it generally made me feel faint. I didn’t
know till she said this that she had even noticed it, but her contempt
was softened by a kind smile. I had determined to begin my strike in
real earnest the following week if I failed by reasonable pleadings to
get sent to the cells. I was anxious that the responsibility of my bad
behaviour should not fall on her, and I wished to make very clear
that I had no malicious intentions towards her, or anyone else,
beyond giving proof to the doctors that I should be better the “other
side.” She was extremely busy and her visits to me never lasted
more than a few seconds. I took the first opportunity to say
unconcernedly and not looking at her, but with the hope of arousing
her curiosity sufficiently for her consent: “If you should have a spare
minute before Sunday, come in to me when I am in my cell, I want
to ask you something.” She looked surprised, but said nothing and
avoided me for the rest of the day. The following afternoon she
looked in hurriedly, saying in her most official voice: “What is it you
want?” I resented the scolding tone and answered without humility,
as one would to a fellow-being outside, “Come near to me, I want to
speak to you, but only if you can spare the time.” I was lying on my
bed, a privilege I was allowed in the separate cell. She came in,
pushed the door to, stood close to my bed-side and said again
gruffly, “What is it?” I reached out my hand to take hers, but
meeting with no response I drew it in again. I did not want to get
angry with the rebuffs of her officialdom, so I kept my eyes down as
I said: “I like you because you have always treated me the same as
the others, yet you have never really been unkind to me. I want to
ask you something now, because by Sunday either I shall have had
leave to go to the other side or I shall have begun my strike in real
earnest and you will be getting more and more angry with me.” She
stooped down and said in a low voice of extreme tenderness as if I
had been a child: “Why, I have never been angry with you yet.” I
looked up into her eyes. They were lit with kindliness and her whole
face beamed on me with genial goodwill. It was a surprising change.
The personality was the same, but the mask was off and I realised
something of the sacrifice it must be to this woman continually to
conceal her good nature under so forbidding a manner. I felt more
than ever how wasteful and unreasonable is a system which
represses the natural powers of good influence in such a woman and
exacts of her, in their stead, an attitude towards the prisoners of so
much less worth. Her kindness made my determination to carry out
my strike at all costs a much harder job than any amount of her
official hardness and reproof would have done. If it had been for any
less object than a matter of principle I could not have done it. “No,”
I answered, “but I haven’t yet begun my strike seriously.” I added: “I
don’t wish to discuss that now. I want you to tell me when you could
come and see us after I am out. Mother will wish to thank you for
being kind to me, and to hear about my wicked ways from you. You
must come down to us in the country. We are on this line and quite
near London.” Her face grew serious again, but remained without
the official mask. She shook her head. “That’s impossible,” she said
with decision, “it would be against the rules.” “There are no prison
rules for me once I am free again, and you surely have some
holidays when you can do as you like.” “No, that would be quite
against the rules.” I pleaded afresh and with determination. She then
tried another tack, said that she had friends of her own to visit in the
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