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Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
1. Introduction: Exploring Inner Space
A Brave New World
What Is Cognitive Science?
Representation
Types of Representation
Computation
The Tri-Level Hypothesis
Differing Views of Representation and Computation
The Interdisciplinary Perspective
The Philosophical Approach
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Science and Philosophy
The Psychological Approach
The Cognitive Approach
The Neuroscience Approach
The Network Approach
The Evolutionary Approach
The Linguistic Approach
The Emotion Approach
The Social Approach
The Artificial Intelligence Approach
The Robotics Approach
Integrating Approaches
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 1
2. The Philosophical Approach: Enduring Questions
What Is Philosophy
Chapter Overview
The Mind–Body Problem: What Is Mind?
Monism
Evaluating the Monist Perspective
Dualism
Substance Dualism
Property Dualism
Evaluating the Dualist Perspective
Functionalism: Are Minds Limited to Brains?
Evaluating the Functionalist Perspective
The Knowledge Acquisition Problem: How Do We Acquire Knowledge?
Evaluating the Knowledge Acquisition Debate
The Mystery of Consciousness: What Is Consciousness and How Does It
Operate?
The What-It’s-Like Argument
Mind as an Emergent Property
Evaluating the Emergent View of Mind
Consciousness: One or Many?
Consciousness and Neuroscience
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Philosophy, Neuroscience, and Binocular
Rivalry
Consciousness and Artificial Intelligence
Overall Evaluation of the Philosophical Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 2
3. The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories
What Is Psychology?
Psychology and the Scientific Method
Mental Atoms, Mental Molecules, and a Periodic Table of the Mind: The
Voluntarist Movement
Evaluating the Voluntarist Approach
Structuralism: What the Mind Is
Evaluating the Structuralist Approach
Functionalism: What the Mind Does
Evaluating the Functionalist Approach
The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts: Mental Physics and the
Gestalt Movement
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Gestalt Phenomenology, Experimental
Psychology, and Perceptual Grouping
Evaluating the Gestalt Approach
Mini Minds: Mechanism and Psychoanalytic Psychology
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Approach
Mind as a Black Box: The Behaviorist Approach
Evaluating the Behaviorist Approach
Overall Evaluation of the Psychological Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 3
4. The Cognitive Approach I: Vision, Pattern Recognition, and Attention
Some History First: The Rise of Cognitive Psychology
The Cognitive Approach: Mind as an Information Processor
Modularity of Mind
Evaluating the Modular Approach
Theories of Vision and Pattern Recognition: How Do We Recognize Objects?
Template Matching Theory
Evaluating Template Matching Theory
Feature Detection Theory
Evaluating Feature Detection Theory
Recognition by Components Theory
Evaluating Recognition by Components Theory
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Computational Vision and Pattern Recognition
Evaluating the Computational Approach to Vision
Feature Integration Theory
Evaluating Feature Integration Theory
Theories of Attention: How Do We Pay Attention?
Broadbent’s Filter Model
Evaluating the Filter Model
Treisman’s Attenuation Model
The Deutsch-Norman Memory Selection Model
The Multimode Model of Attention
Kahneman’s Capacity Model of Attention
Evaluating the Capacity Model of Attention
Evaluating the Model-Building Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 4
5. The Cognitive Approach II: Memory, Imagery, and Problem Solving
Types of Memory: How Do We Remember?
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Scanning Items in Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Memory Models
The Modal Model
Evaluating the Modal Model
The ACT* Model
Evaluating the ACT* Model
The Working Memory Model
Evaluating the Working Memory Model
Visual Imagery: How Do We Imagine?
The Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory of Visual Imagery
Image Structures
Image Processes
Evaluating the Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory
Problem Solving: How Do We Solve Problems?
The General Problem Solver Model
Evaluating the General Problem Solver Model
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Artificial Intelligence, Problem Solving, and
the SOAR Model
Evaluating the SOAR Model
Overall Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 5
6. The Neuroscience Approach: Mind as Brain
The Neuroscience Perspective
Methodology in Neuroscience
Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage
Evaluating Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage
Traditional Brain Recording Methods
Modern Brain Imaging Methods
Positron Emission Tomography
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetoencephalography
Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope
Brain Stimulation Techniques
Electrode Stimulation
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Optogenetics
The Small Picture: Neuron Anatomy and Physiology
The Big Picture: Brain Anatomy
Directions in the Nervous System
The Cortex
The Split Brain
The Neuroscience of Visual Object Recognition
Visual Agnosias
Apperceptive Agnosia
Associative Agnosia
Face Perception
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Perceptual Binding and Neural Synchrony
The Neuroscience of Attention
Models of Attention
A Component Process Model
Distributed Network Models
Disorders of Attention
Hemispatial Neglect
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
The Neuroscience of Memory
Learning and Memory
The Hippocampal System
Neural Substrates of Working Memory
Evaluating the Neuroscience of Working Memory
Neural Substrates of Long-Term Memories
The Neuroscience of Executive Function and Problem Solving
Theories of Executive Function
Overall Evaluation of the Neuroscience Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 6
7. The Network Approach: Mind as a Web
The Network Perspective
Artificial Neural Networks
Characteristics of Artificial Neural Networks
Early Conceptions of Neural Networks
Back Propagation and Convergent Dynamics
NETtalk: An Example of a Back-Propagation Artificial Neural Network
Evaluating the Connectionist Approach
Advantages
Problems and Disadvantages
Semantic Networks: Meaning in the Web
Characteristics of Semantic Networks
A Hierarchical Semantic Network
Evaluating the Hierarchical Model
Propositional Semantic Networks
Evaluating Semantic Networks
Network Science
Centrality
Hierarchical Networks and the Brain
Small-World Networks: It’s a Small World After All
Ordered and Random Connections
Egalitarians and Aristocrats
Neuroscience and Networks
Small-World Networks and Synchrony
Percolation
Percolation and Psychology
The Future of Network Science
Overall Evaluation of the Network Approach
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Emotions and Networks
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 7
8. The Evolutionary Approach: Change Over Time
The Evolutionary View
A Little Background: Natural Selection and Genetics
Comparative Cognition
Cognitive Adaptation in Animals
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Evolutionary Processes and Artificial Life
Comparative Neuroscience
Evaluating the Comparative Approach
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
Evolution and Cognitive Processes
Categorization
Memory
Logical Reasoning
Judgment Under Uncertainty
Language
Behavioral Economics: How We Think About Profit and Loss
Sex Differences in Cognition
Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology
Overall Evaluation of the Evolutionary Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 8
9. The Linguistic Approach: Language and Cognitive Science
The Linguistic Approach: The Importance of Language
The Nature of Language
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Language, Philosophy, and the Linguistic
Relativity Hypothesis
Evaluating the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Language Use in Primates
Evaluating Language Use in Primates
Language Acquisition
Domain-General and Domain-Specific Mechanisms in Language
Acquisition
Evaluating Language Acquisition
Language Deprivation
Evaluating Language Deprivation
Cognition and Linguistics: The Role of Grammar
Evaluating Universal Grammar
Neuroscience and Linguistics: The Wernicke-Geschwind Model
Evaluating the Wernicke-Geschwind Model
Artificial Intelligence and Linguistics: Natural Language Processing
Speech Recognition
Syntactic Analysis
Semantic Analysis
Pragmatic Analysis
Computer Language Programs and IBM’s Watson
Evaluation of Natural Language Processing
Overall Evaluation of the Linguistic Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 9
10. The Emotional Approach: Mind as Emotion
Emotion and Cognitive Science
What Is Emotion?
Theories of Emotion
Basic Emotions
Emotions, Evolution, and Psychological Disorders
Disgust
Fear
Anger
Sadness
Happiness
Emotions and Neuroscience
The Chemical and Electrical Basis of Emotional Computation
Hot and Cold: Emotion–Cognition Interactions
Emotion and Perception/Attention
Emotion and Memory
Emotion, Mood, and Memory
Emotion and Decision Making
Emotions and Reasoning by Analogy
Emotions and Artificial Intelligence: Affective Computing
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Emotion, Robotics, and the Kismet Project
Overall Evaluation of the Emotional Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 10
11. The Social Approach: Mind as Society
Social Cognition
Social Cognitive Neuroscience
Topics in Social Cognitive Neuroscience
Evolution
Attention
Mirror Neurons
Social Cognition as the Brain’s Default State
Is Social Cognitive Neuroscience Special?
Advantages of the Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
Theory of Mind
ToM and Neuroscience
Autism
Autism and ToM
Other Social Cognitive Disorders
Attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance
Attitudes and Cognitive Processes
Perception
Attention
Interpretation
Learning
Memory
Attitudes and Neuroscience
Impressions
The Dual-Process Model of Impression Formation
Attribution
Attribution Biases
Attribution and Cognitive Processes
Attribution and Neuroscience
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Game Theory and the Prisoner’s Dilemma
Stereotypes
Stereotypes and Cognitive Processes
In-Groups and Out-Groups
Automatic Stereotyping
Stereotyping and Neuroscience
Prejudice
The Stereotype Content Model of Prejudice
Overall Evaluation of the Social Approach
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 11
12. The Artificial Intelligence Approach: The Computer as a Cognitive Entity
Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence
Historical Precursors
Defining AI
Doctrinal Arguments
Turing’s Critical Legacy
Practical AI
Fuzzy Thinking: The Legacy of Lotfi Zadeh
The Contentious Debate and AI Evolution
The Neural Network Model and Its Capabilities
The New Millennium: Cognitive Computing (Is It Possible to “Build” a
Brain?)
Emergent Neuron Models: Precursors to Intelligent Agents
Organization of the Neocortex
An Auto-Associative Model for the Neocortical Column
The DARPA SyNAPSE Program
Emerging Physiological and Other Developments
Evaluation of AI
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Physiology, Psychology, Neuroscience,
Computer Science, AI, and Rehabilitation Medicine
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 12
13. Intelligent Agents and Robots
Introduction
The Intelligent Agent Paradigm
Why Biology Is Important
Modeling Aspects of Biological Systems
Applying the Principles to the Design of IAs
IA Architectures and Their Uses
Reactive Architectures
Deliberative Architectures
Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) Architecture
Blackboard (Cooperative) Architectures
Emerging Developments
Ben Goertzel and Artificial General Intelligence
Social Robots and Their Emotional Substructures
The Agent as an Emotion Machine
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Physiology, Psychology, Neuroscience,
Computer Science, AI, Engineering, and Rehabilitation Medicine
Overall Evaluation of IA Embodiments
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 13
14. Conclusion: Where We Go From Here
The Benefits of Cognitive Science
Issues in Cognitive Science
Physical Environments
Individual and Cultural Differences
Consciousness
Lack of a Unified Theory
The Dynamical Systems Approach
Nonlinearity
Predictability
State Space and Trajectories
Attractors
Dynamical Representation
Symbolic Dynamics
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Multiple Approaches to Levels of Explanation
in Cognitive Science
Dynamical Versus Classical Cognitive Science
The Continuity of Mind
Modularity Versus Distribularity
Component-Dominant Versus Interaction-Dominant Dynamics
Internalism Versus Externalism
Situated Versus Embodied Cognition
Feed-Forward Versus Recurrent Pathways
Evaluating the Dynamical Perspective
Integrating Cognitive Science
Integration Across Levels of Description
Integration Across Disciplines
Integration Across Methodologies
The Future
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 14
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
Preface
One of the most challenging mysteries remaining to science is the human mind. The
brain that forms the basis of mind is the most complex object in the universe. It is made
up of billions of cells sending signals back and forth to each other over many more
billions of connections. How can we make sense of all this? Recent years have seen
great strides in our understanding, and this has been due in part to developments in
technology. In this book, we provide an up-to-date introduction to the study of mind,
examining it from an interdisciplinary perspective. We attempt to understand the mind
from the perspective of different fields. Among these are philosophy, psychology,
neuroscience, networks, evolution, emotional and social cognition, linguistics, artificial
intelligence, and robotics. Beyond this, we make attempts to bridge some of these
fields, showing what research at the intersection of these disciplines is like. Each
chapter in this text is devoted to a particular disciplinary approach and examines the
methodologies, theories, and empirical findings unique to each. Come with us as we
explore the next great frontier—our inner world.
What’s New in This Edition
New content has been added throughout. The topic of empirical philosophy is
introduced in Chapter 1 as an expanded section on formal systems, the physical symbol
system hypothesis, and the symbol grounding problem. In Chapter 4, there is greater
discussion on theories of pattern recognition and depth perception. One of the latest
methods in neuroscience, the measuring and stimulation of individual neurons by light
(optogenetics) is detailed in Chapter 6. In Chapter 8, the authors discuss the concept of
neural markers for intelligence in animals and humans, what are called spindle neurons,
as well as the idea of anthropodenial when observing animal behavior. Chapter 9 on
language has an entirely new section on domain-specific versus domain-general
mechanisms in language acquisition. New artificial intelligence programs with world
knowledge and conversational skill are outlined in this chapter as well. Chapter 10 on
emotions has substantially new information added on basic emotions and on the
relationship between emotions, evolutionary processes, and psychological disorders.
Chapter 12 includes substantially new information on cognitive computing and ongoing
research related to fabrication of the neocortex. Chapter 13 introduces advanced
robotic concepts and applications as well as thought control of bionic limbs. Finally, in
Chapter 14, there is discussion of the “WEIRD” model of cross-cultural testing. Other
new features and benefits include in-depth topics now inserted into the body of the text
where they expand and apply general principles and added discussion that integrates
the various perspectives in cognitive science more tightly. Chapter introductions better
preview what is to come to help students organize information. There are also new
figures and tables that help summarize and differentiate important definitions.
Beyond the Book
The text comes with many ancillary materials. A password-protected Instructor’s
Resource Site (http://study.sagepub.com/friedenberg3e) contains PowerPoint
lectures, a test bank, and other pedagogical material. A Student Study Site is also
available online at http://study.sagepub.com/friedenberg3e. It contains electronic
flash cards of glossary terms, practice quizzes that allow students to assess their level
of understanding, and various web links to explore selected topics in greater depth.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the efforts of our editors at SAGE for their assistance
and the following reviewers:
Mutta salaa hän ajatteli, että tuollaiseen ei hän voisi Annia tuoda.
Seinät punaisiksi, nurkat, vuori ja räystäslaudat valkeiksi maalattu,
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*****
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— Hoo — —!
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— Mitä mutta —
Kun valkea alkoi palaa, läksi Laurikin sinne. Hänen mieltään taas
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