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Contents vii
Glossary 500
Notes 511
Index 538
Figures and Tables
Figures
2.1 Support for Sovereignty by Generation, 9.3 The Structure of Canada’s Court System 262
1968–2015 48 9.4 Federal Judicial Appointments, 2016–19 263
2.2 Support for Religious, Media, and Personal Freedom, 9.5 From Bill to Statute 266
Selected Countries 53 10.1 Where Does the Money Come from
2.3 Freedom and Morality, Canada and and Where Does It Go? 280
the United States, 2016 54 10.2 Women in the Public Service, 1993–2016 287
2.4 Attitudes towards Citizen–State Relations, Canada 10.3 Visible Minorities and Indigenous People in the Public
and the United States 61 Service, 1993–2016 287
3.1 Income Share and Share of Income Taxes Paid by Top 11.1 The Funnel of Causality Model of Voter Choice 322
1 Per Cent of Tax Filers, 1920–2016 69 12.1 Policy Community “Bubble Diagram” 343
3.2 Distribution of Income (Gini Coefficient) in Selected 14.1 Mother Tongues of the Canadian Population,
Countries, 2011–17 70 1931–2016 388
3.3 Police-Reported Crime Rates in Canada, 14.2 Mother Tongue and Language Spoken at Home,
1962–2016 74 2016 389
4.1 Visible Minorities in Canada and in Main 14.3 English–French Bilingualism in Canada,
Metropolitan Areas, 1991 and 2016 86 1961–2016 393
4.2 Region of Birth of Immigrants, 1871–2016 87 14.4 Anglophone and Francophone Representation in the
4.3 What Is at the Core of National Identity? 91 Federal Public Service as a Whole, in the Management
4.4 Representation of Women, Visible Minorities, and Category of the Public Service, and in the Canadian
Indigenous Canadians in the House of Commons, Population, 1965–2017 402
2015 and 2019, and in the Canadian Population 94 15.1 Gender of Candidates for the Five Main Parties in the
4.5 Distribution of Admission Categories by Year of 2019 Election 431
Immigration, 1980–2016 104 15.2 Women in the House of Commons, 1921–2019 431
5.1 Cross-Border Regions 119 15.3 Demand and Supply Factors Affecting the
6.1 The Structure of Parliament in Canada 145 Recruitment of Party Candidates 432
6.2 The Constitutional Roots of Ministerial 15.4 Gender Pay Ratio in Canada, 1976–2017 435
Responsibility 149 16.1 Indigenous Identity Population as Percentage of Total
8.1 Federalism in the World 200 Population, Provinces and Territories, 2016 442
8.2 First Ministers’ Conferences, 1906–2018 221 16.2 Canadian Public Opinion on Indigenous
8.3 Federal Per Capita Revenues and Expenditures Issues, 2018 472
by Province, 2017 223 17.1 Canada’s Most Positive Contribution to the World,
9.1 The Formal Organization of Canadian 1993–2018 478
Government 233 17.2 Exports of Goods and Services and Total Trade as
9.2 The Annual Financial Cycle 242 Percentage of GDP, 1961–2017 484
Tables
2.1 Liberalism, Conservatism, and Socialism: Classical 5.1 Selected Economic and Population Characteristics, by
and Contemporary Versions 40 Province 112
4.1 Models of Cultural Accommodation 97 6.1 Amending the Constitution 156
Figures and Tables ix
7.1 Human Rights and the Charter 172 11.1 Percentage of Vote and Seats Won by Each Party,
8.1 Factors Contributing to the Choice of Nationally and by Province, 2015 and 2019 312
Federalism 201 11.2 Three Models of Leadership Selection 315
8.2 The Federal Division of Powers under the 11.3 Hypothetical Outcomes of the 2015 Federal
Constitution Acts 207 Election under Proportional and Preferential
8.3 Federal Transfers to Provinces and Territories, Voting Systems 321
2010–11 to 2019–20 224 14.1 Bilingualism in Canada, 1961, 2001, 2016 392
Boxes
Politics in Focus
1.1 Some Important Definitions of Politics and 11.1 An Early Illustration of the Brokerage Theory
Power 5 of Canadian Politics 299
1.2 Alternative Definitions of the State 8 11.2 Prime Minister Mackenzie King: The Master of
1.5 What Is a Nation? 24 Brokerage Politics 301
5.3 The West as Canada’s Internal Colony 126 11.3 Developing a Winning “Brand”: Brokerage
6.3 Does Party Discipline Undermine Politics Today 302
Democracy? 147 11.4 Democratizing Leader Selection: What Could
6.4 The Evolution of Ministerial Possibly Go Wrong? 316
Responsibility 150 11.5 Who’s for What Sort of Electoral Reform? 321
6.7 Where’s the Door? Is There a Door? 162 12.1 The Limits on Reform in Capitalist
7.3 When the Charter and Crown Prerogatives Democracies: The Case of Alberta under the
Collide 186 NDP 337
7.5 Does the Ability to Spend Money during 12.3 Think-Tanks and Interest Group
an Election Campaign Jeopardize Influence 356
Democracy? 190 12.5 A Revolving Door? 358
7.7 Is Hate Speech Protected by Free 14.1 Another Model for Language Rights: The Case
Speech? 194 of Belgium 403
8.2 Language, Nationalism, and Federalism 203 16.2 The Integrationist Philosophy of the 1969
8.5 Equalization: Is It about Fairness and Sharing, White Paper 452
or Politics and Buying Votes? 225 16.4 The Vision of the Truth and Reconciliation
8.7 James Madison on the Democratic Virtues of Commission 457
Federalism 228 16.7 Two Very Different Perspectives on Historic
9.1 The Governor General Mocks the Beliefs of 40 Treaties 466
Per Cent of Canadians 237 17.1 We’re Not Always the Most Popular Kid in the
9.3 Is Parliament Broken? Can It Be Fixed? 252 Class 477
Governing Realities
Media Spotlight
3.1 Generation Jobless? 67 13.4 Don’t Blame Political Polarization on Social
4.3 The Portrayal of Cultural Diversity through Media 377
Canadian Television 95 13.5 Tout le monde en parle (in Quebec, at
10.2 The Delegation of Discretion 285 least) 379
12.2 Do Boycotts Work? The Case of ForestEthics 13.6 Media Theorists on How Image-Based Media
versus the Alberta Oil Sands 355 May Affect the Presentation of Reality 382
13.1 The Bad News about the Online Spread of True 15.2 Feminist Icon or Fallen Hero? 429
and False Stories 366 16.3 The Lasting Legacy of Assimilation 454
13.2 Is Media Decline Old News? 370 16.8 Paddling onto the Front Pages 472
13.3 “Gatekeepers in a World in Which There May
Be No Gates” 374
Preface
One might excuse Canadians for feeling self-con- assess fairly and realistically the performance of
gratulatory. Every year Canada places towards the Canada’s political system.
top in the global rankings of democracy published The political landscape in Canada has changed
annually by the respected Economist Intelligence remarkably over the past couple of generations.
Unit (EIU). In the 2018 rankings Canada was sixth. Some of these changes have involved the country’s
Moreover, Canada was one of only 20 countries of system of government, most notably the Charter of
the 165 included in the EIU’s assessment to achieve Rights and Freedoms and its profound impacts on
the distinction of a full democracy. Indeed, in the the policy process. The Charter has also contributed
category of civil liberties Canada earned the high- to change in how Canadians think and talk about
est possible score. This was not a one-off result. politics. At the same time, some of the issues and
Canada has done very well for as long as the EIU has fault lines that mark the political landscape are rec-
published its widely cited annual ranking of how ognizably the same as in the past. Whether they are
democracy fares around the world. older or newer, all of the central issues in Canadian
Not everyone agrees with this glowing assess- political life raise questions of fairness, freedom,
ment. Indigenous spokespersons and advocates representation, justice, and dignity. These are values
regularly lament what they believe to be the con- we associate with democracy. We may not agree on
tinuing injustices suffered by Indigenous peoples. the concrete meaning of these values or on the bal-
Environmental groups in Canada, the United ance among them that best satisfies our ideal of
States, and Europe criticize Canadian governments democracy. But hardly anyone would disagree that
for what they charge is the country’s disproportion- whether what is at stake is the location of a landfill
ate contribution to global warming. And there is no or revisions to the Constitution, these values and
shortage of very prominent Canadians who argue trade-offs are fundamental to democratic politics.
that the country’s electoral system is fundamen- Instructors who have used previous editions of
tally undemocratic. Canadian Democracy will see that this ninth edi-
The title of this book—Canadian Democracy—is tion represents a rather major overhaul of what has
not a judgment or a conclusion. It is, rather, a focus. gone before. Some chapters, particularly those on
Over the previous eight editions of this textbook, Indigenous Canadians, Women and Politics, the
as in the present edition, I have tried to structure Media, and Canada in the World, have been largely
my treatment of the key components of Canada’s rewritten to reflect important changes that have
political system around such themes as equality, taken place in recent years in the subject matter, but
freedoms, rights, and access. This approach is nei- also in the ways in which we think about these issues.
ther an uncritical celebration of Canadian politics These chapters are the ones where the changes are
nor a lopsided condemnation of its shortcomings greatest, but all of the chapters have been very sub-
and failures. In using the complex and contested stantially revised and updated. Since the last edition,
concept of democracy as my touchstone I hope to several new podcasts have been added at the book’s
encourage readers to think about Canadian govern- companion website (www.oup.com/he/Brooks9e) and
ment and politics in ways that will enable them to more are planned for the next few years.
Highlights of the
Ninth Edition
While preparing this ninth edition of Canadian Democracy, one paramount goal was kept in mind: to pro-
duce the most accessible and interesting, yet comprehensive and authoritative introduction to Canadian
politics available.
This edition builds on the strengths of the market-leading previous editions, using approachable con-
tent and dynamic pedagogy to explore the characteristics and controversies associated with Canadian
politics. The following pages outline some of the most significant features of the new edition.
Comprehensive updates throughout Canadian Democracy, ninth edition, bring readers the latest
data, research, court rulings, and analysis of current events that come to bear on Canadian politics and
society. Some specific changes to note:
✔✔ Chapter 2, “Political Culture,” includes new content on conflict between Indigenous groups and the
Canadian government regarding Indigenous title and land rights.
✔✔ Chapter 3, “The Social and Economic Setting,” contains new data and considerations of precarious work
and the uncertain economic futures of millennials and Generation Z in Canada.
✔✔ Chapter 9, “The Machinery of Government,” includes new content on Canada’s “democratic deficit,”
48 PART II The Societal Context of Politics
including a new boxed feature.
✔✔
negotiated political independence for Quebec that greater popularity of the “Oui” option among those
Chapter 11, “Parties and Elections,” provides anwould
expanded exploration
maintain economic ties to Canada. ofwhothe electoral
entered system,
adulthood in the nationalist including
1960s and
early 1970s—Quebec’s “baby boomers”—reflected
✔✔ Chapter 13, “The Media,” offers new content onthe issues of the media and
equality of nations; this arrangement
would enable Quebec to acquire the exclu-
democracy, including the de-
characterized the 1960s in Quebec, would find sep-
aratism less appealing.
✔✔
no change in political status resulting from in which almost 94 per cent of eligible citizens
Chapter 16, “Indigenous Politics,” has been updated with will
these negotiations
Party, which formed a minority government, domin-
significant
be effected withoutnew material
voted. Quebec societyon political
was very
election seemed to confirm an old adage of Canadian
organiza-
clearly and deeply
approval by the people through another divided on its relationship to the Canadian polit-
tions within Indigenous communities in Canada, as well as new content on the United Nations Human
ated in Atlantic Canada and in Ontario, and edged politics: Elections are won in Ontario and majority
referendum;
out the BQ for the largest share of the popular vote on these terms, do you give ical community. Among
government status is won in Quebec. The Liberalsfrancophones, 55 per cent
the Government of Quebec the mandate to
and number of seats in Quebec. The Conservatives voted for independence compared to only 7 per
were denied that majority government status by the
Yukon — 24.3% 2.8% 53.7% 19.4% — FIGURE 2 .1 Support for Sovereignty by Generation, 1968–2015
0 0 1 0 1
Source: Jean-Herman Guay, “Sovereignty at an Impasse: The Highs and Lows of Quebec Nationalism,” Institute for Research on Public Policy, 24 Oct. 2017, http://irpp
Canada 4.7% 31.9% 3.4% 39.5% 19.7% 0.8% .org/research-studies/sovereignty-at-an-impasse-the-highs-and-lows-of-quebec-nationalism/.
10 99 1 184 44 0 338
Updated feature boxes Canadian Democracy includes four recurring boxed features scattered throughout every
chapter to highlight current issues, show politics at work, and encourage students to think critically.
152 PART III The Structures of Governance
This is an excerpt from a lecture that Justice Rosalie I was born right after World War II. That was the dev-
Abella gave in London, England, in 2011: astating war that inspired the nations of the world to 88 PART II The Societal Context of Politics
Weighing values and taking public policy into ac- unite in democratic solidarity and commit themselves
count does not impair judicial neutrality or impar- conceptually, aspirationally, institutionally, and legally
tiality. Pretending we do not take them into account, to the promotion and protection of values designed to
and refusing to confront our personal views and be
open in spite of them, may be a bigger risk to impar-
prevent a repetition of the war’s unimaginable human
rights abuses.
Governing Realities
tiality. It is of course fundamental that judges be free Yet here we are in 2017, barely seven decades later,
from inappropriate or undue influence, independ- watching “never again” turn into “again and again,” and BOX 4.1 The Kirpan, Religious Freedom, and Canadian Multiculturalism
ent in fact and appearance, and intellectually willing watching that wonderful democratic consensus frag-
Beliefs and behaviours that are unfamiliar may or may unfair that G may wear his kirpan to school while
and able to hear the evidence and arguments with ment, shattered by narcissistic populism, an unhealthy
not generate controversy. The fact that many Canadians they are not allowed to have knives in their pos-
an open mind. But neutrality and impartiality do not tolerance for intolerance, a cavalier indifference to
of Ukrainian, Russian, and Serbian ancestry are mem- session, it is incumbent on the schools to dis-
and cannot mean that the judge has no prior concep- equality, a deliberate amnesia about the instruments bers of the Orthodox Church and celebrate Christmas charge their obligation to instil in their students
tions, opinions or sensibilities about society’s values. and values of democracy that are no less crucial than and Easter several days after the dates of these statu- this value that is at the very foundation of our
It means only that those preconceptions ought not to elections, and a shocking disrespect for the borders tory holidays is probably unknown to many Canadians. democracy. A total prohibition against wearing
close his or her mind to the evidence and arguments between power and its independent adjudicators like Once known, most people will be indifferent. They might a kirpan to school undermines the value of this
presented. the press and the courts. not be indifferent, however, if members of the Orthodox religious symbol and sends students the mes-
Church demanded forms of public recognition for their sage that some religious practices do not merit
Here is an excerpt from Justice Abella’s commence- Sources: Justice Rosalie Abella, “Constitutions and Judges: Changing Roles, religious holidays, such as the right to a paid holiday. the same protection as others. Accommodating
Rules and Expectations,” lecture given at University College London, 7 July
Something of the sort was at issue in 2001 when a young G and allowing him to wear his kirpan under
ment address to the graduating class at Brandeis 2011, 9, at www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/events/judicial-independence-
events/Justice_Abella_Lecture_to_JIP_07-07-11.pdf; Keynote address by Sikh male attending public school in Quebec was told certain conditions demonstrates the import-
University in 2017, several months after President Donald Justice Rosalie Abella, Brandeis University, Commencement 2017, http:// that he could not bring his kirpan to school. The kirpan is ance that our society attaches to protecting
Trump took office: www.brandeis.edu/commencement/2017/abella.html.
a metal ceremonial dagger that Sikh males are required freedom of religion and to showing respect for
to wear at all times after being baptized. It symbolizes its minorities. 7
religious loyalty. The parents of the boy in question were
As noted above and demonstrated in January 2011,
Relations between the House of even when the right to vote was much more limited told by the school authorities that he would be permitted
to wear a kirpan made of wood or plastic, some material this might be especially true in Quebec, where four
Commons and the Senate than it is today. This fact, along with the obvious
that would eliminate or at least reduce its capacity to members of the World Sikh Organization, who had been
“The When
Social Fabric”
the founders boxes
designed Canada’s Parliament, explore social issues that
patronage of most government appointments to
the Senate, undermined its legitimacy.
be used as a weapon. His parents refused, arguing that
their son’s religious freedom, guaranteed by the Charter,
invited to testify before a legislative committee exam-
ining a proposed law on reasonable accommodation
and concerns.
House of Commons (the lower house) and an ap- ant of these involves the selection of the prime government at work as well as concepts related to the
ligious reasons is indeed protected by the Charter.
This case was about both religious freedom and
weren’t allowed to enter because we wear the kirpan,
which is a bit ironic because we were here to speak
pointed Senate (the upper house). A literal reading minister and other members of the government. multiculturalism. Indeed, the two values are intertwined, upon the issue of accommodation and we weren’t
of the Constitution suggests that their powers are
roughly equal. The major difference is that money
Constitutional law does not require that they be
drawn from the House of Commons, but it is un-
institutions and processes of government.
as the Court said in its ruling: accommodated.” 8 Within weeks, the members of
Quebec’s National Assembly voted unanimously to ban
bills must be introduced in the House of Commons. thinkable today that the prime minister not be Religious tolerance is a very important value of the wearing of the Sikh ceremonial dagger from the
In fact, however, the superiority of the elected an elected MP. Occasionally, one or two senators Canadian society. If some students consider it province’s legislative buildings.
252 PART III The Structures of Governance
House of Commons has been clear to most observ- have been appointed to cabinet, but this often has
ers (except for some senators) from day one. The been because the party in power had few (or no)
unelected character of the Senate has always sat MPs from a particular region of the country. The Canadians’ embrace of multiculturalism. Here are stimulating and I always learn something”
uneasily in Canada’s democratic political culture, appointment of Michael Fortier to the Senate after some of what might be characterized as pro-multi- (79 per cent in both Quebec and the ROC).
Politics in Focus cultural findings from the survey: • If ethnic groups keep their cultural identity
our country will only be more interesting (52
BOX 9.3 Is Parliament Broken? Can It Be Fixed? • The vast majority of Canadians agree that per cent agreeing in Quebec and 64 per cent
other cultures have a lot to contribute and in the ROC). 13 The Media 377
Michael Chong is a Conservative MP representing the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO)—is effectively controlling
constituency of Wellington–Halton Hills in Ontario. For a standing committee of the legislative branch. This is their influences enrich us (78 per cent in • The fact of having a growing number of dif-
several years he has been perhaps the most outspoken at complete odds with the fundamental role of a com- Quebec, 84 per cent in the rest of Canada ferent ethnicities and nationalities makes
critic in the House of Commons of what he believes to mittee of the legislature, which is to hold the executive [ROC]) and agree with the statement “I like Canada a better place to live (more re-
bro32501_ch06_131-165.indd
be the dysfunctional 152 that pre-
features of Parliament branch of government to account. 02/08/20 02:45 PM
to have very different people around me; it’s spondents agreed than disagreed: 33 per
vent it from doing its job probably and that, in con- Committee reports are a good example of how the
sequence, have undermined Canadian democracy.
In a 2017 book entitled Turning Parliament Inside Out:
PMO exerts control over committees. Parliamentary
secretaries—who work closely with the minister’s
Media Spotlight
Practical Ideas for Reforming Canada’s Democracy, office—sit on committees. When a draft report is being
Chong argues that one of the things that needs to be considered, the parliamentary secretary often sends
fixed is the committee system. the report to the minister’s office. This means the min- BOX 13.4 Don’t Blame Political Polarization on Social Media
The committee system of the House of Commons ister’s office is frequently participating in drafting the
is one area that could be reformed to rebalance very reports that are supposed to hold the minister The argument against echo chambers is well docu- Whatever the causes of political polarisation
power between party leaders and MPs. The committee and department to account. It’s like putting the fox in mented: bro32501_ch04_082-108.indd
helped by social media88algorithms, we are 02/06/20
today, it is not social media or the internet. 02:59 PM
If any-
system is at the heart of the day-to-day functioning charge of the henhouse! increasingly choosing to interact in safe spaces, with thing, most people use the internet to broaden
of the Commons. Committees are made up of small Committees rarely make amendments to improve people who think and act like us—effectively preaching their media horizons. We found evidence that
groups of MPs (usually 10 members) and are created government legislation. In any given year, amend-
our opinions to the converted. As a result, this behav- people actively look to confirm the information
by the Commons, usually through standing orders. It’s ments made to government bills by standing com-
iour is distorting our world view and, in the process, our that they read online, in a multitude of ways.
where much of MPs’ work is done—where legislation is mittees usually number in the single digits. In contrast,
amended, and government spending and taxation are government bills in the British House of Commons are ability to compromise, which in turn stimulates political They mainly do this by using a search engine to
approved. amended dozens—if not hundreds—of times in any polarization. However, new Oxford University research find offline media and validate political informa-
In theory, standing committees have immense given year. suggests that social media and the Internet are not the tion. In the process they often encounter opin-
power to hold the government to account. They’re em- A reform that would go a long way toward rebal- root of today’s fragmented society, and echo cham- ions that differ from their own and as a result
powered to call witnesses, demand evidence and issue ancing power between party leaders and MPs would
bers may not be the threat they are perceived to be. whether they stumbled across the content pas-
reports. In practice, they rarely exercise these rights. be to remove the power of party leaders—including the
In fact, most people use multiple media outlets and sively or use their own initiative to search for an-
Why? Because party leaders exert substantial control prime minister—to decide the membership of commit-
over the chairs and membership of these committees. tees. Giving that power to MPs on a secret ballot vote social media platforms, meaning that only a small pro- swers while double checking their “facts,” some
In theory, parliamentary committees have immense at the beginning of a new Parliament would give com- portion of the population, at most, is influenced by echo changed their own opinion on certain issues.
power to hold the government to account. In practice, mittees much greater autonomy to hold the govern- chambers.
they rarely exercise these rights. ment to account. Using a random sample of adult Internet users in the Dr Elizabeth Dubois, co-author and assistant profes-
In a majority Parliament, for instance, at least six out UK, researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute and the sor at the University of Ottawa, said: “Our results show
of 10 members of a standing committee are appointed Source: From Michael Chong, “Rebalancing Power in Ottawa:
Committee Reform,” in Michael Chong, Scott Simms, and Kennedy University of Ottawa examined people’s media choices, that most people are not in a political echo chamber.
through the party whip by the prime minister. This Stewart, Turning Parliament Inside Out: Practical Ideas for Reforming
means that the executive branch of government—the Canada’s Democracy (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2017).
and how much they influenced their interaction with The people at risk are those who depend on only a
echo chambers, against six key variables: gender, single medium for political news and who are not pol-
income, ethnicity, age, breadth of media use, and itically interested: about 8 per cent of the population.
political interest. The findings reveal that rather than However, because of their lack of political engagement,
“Media Spotlight”
by the other. It involves boxes
a failure to understand the may seem ahighlight
bit extreme. Nevertheless,key media
the idea that
identity, perspectives, concerns, and aspirations of misrecognition can get in the way of one group under-
bro32501_ch09_231-268.indd 252 02/10/20 07:32 AM
pieces and editorials and consider the media’s
the other. This failure, Taylor argues, may have ser- standing another, as has so often been true of French–
ious consequences for relations between groups and English relations over the span of Canadian history,
role
for politics: “[A] person or group of people can suffer is indisputable. This failure of mutual understanding
inrealpolitics.
damage, real distortion, if the people or society may be attributed to various causes, but among them
around them mirror back to them a confining or surely must be included the rift between the media
demeaning or contemptible picture of themselves. systems of French- and English-speaking Canada. A
Nonrecognition or misrecognition can inflict harm, study of news content on the French and English
can be a form of oppression, imprisoning someone television networks of the CBC in the 1970s found
in a false, distorted, and reduced mode of being.”37 that the overlap in terms of stories covered was often
Taylor’s argument that oppression and a “reduced below 20 per cent. The study’s author, Arthur Siegel,
mode of being” may result from improper recognition observed, “The pattern of content tends to reinforce
Highlights of the Ninth Edition xv
Revised aids to student learning A rich pedagogical program enhances students’ engagement with the material,
encouraging critical thinking and further exploration.
✔✔ Chapter overviews outline the main topics covered in each chapter and serve as a quick reference and study
tool for students.
discussion, based on research by the bureaucracy details of the bill are considered clause by clause
(and sometimes the legislature as well), and serves and witnesses may be heard. At this committee
as a statement of the government’s legislative in- stage, amendments can be made but the principle
tentions. Major legislation may also follow from of the bill cannot be altered. The bill is then re-
the recommendations of a Royal Commission, a ported back to the House, where all aspects, in-
task force, or some other consultative body created cluding any amendments, are debated. At this
by the government to study and make recommen- report stage new amendments also can be intro-
dations on an issue. duced. If a bill passes this hurdle it then goes to
Once a bill has been drafted by government, third reading where a final vote is taken, sometimes
it is introduced in the Senate, or more usually, after further debate. Once a bill has been passed
in the House of Commons. Here, it is given first in the House, it is then sent to the Senate where a
reading, which is just a formality and involves no virtually identical process takes place. If a bill was
debate. Then the bill goes to second reading, when first introduced in the Senate, then it would now
the main principles of the bill are debated and a be sent to the House. Finally, a bill that has been
vote is taken. If the bill passes second reading it is passed in both the House and the Senate may be
sent to a smaller legislative committee, where the given royal assent and become law.
5
This “must read” for those interested in the history
David Docherty, Mr. Smith Goes to Ottawa: Life of and current inner workings of the machinery of
Regionalism and
in the House of Commons (Vancouver: University government should be followed by Savoie’s Court
of British Columbia Press, 1997). This excellent Government and the Collapse of Accountability
analysis of legislative behaviour and influence in in Canada and the United Kingdom (Toronto:
Canadian Politics
the House of Commons is based largely on surveys University of Toronto Press, 2008) and, Power:
of MPs. It deserves an updated version. Where Is It? (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-
Regionalism and regionally based political conflict are enduring aspects of the
102 PART II The Societal Context of Politics Queen’s University Press, 2013).
Canadian political condition. This chapter looks at several important aspects of Review Exercises
regionalism in Canadian politics, including the following topics:
1. Who is the current chief of staff to the prime 2. Put together a list of the various governmental
• Mapping regionalism in Canada minister? Who is the current clerk of the organizations (federal, provincial, municipal)
• Economic regions Privy Council? What are their backgrounds you have been in contact with during your life
• Cultural regions (education, professional experience, partisan and the reasons for the contact(s). Think hard—
• Cross-border regions involvement, etc.). Find a story in the media the list is probably longer than you first imagine.
•
•
Factors that continue to fuel regionalism
Regional grievances and western alienation
the spirit of the Bouchard-Taylor Commission. In that discusses the influence of one of these
individuals.
3. Question Period is probably the activity of
Parliament that most Canadians have heard
✔✔ Lists of starting points for research provide readings that serve as a jumping-off point
services to women for students
wearing looking
face coverings such asto do
the burqa or the niqab. It went further than this to in October 2017.35
further research for assignments and papers. prohibit the wearing of religious attire and “con-
spicuous” symbols on the part of public employ-
✔✔ Review exercises encourage students to apply what they have learned and ees. Before the province’s National Assembly could
use practical research skills.
vote on the bill, the PQ was defeated by the Liberal
Party in Quebec in the April 2013 provincial elec-
PQ
Michael de Adder/Artizans
The reading of a new budget is a ceremonial affair in Ottawa, and though no one knows its
origin, there is a long-standing tradition of the Finance minister purchasing and wearing a new
pair of shoes for the occasion. Jim Flaherty, Finance minister in the Harper government from
2006 until his sudden death in 2014, always wore new shoes. the CAQ
Updated suite of online resources Canadian Democracy is part of a comprehensive package of learning and
teaching tools that includes ancillary resources for both instructors and students, all available on the book’s Ancil-
laries Resource Centre (ARC) at www.oup.com/he/Brooks9e.
For Instructors
✔✔ A robust Instructor’s Manual provides extensive pedagogical tools and suggestions for every chapter, including
objectives for student learning, classroom discussion and debate ideas, class activities, and lists of teaching aids.
✔✔ Classroom-ready PowerPoint Slides summarize key points from each chapter and incorporate graphics from the
book for ease of presentation.
✔✔ An extensive Test Generator provides instructors with hundreds of questions in multiple-choice, true/false,
short-answer, and essay formats.
For Students
✔✔ A Student Study Guide includes short-answer study questions; self-testing quizzes; an expanded glossary; an-
notated lists of relevant websites; and suggestions for books, articles, and media resources highlighting political
issues in Canada.
✔✔ Podcasts—many new for this edition—provide mini-lectures that hone in on current issues such as political cor-
ruption, the future of Quebec separatism, and Canada-US relations, allowing students to delve more deeply into
topics of interest and make further connections between the text and the real world.
✔✔ “Conversations on Canadian Politics” videos feature interviews with experts on various core concepts intro-
duced in the text, enabling students to go even deeper on key topics such as federalism, political participation,
and environmental politics.
Acknowledgements
Since the first edition of this book I have been Peter Graefe, McMaster University
privileged to work with truly exceptional people Royce Koop, University of Manitoba
at Oxford University Press. I see their fingerprints Andrea Lawlor, King’s University College and
throughout this latest edition, reaching back to Western University
Michael Harrison, who originally approached me J.P. Lewis, University of New Brunswick
about writing a text on Canadian government and Janice Newton, York University
politics, to the current team at Oxford. Every person Paul Prosperi, Langara College
with whom I have worked has helped make this a Kandace Terris, Dalhousie University
better book than it would have been without their Stephen Tomblin, Memorial University of
advice, guidance, and talents. I would like to make Newfoundland and Labrador
particular mention of Richard Tallman’s m eticulous Kelly Saunders, Brandon University
copy-editing. His advice on points of style and John Soroski, MacEwan University
substance has transformed the manuscript for each Nelson Wiseman, University of Toronto
edition of this book into a much better product. It
is always a privilege to work with him. Over the years I have taught Canadian politics to
I join the publisher in thanking the following re- several thousand students in Canada, the United
viewers, along with those who wish to remain an- States, France, and Belgium. I have come to realize
onymous, whose thoughtful remarks have helped what a privilege and responsibility it is to explain
to shape this edition: to others how politics works, and who it works for.
This book is dedicated to my students, past, present,
Ralph Ashford, Sir Sanford Fleming College and future.
Carey Doberstein, University of British Columbia
Stephen Brooks
Windsor, Ontario, and Lille, France
PART I
Introduction
We all have an idea of what politics involves. But explaining. But whereas genes may be spliced
the term political science may be less familiar and the weight-bearing capacity of a bridge
and, in some ways, rather puzzling. The problem may be tested through a computer simulation,
arises from the word “science.” Science evokes political scientists generally have to make do
images of laboratories, ideas of measurement, with observing behaviour and the functioning
and the domain of hard facts on which depend of institutions in less controlled circumstances.
the construction of bridges that do not collapse How they undertake their analysis of politics
and medications that cure rather than kill us. and the certitude of their observations may not
The study and understanding of politics, as is look very much like the activities and results
true of all forms of human behaviour and organ- of those in the natural and applied sciences.
ization, would seem to lack the hard edge and Nevertheless, the aspiration to produce object-
to rely on techniques quite different from those ive, empirical knowledge is the same.
characteristic of physics and genetic biology. Those who study Canadian politics and gov-
Can there be such a thing as political science? ernment rely on the same concepts and ana-
The answer is, “within limits.” Political science lytical methods used by those who wish to
expresses the aspiration among those who understand these subjects in France, China,
study politics to do so in an objective way. It in- Egypt, or any other society. Power, authority,
volves the attempt to understand why things identity, participation, bureaucracy, integra-
are the way they are and therefore how they tion, stability, and equality are just some of the
may be changed, rather than how they ought core concepts relevant to an understanding
to be. Political science rests on a bedrock of of politics in any country. In this first section of
empirical analysis—analysis that seeks to for- Canadian Democracy we will examine some
mulate laws about the world of politics and of the concepts that are crucial to an under-
government based on verifiable observation standing of politics and government in Canada.
and, in some cases, experimentation—and not This will provide the basis for the subsequent
on the ideological leanings and personal pref- chapters that focus on particular features of
erences of the person doing the observing and Canadian political life.
This book aims to explain how the political system works in Canada, and to give you the tools needed
to evaluate the processes and outcomes of Canadian politics. Whatever your conclusions, they
should include the belief that politics does matter and that your thoughts and actions hold political
significance. ChristopheLedent/iStockphoto
1 An Introduction
to Political Life
To understand politics and government, one requires a tool kit consisting of the
fundamental concepts and terms that are useful in analyzing political life. This chapter
aims to equip the reader with these tools by examining the following topics:
•• What is politics?
•• Power
•• State and government
•• Democracy
•• Who gets heard and why?
•• Consent and legitimacy
•• Political identities
•• Political fault lines: old and new
1 An Introduction to Political Life 3
politics—in fact, if you are like most Canadians the state—to deal with them. Politics, then, is the
your age, you probably do not follow politics very activity by which rival claims are settled by public
closely and therefore do not feel strongly one way authorities. The boundaries of what is considered to
or the other—no judgment about how well the pol- be political are located where the state’s authority
itical system works and in whose interests should be reaches. Political philosophers sometimes call this
uninformed. This book aims to give you that infor- the public realm. Beyond this line is the private
mation and the analytical tools needed to evaluate realm, where the state’s authority does not extend.
the processes and outcomes of Canadian politics. As Box 1.1 shows, this definition does not have
The conclusions you draw and the judgments you the field all to itself. All of these contending def-
arrive at are, of course, up to you. Whatever your initions agree that politics is about the exercise of
conclusions, they should not include the belief that power. They disagree, however, about what power
politics does not matter in your life and that your relations count as political ones. Foucault, Marx,
thoughts and actions are somehow without polit- and the feminist movement define politics in ways
ical significance. The Polish poet and 1996 Nobel that would include the relations between bosses and
Prize laureate, Wislawa Szymborska, has this to say workers in a corporation, between parents and chil-
about such ideas: dren in a family, between teachers and students in
schools, and between spiritual shepherd and flock
All affairs, day and night, in a faith community. And in a sense they are right.
yours, ours, theirs, Lasswell and Easton both offer a more limited def-
are political affairs. inition of politics, one that goes back to Aristotle’s
conception of the Greek polis. They argue that what
Like it or not, is distinctive about politics is the association of this
your genes have a political past, activity with a system of settling disputes that is
your skin a political cast, both public and binding on the whole community.
your eyes a political aspect. At the centre of this system is the state, or govern-
ment, as those raised in the Anglo-American trad-
What you say has a resonance; ition are more likely to call it.
what you are silent about is telling. These definitions disagree in another import-
Either way, it’s political.3 ant way. Marxism, postmodernism (Foucault),
and feminism associate politics with a pervasive
may not be very distinct, but it is crucial for under- realm by males and the limitation of women to the
standing the politics of any society and, in par- private sphere. When women were finally admitted
ticular, that society’s ideas about the acceptable to the public realm it was on identical terms with
scope of state activity. Limits on the state’s legitim- men, a formal equality that failed to recognize the
ate authority are necessary in order to protect the substantive inequalities in the typical life condi-
freedoms that most of us believe to be important tions of males and females.
features of a democratic society. Political conflict But whatever sexist biases may have been em-
in democracies is often about where exactly this bedded in the public-versus-private distinction in
boundary between public and private should be traditional Western political thought, is it not the
drawn, what should be considered a proper matter case that the contemporary importance of this dis-
for public life and decisions by the state, and what tinction lies in the value it assigns to individual
should remain private matters. We can agree that freedom? This, too, says Vickers, is fundamentally
power relations are ubiquitous without going the sexist. “The concept of freedom,” she writes, “has
next step to claim that politics, therefore, has no become an almost totally masculinized idea in
bounds. Western political thought, meaning freedom from
Not everyone agrees. Political scientist Jill Vickers constraints—an autonomy in which no dependence
echoes many of her feminist colleagues when she on another is required or recognized.”4 According
argues that the public realm/private realm dis- to Vickers, this is a value with little appeal to most
tinction is fundamentally sexist. It is based, she women, who have as their goal “interdependence
maintains, on a tradition of political thinking that among equals” rather than the freedom to act with-
accepted as natural the domination of the public out constraint.
Politics in Focus
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto Michel Foucault, The Subject and Power
*****
*****
Kazike tiesi, että sen, joka oli kulkenut holvista ulos salatietä,
täytyi myöskin tuntea orjantappurapensaston salaisuus voidakseen
päästä edelleen.
Ihmeellistä!
"Ehkä olet kuitenkin unohtanut sulkea oven, Chimal? Tunnusta se
minulle, en tahdo soimata sinua."
Kazike uskoi.
"On."
*****
"Minuako?"
"Totta puhut; mutta minä olen katsellut niin usein näitä seutuja,
etten enää joudu ihastuksiin niitä nähdessäni. Kas tässä on ruokaa,
syö." Hän otti metsästyslaukustaan munia, maissileipää ja paistetun
kanan.
"Mikä hätänä?"
"Mikä hätänä?"
"Zapoteki on täällä."
"No, amigo?"
"Olen ymmärtänyt."
"Hyvä."
Rohkeasti hän astui nyt veteen. Hitaasti lipui vene häntä vastaan.
Hän meni sitä kohti pyssy vireessä.
Veneessä virui intiaani kasvoillaan hengittäen vaikeasti. Pablo
käänsi hänet ympäri. Luoti oli lävistänyt hänen rintansa, mutta hän
eli vielä; myöskään ei luodinreiän suunta näyttänyt nuorukaisesta
ehdottomasti kuolettavalta. Mies katsoi häneen ja näytti odottavan
kuoliniskua.