See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/331821050

Chapter 1 History of Social Work in Nigeria

Chapter · March 2017

CITATIONS READS
18 43,210

3 authors:

Francis Mbah Ebue Malachy

University of Nigeria University of Nigeria
1 PUBLICATION 18 CITATIONS 12 PUBLICATIONS 72 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Chukwuma Ugwu
University of Nigeria
32 PUBLICATIONS 123 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Chukwuma Ugwu on 17 March 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Mbah, F., Ebue, M. & Ugwu, C. (2017). History of Social work in Nigeria. In Okoye, U., Chukwu, N., & Agwu, P.
(Eds.). Social work in Nigeria: Book of readings (pp 1–14). Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press Ltd.

History of Social Work in Nigeria

1 Mbah Francis, Ebue Malachy & Ugwu Chukwuma

T he knowledge of the history of social work in Nigeria is of paramount

importance to all practicing and training social workers in the country.
Not only will it arm social workers with knowledge of how social work
evolved, it will also serve as an inspiration in handling some contemporary
social problems. However, academic literature on social work history in Nigeria
is quite scanty, which justifies the inclusion of this chapter. This chapter focuses
on the historical background of social work in Nigeria. It discusses the
development of social work from pre-colonial through colonial to post-colonial
eras. It also looks at how social work evolved from indigenous practice of the
traditional society to modern (western) social work practice of today.
Social work in precolonial Nigeria
Modern social work as a profession is relatively recent in Nigeria. However,
indigenous social work practice has been in existence in Nigeria prior to the
advent of colonialism. The pre-colonial Nigerian society accommodated a
social welfare system that was well understood and practiced by its members in
meeting their social needs. Customary arrangements and institutional
provisions for organizing, mobilizing, administering and coordinating various
forms of assistance to the poor, needy, destitute and mentally ill, existed among
the various ethnic communities, centuries before colonization (Okoye, 2013).

The social structure of traditional Nigerian society is a web of relationships by

blood or marriage, which made everyone his brother’s keeper. People lived
together in harmony, with a good sense of belonging, solidarity, and affinity. It
was a caring communal system that was eager to ensure that no one was
deprived of the basic necessities of life. Welfarist values of friendliness,
kindness, hospitality, generosity, honour and respect for the older people and
the helpless were enshrined in the socialization, education, belief and practice
of the people. Thus, social work was not just practiced as an independent
profession by a group of trained professionals as we have today, but was a value
system imbibed by all. There were responsibilities allocated to every member
of the society, thereby, making every one an informal social worker.
Thus, it can be said that this method of social work practice relied mainly on
the extended family/kinship system. Unlike the nuclear family system of
husband, wife and their children of Western societies which seems to be
gradually penetrating African society today, the pre-colonial Nigerian society

- 1-
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

had extended families that included grandparents, parents, uncles, aunts,

brothers, nephews, nieces, cousins and sisters, all living so close to themselves.
There was an unrivalled reciprocal obligation of family members towards one
another. Members nurture, share resources, socialize and educate one another
within the family.

The system provided social welfare services, aid and succour to its members.
For instance, in a situation where a couple is childless, the extended family does
not allow them to feel the pang of childlessness. Such couple is allowed custody
of one or two children from a member of the family. They take responsibility
and control of the upbringing of the child/children who retain their name and
all privileges forever (Kazeem, 2011). Care of older adults was the
responsibility of all young members of the extended family. It is mandatory on
all those who are young in a family to make provision for older adults of the
family not minding whether he/she is the biological parents or not. Failure to
carter for the aged is an abomination among various ethnic groups in Nigeria.
The extended family also dealt with deviant behaviours through counselling and
corporal imposition of restorative penalties.

Furthermore, kinship groups met the recreational, religious, legal and economic
needs of their members (Ogundipe & Edewor, 2012). They served as social
security and social welfare agencies providing for the elderly, the sick, the
unemployed, informal education, social planning/development, recreation, and
gave shelter and food to new migrants (Odiah, 1991). Other institutions such as
age grades, traditional rulers, elders, local religious leaders and other influential
members of the community were also involved in rendering social services and
assistance.

To illustrate with the situation among the Igbo of Nigeria, a careful analysis of
traditional (pre-colonial) Igbo social structure reveals the existence of a wide
variety of familial and kinship organizations and networks. They undertake the
task of providing both material and non-material assistance to needy and poor
members of the society. Some of these institutional arrangements include the
“umunne”, “ezi-na-ulo”, “umunna”, “ikwu-na-ibe” “umuada”, Ikwu-nne”,
“ndi-ogo”, “ogbe”, the grade and “obodo” institutions. For instance, the
“umunne” which is described as the most elementary unit of the Igbo social
organization (Obikeze, 2000), consists of the biological offspring of one
woman. The “umunne” group need not live together in the same location or
even in the same community, as some of them would normally be married away.
Depending on the nature of need or disability, the “umunne” had the primary
responsibility of meeting the needs of their members or soliciting the assistance
of other relevant societal organs when the need was beyond its capability.

Also, the “ezi-na-ulo often translated as the compound, consists of the man (as
head), his wives, children and any other dependents. Literally, it means family.

- 2-
 History of Social Work…

The ‘ezina-ulo” is essentially a production/consumption and caring unit. It only

seeks external help when issues they face are beyond it. They take care of the
young, aged, sick, challenged, and unemployed (Obikeze, 2001). This has
hitherto penetrated modern social work practice in Nigeria, as the family
remains an indispensable resource in social care and organization.

The “umunna” referred to as the patrilineal line is an aggregation of compounds

(ezi-na-ulo) whose members may or may not inhabit a specific area of the
village or community, but could trace their descent from one common male
ancestor (real or fictional). At the head of the “umunna” is the “okpara” who is
usually the oldest male member in direct line of descent. Traditionally, the
“umunna” is oriented more towards political affairs ahead of the “umunne” or
“ezi-na-ulo”, as well as taking responsibilities of care that outweigh the abilities
of the latter two.

The nature and structure of the pre-colonial Nigerian society alongside its
welfare system made it impossible for some of the present day social problems
to be witnessed. This is because it was comprehensive, all encompassing, and
natural to the people (Omolewa, 1981). For instance, problems such as single
parenting, child abandonment, neglect of widows etc., which are commonplace
today were almost non-existent then, due to the polygamous and extended
nature of families.

As time went on, social work practice in pre-colonial Nigerian society took a
new shape with the introduction of Islam in northern Nigeria between the 10th
and 11th century. The coming of Islam introduced a new order of social relations
based on Islamic principles. This brought about new set of social problems. For
instance, the educational system that came along with Islam introduced the
problem of “Almajiri” (Islamic students who survive on begging). It also
brought along a new system of social work practice such as ‘Zakat’ system. The
‘Zakat’ is an informal Islamic system of social work practice that guarantees
adequate security and support for the needy and disabled in an obligatory
fashion (Abdalati, 1984). It prescribes a wide circulation and sharing of wealth,
expertise and commodities (Kazeem, 2011).

While the Zakat system dominated social work practice in northern Nigeria,
indigenous social work practice was maintained in the south until the advent of
colonialism. The breakdown in social, political and economic organization
brought about by colonialism weakened the traditional social structure in
Nigeria and created changes which fostered more and modern social problems.
According to Omolewa and Kazeem (2011), colonialism and western
civilization fostered social problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, burglary,
robbery, material accumulation, sex-work/prostitution, truancy in schools, poor

- 3-
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

parenting, single parenting, white collar crimes, etc. So one might ask, “do we
return to the precolonial times”? This you will find out as you read along.

Social work during the colonial era in Nigeria

The history of modern social work in Nigeria can be traced to the activities of
Christian missionaries in the late 19th Century who came along with Portuguese
and British colonial masters to proselytize Nigerians. Thomas Birch Freeman
established the first Christian mission in Nigeria in 1842 (Ajayi, 1965).
Between 1842-1900, several missions including the Church Missionary Society
and Salvation Army had established themselves in various parts of Nigeria.
These Christian missionaries came with their own basic assumption of social
work practice that was based on the teaching of Christ on charity, community
service, love, joy, peace, patience and goodness. They established schools
where knowledge of the bible, singing of hymns, chanting of psalms and
reciting of denominational catechism predominated. They also established
health facilities, provided drugs, taught midwifery and simple nursing hygiene
and introduced child welfare and maternal programmes. These social services
were primarily to lure more converts into Christianity, and in return, the trained
converts were hired to expand missionary activities.

However, social work in Nigeria advanced to a more professional activity

following World War I & II, which brought alongside more complex social
problems that required professional social work intervention. The lifestyle of
the returnee soldiers from both World Wars became a negative influence to
young people who copied not only the returnees’ dress code, but also engaged
in other deviant practices such as smoking, drug and alcohol abuse, prostitution
etc. The Salvation Army and the Green Triangle group were in the forefront of
western social work in Nigeria as they established various programmes and
activities aimed at assisting these delinquents who were being influenced by the
way of life of the returnee soldiers. The Salvation Army established industrial
schools where delinquent children were sent for training and readjustment,
while the Green Triangle established Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs where talents and
potentials of the individual delinquent were addressed (Atolagbe, 1989). These
were in addition to the reformatories ran by the Roman Catholic at Badagry.
The British colonial government launched its first piece of social welfare
legislation with the 1886 Guardianship of Infants Act (Ekpe & Mamah, 1997).
This was followed by other acts and ordinances that sought to cater for the
welfare of the people such as free services for the disabled, the establishment
of Boys’ Clubs to prevent delinquency among rural-urban migrants, as well as
the establishment of remand homes (Eze, Ezea & Anichie, 2000). However,
there was need to ensure that the newly introduced social welfare system was
scientific, and compatible with the rising problems of migration, economic
crisis, and discrimination/prejudice (Glicken, 2007). Also considered were the
specific contexts of the North and South. This owes to the fact that problems
obtainable in the North, were not same as those obtainable in the South (Wisner,

- 4-
 History of Social Work…

1970; Lowe & Hopps, 2008). The cultural attributes of both geographical
territories differed, and therefore had enormous impacts on their interactional
patterns, like gender relations, political structure, etc. (Abramovitz, 1998; Byrd
& Clayton, 2000). Another instance is the impacts of slave trade which was
more pronounced in the South than the North (Lowe & Pearce, 2006; Wood,
1978).

As a result of these emerging social problems outlined earlier, there was need
to apply more organization to the social work practice introduced by the
missionaries (Austin, 2000; Morris, 2000). This opened up space for
volunteerism, which aimed at volunteers working with the missionaries to
address identified problems in the society (Abramowitz, 1998; Figueira-
McDonough, 2007). These humble ideas became the basis for the argument that
societies do not develop economically alone, but socially. Hence, the blend of
economic and social development as the basis to assess how developed a society
is (Day, 2003; Figueira-Mcdonough, 2007; Piven & Cloward, 1971; Morris,
2000).

In retrospect, the Depression of the 1930s and World War II occasioned the
need for serious social welfare concerns across the colonies in Africa. The
Colonial Welfare Act was passed in 1940 with particular focus on labour and
child welfare, as well as sanctions against labour for children under 14 years of
age. In 1942, the first Department of Social Welfare was created, and its scope
expanded to include juvenile court services and screening of applications of
juveniles travelling to Equatorial Guinea (Mere, 1988). Mr. Donald Faulkner,
an accomplished social worker from the prisons department was appointed as
the first welfare officer to preside over social development and welfare within
British colonies. In carrying out his responsibility, Mr. Faulkner employed the
services of some members of the green triangle, and other earlier social welfare
service volunteers, which include, Menser Bouboy, V. C. Conde, E. L. Jegede,
Mrs. Maqueen (nee Lipede), and Miss Bob Manuel later Mrs. Bankole Wright,
among others (Kazeem, 2011).

The Native Children’s (Custody and Reformation) Ordinance was also passed
and Salvation Army home reverted by the government. Summarily, formal
social work started in Nigeria in the early 1940s, as a form of humanitarian
work and philanthropy for young Nigerians in Lagos, as a response to observed
human suffering and misery, occasioned by the ongoing World War II (Jack,
1988).

- 5-
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

Social work in Nigeria’s post-colonial era

Since independence, the scope of social problems in Nigeria has increased in
all ramifications. The civil war brought with it many problems that the
traditional welfare institutions and the existing government social services
could not handle. Thus, necessitating more government attention. The Federal
government in 1970 invited the United Nations Regional Adviser on Social
Welfare Policy and Training, Dr. A.H. Shawky to study the social welfare
service situation in the country and advise it on the respective roles of the
Federal and Regional governments, alongside voluntary organizations could
play in the country’s social welfare (Obikeze, 2001).

The Adviser’s report marked an important watershed in the history of social

work in Nigeria (Mere, 1988). In February 1974, the Federal government
passed the enabling decree (Decree No. 12) known as the Social Development
Decree. This led to the creation of a separate and totally independent Ministry
of Social Development, Youth, Sports and Culture in 1975. The ministry was
responsible for the coordination of social development activities in Nigeria. The
Federal government also came up with a national policy on social development
tagged: “Social Development Policy for Nigeria” in October 1989.

A separate advisory committee on education produced the report titled Mass

Education in African Society. It emphasized the importance of mass education
and adult literacy programmes as effective instruments for promoting
community development and welfare in the colonies. The acceptance and
implementation of this report led to the movement of community development
unit from social welfare to the Ministry of Education or Local Governments in
the Provinces/Regions/States. A practice which remained until 1967.

Since then, many institutional groups for therapeutic purposes have been
established in Nigeria. These include the Ugbekun Remand Homes in Benin
City, the Birrel House Approved Schools (for junior boys) and the Isheri
Approved School (for intermediate boys) both in Lagos. Remand Homes were
established as shelters for children and young persons that need care, protection
and control. It provided remedial and corrective training to children who are
caught wandering and loitering because they are truants or because they are
neglected and lacked parental care or close supervision. Approved Schools on
the other hand, are residential establishments approved by the government for
the education and corrective training of boys and girls who failed to respond to
treatment while on probation. Generally, Approved Schools are primarily for
hardened delinquents. Social welfare agencies were also established in various
states and local government areas of the federation.

These various establishments resulted to an increased need for professional

social workers to manage and organize the various social welfare agencies in
the country. At the initial stage, the staff members at the ministry of Social

- 6-
 History of Social Work…

Development were sent overseas to acquire professional social work training.

However, the practice was not sustained because methods of administration of
Western social welfare systems acquired by the returnee social workers were
criticized for lacking applicable relevance to indigenous social contexts (Odiah
1991). There was then need to integrate indigenous social welfare practice to
the western system so as to make it relevant to local context. This led to the
establishment of various levels of training institutions such as the Federal
School of Social Work, Emene, Enugu State in 1982, and Social Development
Institute, Iperu, Ogun State. The two established institutions offered certificate
course in social work.

Evidencing the failures of social work in not just Nigeria alone but other third
world countries was the 1968 meeting of third world nations’ social welfare
ministers conveyed by the United Nations (United Nations, 1971). The resultant
effect of this meeting was the coming of Dr. A. H. Shawky to Nigeria in 1970.
Shawky studied the social space of Nigeria and reemphasized the need for
social workers to be trained, engaged and professionalized for the purpose of
the country’s social development (Okafor, 2004).

Based on Shawky’s report, the Federal Government established social work

programme in 1976 in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Faculty
of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria Nsukka. The programme aimed
principally to train and produce middle level manpower who can run the Social
Welfare Departments in the Ministries. It began with undergraduate diploma
programme in 1976/1977 academic session and later introduced degree
programme in 1984/1985 and postgraduate programmes (PGD, M.Sc., and
Ph.D.) as from 1986/1987 academic session. The social work unit acquired a
sub-departmental status in November, 2001, and later, a full-fledged
department in 2006 (Okoye, 2013).

Similarly, the University of Benin established a social work unit in the

Department of Sociology and Anthropology in 1979 but only offered
postgraduate programmes (M.Sc. and Ph.D.) at its inception. Later on (in
March, 1983) a two-year undergraduate diploma programme (Diploma in
Social Work) was introduced but was on a part-time basis. This was followed
by the five-year undergraduate degree programme in the 1995/1996 academic
session, also on part-time basis. The first sets of full-time students were
admitted in the 2011/12 academic year as Social Work became a full-fledged
Department in that time. The University of Jos also started a BSW programme
in the late 90s, and in 2006 started postgraduate programmes (M.Sc. and PhD)
(Okoye, 2013).

In 2004, the revised version of Social Development Policy for Nigeria was
published. This newer version has a sub-section on social work education and

- 7-
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

training under the section on social welfare services. It states among other
things that social work education and training has the task of producing various
levels of manpower capable of applying professional knowledge and planned
skill intervention in the various problem situations to achieve a suitable welfare
state. The growing dimension of social problems without a corresponding
increase in the number of qualified social workers to competently address these
problems has created serious demands for professionally trained social workers
in Nigeria.

Social problems and social welfare delivery in Nigeria have evolved to a stage
which requires proper handling by social workers who are adequately trained
and equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, orientation, value and
competence. This demand for professionally trained social workers has led to
the establishment of social work courses in so many other Nigerian universities
and polytechnics, who now contribute to the growth of professional social work
(Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN), 2004).

Social work in Nigeria has continued to experience a steady growth. More and
more professionals are being trained on regular basis. This has led to the
formation of various social work associations in Nigeria which include the
Nigerian Association of Social Workers (NASOWS), the Association of
Medical Social Workers in Nigeria (AMSWON) and the Nigerian Association
of Social Work Educators. Presently a bill on professionalization of social work
is with the National Assembly, waiting for legislative actions, as it was denied
presidential assent by President Muhammadu Buhari on February 6, 2018
(Okoye, 2014; Ogbonna, 2018).

Challenges and state of social work practice in contemporary Nigeria

After independence the new government in Nigeria made efforts to sustain the
social welfare legacy of the colonial administration. Among the introductions
were the Social Security Act of 1961 for 55-year-olds and above; Invalidity and
Survivors’ Grant for people who sustained injuries at work. The grants would
always go to the next of kin of the deceased worker (Ekpe & Mamah, 1997).
These mentioned services were among other social development innovations
introduced after independence. However, one common denominator to these
social care and protective innovations in Nigeria was the fact that they became
moribund.

Ekpe and Mamah (1997) argued that one factor that caused these social
development innovations to become moribund were the inconsistencies of these
social welfare services, in relation to who runs them, how should they be
implemented, and how they should be structured? For instance, Decree 12 of
1974 established social welfare services as an integral part of Social
Development Directorate, while the Social Welfare Department finally began

- 8-
 History of Social Work…

operation in 1989 with a different ministry – Federal Ministry of Culture and

Social Welfare (Ogbonna, 2017). According to Ogbonna (2017), the Social
Welfare Department was charged with:

Coordination of intergovernmental and interstate social welfare

activities, conduct of research and surveys in various aspects of social
welfare, and training of professional social workers, and the
organization and coordination of welfare agencies’ training. Execution
of international casework, promotion of legislation on issues affecting
social welfare in Nigeria, conduct research on international matters
affecting social welfare, and leading interactions with social welfare
organizations at national and international levels.

In addition to these reported inconsistencies, the political climate in Nigeria

since 1960 complicated issues (swinging from military to civilian regimes, as
well as coups and counter-coups). All these further stalled social development
initiatives (Okoye, 2014b). Political inconsistencies in particular made poverty
to be pronounced, which led to incessant rural-urban drift. Poor attention was
given to healthcare and social amenities, as a result of the fact that those in
political seats were much concerned with holding power, as against the welfare
of the people. Thus, in order to survive, members of the society decided to fall
back to the traditional welfare systems. They reinvented it even in towns. Social
groups became proliferated, and they made contributions to help themselves in
times of need and distress (Okoye, 2014b; Ewhrudjakpor, 2009). This became
one challenge that has remained in making social work profession less
significant in Nigeria.

Successive Nigerian governments have attempted to respond to rural and urban

problems through the National Directorate of Employment (NDE), community
banks, directorate of food and rural roads infrastructure, better life for rural
women, National Poverty Alleviation Programme (NAPEP), among other giant
welfare strides (Agbola, 2002). Yet, poverty and unemployment remain on the
increase. Could there be something wrong with our social development
programmes, or the ways they are implemented, or who implements them?

Unlike in developed countries, an account of most social work services is

synonymous with social welfare in Nigerian context, which lies solely with the
government. Hence, they decided to utilize the system at will, and very often to
their benefits. In fact, social welfare projects, including basic social amenities
in Nigeria are used to score political points by the governments, and barely
considered rights of the people (Abegunde & Akinyemi, 2014). This has
crippled the social welfare system, and made it look as a second-class concern
of the government (Ogbonna, 2017). As a result of these issues, community
based organizations and religious groups, age grades, town unions,

- 9-
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

philanthropists, among others, became the entities to rely on for social care and
protection (Abegunde, 2009; Ayangunna, 2010; Odumosu, Olaniyi & Alonge,
2009). The consequence became that these channels remained sources of social
care and protective services, while the government held on to the idea of
utilizing such services for politics (Kanu & Umoh, 2013).

In another development, social workers in Nigeria face conflicts with other

professionals, who claim they do what social workers do. This owes largely to
ignorance, and the lack of professionalization sanctioned by law (Okoye,
2014a). Most ministries, agencies and parastatals in the three tiers of
government where trained and qualified social workers are supposedly prepared
to occupy, are managed by non-practitioners. Although, this is gradually
changing, owing to the fact that in most federal healthcare facilities, social
workers are currently employed. It is hoped that professionalization will extend
the welcomed development in healthcare facilities of the federal government,
to other sectors and areas of social work practice (Ogbonna, 2017).

The challenges of foster care, child abuse and neglect, poverty, politics and
governance, migration, unemployment and underemployment, care of the
elderly, HIV/AIDS, rehabilitation of physically challenged persons, community
development among others, continue to mediate and weigh down the coping
capacities of the citizenry. A regime of insecurity from kidnapping in South-
East; militancy in the South-South; ethno-religious killings; terrorism, natural
and artificial disasters, presently threaten human existence in Nigeria.
Empirical evidence show a steady decline in Nigeria’s government capacity to
address the security and welfare challenges of her citizenry (Okoye, 2014b;
Abegunde & Akinyemi, 2014). Further, the decline in foreign donors, lenders
and policy makers referencing domestic conditions before help is offered to the
Nigerian government seems not progressive for public welfare (Abegunde &
Akinyemi, 2014). Tribal sentiments and nepotism add a lot to the woes of the
country’s social development, and impact on the ways resources and
opportunities are distributed, including how policies will be favorable across
geographical blocs (Holms, Akinirimisi, Morgan, & Buck, 2012; Olufayo,
2014; Osinubi & Osinubi, 2006; Akintayo, Hämäläinen, & Rissanen, 2017).
These complex problems have so undermined the growth and developmental
pace of social work in Nigeria that creating strategies to address some of these
problems will be of help in advancing the success of the profession in Nigeria
(Okoye, 2014).

Conclusion
Every society is confronted with varying degrees of social problems. Social
work is without doubt an organized response to the various social problems
confronting the people. This chapter has revealed how social work
metamorphosed from the traditional practice of the pre-colonial Nigerian
society where the extended family/kinship system was the major institution of

- 10 -
 History of Social Work…

social intervention, to the colonial era where church missionary, organizations

were at the fore front, and then to contemporary times where social welfare
agencies of government and non-governmental organizations are championing
the course of social welfare. It shows that as Nigeria transits from simple,
sedentary, and rural based setting, to a more complex urbanized social setting,
it is confronted with a new order of social problems that require a more
scientific social work approach.

References

Abdalati H. (1984): Islamic social system: Its dimensions and characteristics,

In Quraishi, M.T. (ed) Islam: A way of life and a moment. Indianapolis:
American Trust Publication.
Abegunde, A. A. (2009). The role of community based organisations in
economic development in Nigeria: The case of Oshogbo, Osun state,
Nigeria. International NGO Journal, 4, (5), 236-252.
Abegunde, O. & Akinyemi, T. E. (2014). Public policy, welfarism, and social
service delivery in Nigeria: The case of a receding State. Journal of Law,
Policy and Globalization, 22, 134-144.
Abramovitz, (1998). Social work and social reform: An arena of struggle.
Social work, 43 (6), 512-526.
Agbola, T. (2002). The privatization and management of urban space: A
critical assessment of neighborhood vigilante groups in Ibadan. Ibadan:
IFRA.
Ajayi, J. F. A. (1965). Christian mission in Nigeria. London: Longman.
Akintayo, T., Hämäläinen J., & Rissanen, S. (2017). Social work in diverse
ethno-cultural contexts: A case study of Nigeria. African Journal of
Social Work, 7 (2), 16- 24.
Asquith, S., Clark, C. & Waterhouse, L. (2005). The role of the social worker
in the 21st century: A literature review. Retrieved from
http://www.21csocialwork.org.uk/.
Atolagbe, M.O.B. (1989). Principles and practice of social welfare. Ibadan:
Ibadan External Studies Programme Series.
Austin, D.M. (2000). Greeting the second century: A forward look from a
historical perspective. In J. G. Hopps, & R. Morris (Eds.), Social work at
the millennium: Critical reflections on the future of the profession (pp.
18-41). New York, NY: The Free Press.
Ayangunna, J.A. (2010). Effective social work practice in Lagos: An emerging
megacity. An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia, 4 (4), 17,
236-246.
Bryd, M. W., & Clayton, F. (2000). An American health dilemma: A medical
history of Africa America and the problems of race, beginning to 1900.
New York, NY: Rutledge.

- 11 -
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

Drew, P. (1983). A longer view: The Mary Richmond legacy. Baltimore, MD:
University of Maryland Press.
Ekpe, C. P. (1983). Social welfare and family support: The Nigerian experience.
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 10 (3), 484-496.
Ekpe, C.P. & Mamah, S.C. (1997). Social work in Nigeria: A colonial heritage.
Enugu: Unit Oriental Press.
Eze, C.A., Ezea, P.C. & Aniche, A. (2000). Fundamentals of social work.
Nsukka: Liberty Printing Press.
Ewhrudjakpor C. (2009). Assessment of social welfare services of sufferers of
leprosy in Delta State, Nigeria. An International Multi-Disciplinary
Journal, 3 (1), 13-26.
Eze, C.A., Ezea, P.C. & Aniche, A. (2000). Fundamentals of social work.
Nsukka: Liberty Printing Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). Social development policy for Nigeria,
Abuja: FRN.
Figueira-McDonough, J. (2007). The welfare state and social work: Pursuing
social justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Glicken, M.D. (2007). Social work in the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Holms, R., Akinirimisi, B., Morgan, J. & Buck, R. (2012). Social protection in
Nigeria: Mapping programmes and their effectiveness. London: Overseas
Development Institute.
Hopps, J.G. & Lowe, T.B. (2008). The scope of social work practice. New
York, NY: Haworth Press.
Jack, D.R.L. (1988, November). From social welfare to social development in
EMSDYS, Report of National Seminar on Social Development Policy in
Nigeria, Vol. 11
Kanu, E.J. & Umoh, B.D. (2013). Public interest in social welfare services
provision in Nigeria: A critical analysis. Asian Journal of Social Sciences
& Humanities, 2 (3),19-25.
Kazeem, K. (2011). An integrated approach to social work practice in Nigeria.
College Student Journal. 45, 1, 122.
Lowe, K. & Pearce, J. (2006). Young people and sexual exploitation. Child
Abuse Review, 15 (5) 289-293.
Mere, A.A. (1988). Social work education and professionalism in Nigeria.
FMSDYS, Report of the National Seminar on Social Development Policy
in Nigeria, Vol. II.
Morris, R. (2000). Curriculum for at risk students. Carrolitan, GA: State
University of Georgia.
Obikeze, D.S. (2000, April). Traditional Institutional arrangements and
practices for Igbo culture zone of Nigeria. Paper presented at the Centre
for Social Policy Workshop on care of aging in Nigeria.
Obikeze, D.S. (June, 2001). Social work services in Nigeria in the emerging
years. Lead paper presented at the Workshop on Social Services in Nigeria,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

- 12 -
 History of Social Work…

Odiah, C.A. (1991). Identification of gaps in social work education on Nigeria.

Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto.
Odumosu, O., Olaniyi, R. & Alonge, S. (2009). Mapping the activities of faith-
based organization in Nigeria. University of Birmingham: International
Development Department, University of Birmingham.
Ogbonna, B.O. (2017). Social welfare scheme; a neglected component of public
health care services in Nigeria. MOJ Public Health, 5(3),1-4.
Ogbonna, A. (2018, February 6). Buhari declines assent to three bills passed
by NASS. Vanguard. Retrieved from
https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/02/buhari-declines-assent-three-
bills-passed-nass/.
Ogundipe, A. (2002). Social group work. Benin City: Ambik Press.
Ogundipe, A. & Edewor, P.A. (2012). Sociology and social work in Nigeria:
Characteristics, collaborations and differences. African Sociological
Review, 16 (2), 40-55.
Okafor, D.I. (2004). Social work in Nigeria: A historic perspective. Onitsha:
Mid-Field Publishers Ltd.
Okoye, U.O. (2003, October). Social Work Associations in developing
democracies. Paper present at the Annual Conference of Nigerian
Association of Social Workers, Women Development Centre, Port-
Harcourt Rivers State.
Okoye, U.O. (2013). Trends and challenges of social work practice in Nigeria.
In V. E. Cree (ed), Becoming a social worker: Global narratives (pp149-
157). London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.
Okoye, U.O. (2014a). Indigenizing social work education for better social
service provisioning in Nigeria. In Omuta, G. E. D. (Ed), Perspective on
social services in Nigeria (pp. 883-895). Ibadan: HEBN Publishers Plc.
Okoye, U. O. (2014b). Deteriorating human conditions: The role of social work
in the new millennium. In Nwabueze, N., Bammeke, F., & Nnorom, C. C.
P. (Eds), The social sciences, humanities and the human conditions. A
Festschrift for Prof Oyekanmi @ 65. (pp. 70-84). Lagos: Department of
Sociology, University of Lagos.
Olufayo, O. (2014). Ethnic identity and the crises of development in Nigeria.
European Scientific Journal, 10 (2), 1857-7881.
Omolewa, M. (1981), Adult education practice in Nigeria, Ibadan: Evans
Brothers.
Omolewa, M. & Kazeem, K. (1991, December). A retrospective survey of
social work practice in Nigeria. Paper presented at the Annual Social Work
Conference, University of lbadan.
Osinubi, T. S. & Osinubi, O. S. (2006). Ethnic conflicts in contemporary Africa:
The Nigerian experience. Journal of Social Science, 12(2), 101-114.
Piven, F.F., Richard A. & Cloward, R.A. (1971). Regulating the Poor: The
functions of public welfare. New York, NY: Patheon Press.

- 13 -
 Mbah, Ebue & Ugwu

United Nations. (1971). Training for social welfare: Fifth international survey
(New approaches in meeting manpower needs. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED067316 .pdf.
Wisner, E. (1970). Social welfare in the south: From the colonial times to world
war I. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press.
Wood, P. H. (1978). Black resistance: The Stone uprising and its consequences.
In J.K. Martin (Ed.), Interpreting colonial American: Selected readings
(2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Harper and Row.

- 14 -

View publication stats