LIPIDS: Structure, Function, and Significance

What are Lipids?

The word "lipid" comes from the Greek word "lipos", which means fat. Lipids are organic
molecules of biological origin that have a special property:

● They are soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, methanol, ethanol, and other
similar substances.

● They are sparingly soluble or even insoluble in water, depending on the type of lipid.

Because of this solubility in organic solvents, lipids can be easily extracted from biological
samples using these solvents.

Extraction and Separation of Lipids

Once lipids are extracted, they can be separated or purified into different types using various
chromatography techniques. These include:

● Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)

● Column chromatography

● Reverse-phase chromatography

● And others, depending on the experimental protocol

These methods help in identifying different types of lipids present in a sample.

Examples of Lipids
Lipids are not just fats. They include a variety of substances found in living organisms:

● Fats and oils (like butter, olive oil)

● Certain vitamins (such as vitamin A, D, E, and K – all fat-soluble)

● Steroid hormones (like testosterone, estrogen)

● Waxes
 ● Phospholipids and glycolipids (important components of cell membranes)

Lipids are also found as membrane proteins’ components and hormones that regulate many
body functions.

Classification of Lipids
Lipids can be classified into three main categories based on their structure:

1. Simple Lipids

● These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols.

● Examples include:

○ Fats and oils: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol.

○ Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with long-chain alcohols.

2. Compound (Complex or Conjugated) Lipids

● These contain additional functional groups besides fatty acids and alcohol.

● Examples include:

○ Phospholipids (contain phosphate group)

○ Glycolipids (contain sugar)

○ These are important in cell membranes, nerve tissues, and signaling.

3. Derived Lipids

● These are products derived from simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis.

● They include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins, and other lipid-like
substances.

Although lipids can be classified into five classes, these three cover the main groups important
for basic understanding.

Biological Significance of Lipids

Lipids play vital roles in the body:

1. Energy Storage

● Lipids are a dense source of energy.

● They provide about 9 kcal per gram, which is more than twice the energy provided by
carbohydrates or proteins.

● Stored as triglycerides in adipose (fat) tissue.

2. Structural Role

● Lipids are major components of cell membranes, especially phospholipids and

cholesterol.

● They help maintain fluidity, shape, and integrity of cells.

3. Insulation and Protection

● Fat acts as an insulator, helping to maintain body temperature.

● It also provides cushioning to protect internal organs from shock or injury.

4. Hormone Production

● Lipids are precursors of many important hormones, including:

○ Steroid hormones like estrogen, testosterone, cortisol

○ These regulate metabolism, reproduction, and immune function.

5. Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

● Vitamins A, D, E, and K are absorbed only in the presence of fats.

● Without lipids, the body cannot absorb or use these essential vitamins properly.

6. Role in Cell Signaling

● Certain lipids act as signaling molecules in the body.

● They are involved in communication between cells, especially in the nervous and
immune systems.
Summary Table
Function Role of Lipids

Energy High energy storage (9 kcal/g)

Structure Cell membrane components

Insulation Maintains body temperature, cushions

organs

Hormones Basis of steroid hormones

Vitamin Absorption Needed for A, D, E, K absorption

Cell Signaling Communication between cells

Simple lipids are one of the major categories of lipids. They are mainly of two types:

1. Fats (also called Triglycerides or Triacylglycerols)

2. Waxes

FATS (Triglycerides / Triacylglycerols / Neutral Fats)

Fats are also called triglycerides or neutral fats. From a biochemical point of view, they are
considered a separate class of simple lipids. Triglycerides are mainly used as a storage form
of energy in the body. Unlike some other lipids, they are not a part of the cell membrane
structure.

In our body, lipids are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides.

Structure of Triglyceride (Triacylglycerol)

The term triglyceride tells us its structure:

● It is made of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains.

● These three fatty acids are attached to glycerol through ester linkages.

● Each of the three hydroxyl (–OH) groups of glycerol bonds with the carboxylic acid (–
COOH) group of a fatty acid through a process called condensation reaction (removal
of water), forming an ester bond.
Glycerol

● A 3-carbon molecule with three –OH (hydroxyl) groups.

Fatty Acid

● Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group (–COOH) at one end.

● Each fatty acid can be different (R1, R2, R3).

When the glycerol binds with three fatty acids (R1, R2, R3), it forms a triglyceride.

Formation of Triglyceride (Condensation Reaction)

● Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids → Triglyceride + 3 Water molecules

● This reaction is a condensation reaction, and the bond formed is called an ester bond.

● The final product is called triacylglycerol or triglyceride, also referred to as neutral fat
because it has no charge.

Storage and Utilization of Fats

Fats are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triacylglycerol. These serve as long-term
energy reserves in the body.

When does the body use stored fat?

● During fasting, starvation, or intense exercise.

● When carbohydrates (the quick source of energy) are not available, the body turns to
stored fats.

How does the body use stored fats?

1. Triacylglycerol is broken down in the adipose tissue by an enzyme.

2. This enzyme splits triglycerides into:

○ Glycerol (which stays in the adipose cell)

 ○ Free fatty acids (which enter the bloodstream)

3. Fatty acids are non-polar, so they cannot move freely in the polar blood plasma.

4. A carrier protein called albumin binds with these fatty acids and transports them to
the liver.

5. In the liver, fatty acids are oxidized and converted into acetyl-CoA, a key molecule in
energy production.

6. Acetyl-CoA is a common intermediate where the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats,

and proteins converges before entering the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) for energy
production.

Other Functions of Fats

1. Energy Storage

● Fats provide 9 kcal per gram, which is more than double the energy provided by
carbohydrates or proteins (4 kcal/g).

● This makes fats a highly efficient way for the body to store energy.

2. Thermal Insulation

● Fats stored in the subcutaneous layer (under the skin) help to maintain body
temperature.

● This is especially important in animals living in cold environments.

3. Load Bearing and Shock Absorption

● Fats around organs act as a cushion, protecting them from mechanical shocks.

● Fat in areas like thighs, abdomen, arms (triceps and biceps) also helps in
absorbing mechanical stress during physical movement.

4. Female Physiology

● Women naturally have a higher percentage of body fat than men.

● This is because women go through various physiological changes such as

menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation, which require additional energy reserves.
 ● Fat helps support and protect the female body during these changes.

2. WAXES (Second Type of Simple Lipids)

● Waxes are esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain alcohols.

● They are very hydrophobic and solid at room temperature.

● Waxes are found in:

○ Plant leaves (to prevent water loss)

○ Animal skin, fur, and feathers (for protection and waterproofing)

○ Earwax in humans is also a type of lipid.

Summary Table
Type Structure Function

Fats Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids (ester Energy storage, insulation,

(Triglycerides) bonds) protection

Waxes Fatty acid + Long-chain alcohol Waterproofing in plants and

animals

In short, simple lipids (especially fats) are essential for energy storage, temperature
regulation, organ protection, and physiological support, especially in women. They also
play an important role in metabolism and are a backup energy source when carbohydrates
are not available.

WAXES
Waxes are simple lipids, but unlike fats, they are made of:

● A long-chain fatty acid

● And a long-chain alcohol (not glycerol)

These alcohols are long and straight-chained and give waxes a sticky and solid texture at
room temperature.
Waxes are esters of fatty acids with long-chain alcohols.

Functions of Waxes:
● Provide waterproofing in plants (e.g., the waxy layer on leaves prevents water loss).

● Protect animal skin, fur, and feathers.

● Found in beeswax, lanolin (from sheep), and human earwax.

TRIGLYCERIDE TYPES (Simple Lipids)

Triglycerides can be either simple or mixed, based on the fatty acid chains attached:

1. Simple Triglycerides:
● All three fatty acids (R1, R2, R3) are the same.

● Example: Tripalmitoyl glycerol (all three chains are palmitic acid)

2. Mixed Triglycerides:
● The fatty acids (R1, R2, R3) are different.

● The name of the triglyceride changes based on the types and positions of fatty acids.

Example:

● R1 → Palmitic acid

● R2 → Oleic acid

● R3 → Linoleic acid

This triglyceride is named 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-3-linoleoyl glycerol.

COMPOUND or COMPLEX LIPIDS (Conjugated Lipids)

After simple lipids, the next major class is compound (or complex) lipids, sometimes also
called conjugated lipids.
Definition:
● Like simple lipids, they are esters of fatty acids with alcohols, but they also contain
additional chemical groups like phosphate, sugar, or nitrogen-containing groups.

These extra groups make the lipid structure more complex, hence the name complex lipids.

Types of Compound/Conjugated Lipids:

1. Phospholipids

2. Glycolipids

3. Lipoproteins

4. Sulfolipids, etc.

Let’s explain phospholipids in detail, since they are the most important in biological
membranes.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are the main component of cell membranes in all living organisms.

Structure of Phospholipids:
● They contain:

○ 1 Glycerol molecule

○ 2 Fatty acid chains (non-polar tails)

○ 1 Phosphate group (polar head)

● The phosphate group may be further linked to molecules like choline, ethanolamine,
serine, etc.

Properties:
● Amphipathic nature:
 ○ Polar head (hydrophilic – water loving)

○ Non-polar tails (hydrophobic – water fearing)

● This dual nature is key for forming the lipid bilayer of cell membranes.

Membrane Structure:
● Phospholipids arrange themselves into a bilayer:

○ Polar heads face the outside (towards water)

○ Fatty acid tails face the inside (away from water)

● This structure makes up the cell membrane that protects the cell and regulates what
enters and leaves.

OMEGA FATTY ACIDS

Omega fatty acids are a special type of unsaturated fatty acids.

Why are they called "Omega"?

● The "omega" (ω) refers to the position of the first double bond from the methyl (CH₃)
end of the fatty acid chain.

Types of Omega Fatty Acids:

1. Omega-3 (α-linolenic acid – ALA)

2. Omega-6 (linoleic acid – LA)

3. Omega-9 (oleic acid)

Why are Omega-3 and Omega-6 Essential?

● Our bodies cannot make omega-3 and omega-6 on their own.

● They must be taken from diet – so they are called essential fatty acids.
Sources of Omega Fatty Acids:
Type Sources

Omega-3 Fish (salmon, tuna), flaxseed, chia seeds,

walnuts

Omega-6 Vegetable oils (sunflower, soybean), nuts, seeds

Omega-9 Olive oil, avocados, almonds

Functions and Significance:

● Help in brain development and nerve function

● Maintain heart health

● Reduce inflammation

● Support immune system

● Help in making hormone-like substances called prostaglandins

Summary Table
Lipid Type Components Functions

Waxes Long-chain fatty acid + Long-chain Waterproofing in plants/animals

alcohol

Simple Fats Glycerol + 3 fatty acids Energy storage, insulation

Phospholipids Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate Cell membrane structure

group

Omega Fatty Unsaturated fatty acids with double Essential nutrients for heart and
Acids bonds at ω-position brain health

LIPID BILAYER
The lipid bilayer refers to a double layer of lipids that forms the structure of the cell
membrane. This layer is made mainly of phospholipids.
How It Works:
● Phospholipids have polar heads and non-polar tails.

● The polar heads are hydrophilic (water-attracting) and face outward, towards the
extracellular fluid and the intracellular (cytoplasmic) fluid, both of which are water-
based.

● The non-polar tails are hydrophobic (water-repelling) and face inward, towards each
other, away from the water.

This arrangement naturally forms a bilayer that acts as a barrier to protect the cell and regulate
what enters and exits.

MAIN TYPES OF LIPIDS IN CELLS

1. Phospholipids → Major component of cell membranes

2. Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides) → Major storage form of fat in animals

STRUCTURE OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are complex lipids with the following structure:

Components:
1. Alcohol (usually glycerol)

2. Two fatty acid chains (attached to carbon 1 and 2 of glycerol)

3. Phosphate group (attached to carbon 3 of glycerol)

4. X Group (a variable group attached to the phosphate)

Possible X Groups:
● Amino acids (e.g., serine)

● Amines (e.g., choline, ethanolamine)

 ● Sugars (carbohydrates)

The X group defines the type and function of the phospholipid, as well as the membrane it
will become a part of.

In addition to alcohol and fatty acids, phospholipids also have:

● A phosphoric acid residue (phosphate group)

● A variable X group, which can be a carbohydrate, amino acid, or amine, depending

on the function

SPHINGOLIPIDS
Sphingolipids are also important components of cell membranes, especially in nerve cells.

Key Difference from Phospholipids:

● Instead of glycerol, sphingolipids contain a different type of long-chain alcohol called
sphingosine.

Structure of Sphingolipids:
1. Sphingosine (long-chain alcohol)

2. Fatty acid (attached to sphingosine via an amide bond)

3. X group (usually choline or ethanolamine)

So the main difference between phospholipids and sphingolipids is the type of alcohol:

● Phospholipids → Glycerol

● Sphingolipids → Sphingosine

GLYCOLIPIDS
Glycolipids are lipids that contain carbohydrates.
Structure:
1. Sphingosine

2. Fatty acid

3. One or more carbohydrate molecules

These are usually found in nerve cell membranes and play a role in cell recognition and
signal transmission.

SULPHOLIPIDS
Sulpholipids are a special kind of lipid found mostly in plants and bacteria.

Structure:
1. Sphingosine (or other long-chain alcohol)

2. Fatty acid

3. Carbohydrate

4. Sulphate group (attached to the carbohydrate)

In sulpholipids, the sugar group is sulphonated, meaning a sulphate group is attached to it.
These lipids are important for membrane stability and photosynthesis in plants.

GANGLIOSIDES
Gangliosides are the most complex lipids among those discussed.

Structure:
1. Sphingosine

2. Fatty acid

3. Multiple carbohydrate units

4. One or more sialic acids (especially N-acetylneuraminic acid)

Sialic acid is a special type of sugar (a modified monosaccharide) that gives gangliosides their
negative charge and allows them to function in cell signaling, especially in the brain and
nervous system.

Gangliosides are found mostly in nerve cell membranes and play crucial roles in:

● Cell recognition

● Signal transduction

● Brain development

SUMMARY TABLE
Lipid Type Main Components Function

Phospholipids Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate + X Cell membrane structure

group

Sphingolipids Sphingosine + fatty acid + phosphate + Membrane structure, especially

X group in nerve cells

Glycolipids Sphingosine + fatty acid + carbohydrate Cell recognition, signal

transmission

Sulpholipids Sphingosine + fatty acid + sulphonated Plant membranes,

carbohydrate photosynthesis

Gangliosides Sphingosine + fatty acid + complex Nerve cell signaling, brain

carbohydrates + sialic acid development

Triacylglycerol Glycerol + 3 fatty acids Energy storage in animals

s

LIPOPROTEINS
Lipoproteins are combinations of proteins and lipids. Their main job is to transport fats and
cholesterol through the body. Think of them as "vehicles" that carry lipids from one part of the
body to another.

Structure of Lipoproteins:
● Lipoproteins have a ball-like structure.
 ● The outside consists of proteins and phosphate heads. The phosphate heads are
polar, meaning they are attracted to water.

● The inside of the lipoprotein is non-polar (hydrophobic), which allows it to carry fat
molecules like cholesterol.

The lipoproteins move cholesterol and fats from one place to another in the body, ensuring
proper distribution.

Types of Lipoproteins:
1. LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein):

○ LDL is often called "bad cholesterol" because it carries fat from the liver to
tissues, where it can be stored. If there's too much LDL in the blood, it can lead
to plaque buildup in the arteries, which increases the risk of heart disease.

2. HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein):

○ HDL is often called "good cholesterol" because it picks up cholesterol from

tissues and brings it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and
metabolized.

○ High levels of HDL are beneficial and reduce the risk of heart disease.

○ HDL is found in foods like fish, nuts, and foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

Summary of Lipoproteins:
● LDL stores fat in tissues and is associated with health risks when elevated.

● HDL helps remove cholesterol from tissues and is considered protective against heart
disease.

DERIVED PROTEINS
Derived proteins are proteins that are created from the breakdown of complex proteins,
simple proteins, or conjugated proteins. This breakdown occurs through a process called
hydrolysis.

How Derived Proteins Work:

● These proteins act as precursors for creating lipids.
 ● The lipids formed can be simple lipids or complex lipids, and they might be
conjugated or compound lipids, depending on how they combine with other groups.

Function of Derived Proteins:

● Derived proteins are important for producing various types of lipids that the body
needs for energy storage, hormone production, and cellular functions.

Cholesterol-Based Hormones and Lipid-Soluble Vitamins

Many hormones, such as steroids, are based on cholesterol. Additionally, many vitamins that
are lipid-soluble (such as vitamin D, E, A, and K) are also derived from cholesterol.

When these molecules are hydrolyzed (broken down with water), they release fat in different
forms:

● Steroids

● Fatty acids

● Other forms of lipids.

These are all types of derived lipids that play important roles in the body.

Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids that have a long hydrocarbon chain attached. The
hydrocarbon chain is a sequence of carbon atoms bonded with hydrogen atoms.

Characteristics of Fatty Acids:

● Fatty acids are rarely present in their free form in biological systems. Instead, they are
usually found in combination with other molecules like glycerol, forming lipids (like
triglycerides).

● Fatty acids can also form part of complex lipids, like phospholipids and
sphingolipids, which are important components of cell membranes.

Chain Length of Fatty Acids:

In plants and animals, the length of fatty acid chains typically ranges between 14 and 20
carbon atoms. While some fatty acids may have a chain length slightly shorter than 14 or
longer than 20, these are less common.
Common Fatty Acids:
1. Palmitic Acid (C16): This is a 16-carbon fatty acid and is one of the most common fatty
acids found in both plants and animals.

2. Stearic Acid (C18): This is an 18-carbon fatty acid, also common in both plants and
animals.

Fatty Acid Chain Length:

● C16 and C18 fatty acids are predominant, with palmitic acid (C16) and stearic acid
(C18) being the most abundant types.

● Fatty acids with fewer than 14 carbons or more than 20 carbons are less commonly
found.

In summary:

● Cholesterol is the base for many hormones and lipid-soluble vitamins. When
hydrolyzed, they release fats in forms like steroids and fatty acids.

● Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids, usually found as part of lipids. The most
common fatty acids in plants and animals are those with 16 and 18 carbon atoms, such
as palmitic acid and stearic acid.

Types of Fatty Acids

Fatty acids can be classified into two types based on the types of bonds they have in their
carbon chain:

1. Saturated Fatty Acids

2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Saturated Fatty Acids:

● Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds between the carbon atoms in their
chain. This means that every carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as
possible. Because of this, the chain is "saturated" with hydrogen.

● Example: Stearic acid, a common saturated fatty acid, has a straight chain with no
double bonds between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids:
● Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in their
chain. This creates a "kink" in the chain, which prevents the molecules from packing
closely together, making them liquid at room temperature.

● Example:

○ Oleic acid: If a double bond is at carbon 9 (between carbon 9 and 10), it

becomes oleic acid. Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid (meaning it has
only one double bond).

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids:

● Linoleic acid: If there are two double bonds in an 18-carbon chain of fatty acids,
typically at carbon 9 and carbon 12, it is called linoleic acid. This is an example of a
polyunsaturated fatty acid, meaning it has more than one double bond.

● Linolenic acid: When there are three double bonds in an 18-carbon fatty acid, at
carbons 9, 12, and 15, it is called alpha-linolenic acid (often just called linolenic
acid).

Summary:
● Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms and are "saturated"
with hydrogen.

● Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. For example:

○ Oleic acid has one double bond at carbon 9.

○ Linoleic acid has two double bonds (at carbons 9 and 12).

○ Linolenic acid has three double bonds (at carbons 9, 12, and 15).

These variations in the number and position of double bonds give these fatty acids different
properties and functions in the body.