Tools for Innovation The Science Behind the Practical
Methods That Drive New Ideas, 1st Edition
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Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further
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Copyright Ó 2009 by Arthur B. Markman and Kristin L. Wood
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
www.oup.com
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tools for innovation / edited by Arthur B. Markman, Kristin L. Wood.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-19-538163-4
1. Creative thinking. 2. Design, Industrial. 3. Creative ability. 4. Cognitive
science—Research. I. Markman, Arthur B. II. Wood, Kristin L.
BF408.T62 2009
153.30 5—dc22
2009001719
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
To Lucas, ’Eylam, and Niv: Innovators all
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C ONTRIBUTOR LIST
...............................
Srinivasan Anandan Graduate Research Associate, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, South Carolina
Stuart R. Borrett, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Biology and
Marine Biology, University of North
Carolina, Wilmington, Wilmington,
North Carolina
Will Bridewell, Ph.D. Postdoctoral Research Scientist,
Computational Learning Laboratory,
Center for the Study of Language and
Information, Stanford University,
Stanford, California
Bo T. Christensen, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business
School, Copenhagen, Denmark
Darren W. Dahl, Ph.D. Fred H. Siller Professor in Applied
Marketing, Sauder School of Business,
The University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, British Columbia
Dan Jensen, Ph.D. Professor of Engineering Mechanics,
United States Air Force Academy,
Colorado Springs, Colorado
Andruid Kerne, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of
Computer Science, Interface Ecology Lab,
Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas
Eunyee Koh, Ph.D. Research Scientist, Department of
Computer Science, Interface Ecology Lab,
viii CONTRIBUTOR LIST
Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas
Pat Langley, Ph.D. Consulting Professor of Symbolic Systems,
Head of Computational Learning
Laboratory, Center for the Study of
Language and Information, Stanford
University, Stanford, California
Jeffrey P. Laux Doctoral Student, Psychology, University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
Julie S. Linsey, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Mechanical
Engineering, Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas
Arthur B. Markman, Ph.D. Annabel Irion Worsham Centennial
Professor of Psychology and Marketing,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
Texas
C. Page Moreau, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Marketing, Leeds
M.B.A. School of Business, University of
Colorado, Boulder, Colorado
Jeremy T. Murphy Doctoral Student, Mechanical
Engineering, University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, Texas
Christian D. Schunn, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology,
Learning Systems, and Intelligent Systems,
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania
Jami Shah, Ph.D. Professor and Director, Design
Automation Laboratory, Arizona State
University, Tempe, Arizona
Vikramjit Singh, M.S. Doctoral Student, M.O.R.P.H. Lab,
Manufacturing and Design Research
Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, The University of Texas,
Austin, Texas
CONTRIBUTOR LIST ix
Steven M. Smith, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Interface Ecology
Lab, Department of Psychology, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas
Joshua D. Summers, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, South Carolina
Masaki Suwa, Ph.D. Professor of Information and Intelligence,
Chukyo University, Toyota, Aichi, Japan
Sudhakar Teegavarapu Graduate Research Associate, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, South Carolina
Barbara Tversky, Ph.D. Professor Emerita of Psychology, Stanford
University, Professor of Psychology and
Education, Columbia Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York,
New York
Brandon Walther Doctoral Student, M.O.R.P.H. Lab,
Manufacturing and Design Research
Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, The University of Texas,
Austin, Texas
Thomas B. Ward, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, University of
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Robert Weisberg, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology,
Temple University, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
Kristin L. Wood, Ph.D. Cullen Trust Endowed Professor in
Engineering and University Distinguished
Teaching Professor of Mechanical
Engineering at the University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, Texas
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A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
................................
This book came about as the result of a workshop called Tools for
Innovation held at the University of Texas. We had been talking about
finding a way to get psychologists, engineers, computer scientists, and
consumer behavior researchers together to talk about innovation. John
Sibley Butler and Robert Peterson of the IC2 Institute at the University of
Texas were intrigued by this idea, and they generously gave us money to host
this conference. Both of them also gave generously of their time to help with
conference organization. In addition, Coral Franke of the IC2 Institute
provided logistical support that made the conference a success. Finally,
the National Science Foundation provided additional funding to help
graduate students and young faculty attend the workshop.
Thanks to Erin Spalding for her help organizing the chapters and getting
them ready for publication. Julie Linsey and Jeff Laux provided a lot of
support for the conference. The whole Similarity and Cognition lab read the
chapters and provided feedback that was passed along to the chapter
authors. And of course, thanks to the authors as a group for providing
such a great collection of chapters.
At Oxford, Catharine Carlin was very helpful in getting this project into
the OUP fold. Abby Gross read over the manuscript and gave the authors
valuable feedback. Mark O’Malley guided us through the production
process.
Finally, Art Markman would like to acknowledge the support of the
W.W. Heath Centennial Fellowship in the IC2 Institute, and Kris Wood
would like to acknowledge the support of the Cullen Endowed
Professorship in Engineering.
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C ONTENTS
................
1. The Cognitive Science of Innovation Tools 3
A RTHUR B. M ARKMAN AND K RISTIN L. W OOD
2. On ‘‘Out-of-the-Box’’ Thinking in Creativity 23
R OBERT W. W EISBERG
3. ‘‘Putting Blinkers on a Blind Man’’: Providing
Cognitive Support for Creative Processes with
Environmental Cues 48
B O T. C HRISTENSEN AND C HRISTIAN D. S CHUNN
4. Thinking with Sketches 75
B ARBARA T VERSKY AND M ASAKI S UWA
5. Supporting Innovation by Promoting
Analogical Reasoning 85
A RTHUR B. M ARKMAN , K RISTIN L. W OOD ,
J ULIE S. L INSEY , J EREMY T. M URPHY , AND J EFFREY P. L AUX
6. Constraints and Consumer Creativity 104
C. P AGE M OREAU AND D ARREN W. D AHL
7. The Development and Evaluation of
Tools for Creativity 128
S TEVEN M. S MITH , A NDRUID K ERNE , E UNYEE K OH ,
AND J AMI S HAH
8. ConceptNets for Flexible Access to Knowledge 153
T HOMAS B. W ARD
xiv CONTENTS
9. Innovation Through tRaNsFoRmAtIoNaL Design 171
V IKRAMJIT S INGH , B RANDON W ALTHER , K RISTIN L. W OOD ,
AND D AN J ENSEN
10. Introduction of Design Enabling Tools:
Development, Validation, and Lessons Learned 195
J OSHUA D. S UMMERS , S RINIVASAN A NANDAN , AND S UDHAKAR
T EEGAVARAPU
11. Supporting Innovative Construction of Explanatory
Scientific Models 216
W ILL B RIDEWELL , S TUART R. B ORRETT , AND P AT L ANGLEY
Index 235
TOOLS FOR
INNOVATION
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C H A P T E R 1
.....................................................
THE COGNITIVE
SCIENCE OF
INNOVATION
TOOLS
.....................................................
ARTHUR B. MARKMAN
KRISTIN L. WOOD
‘‘A PSYCHOLOGIST and an engineer sit down to write a paper.’’ Rather than
being the setup to a joke, this state of affairs reflects what we see as the
fundamental mode of research for studying the process of innovation. In
particular, innovation research lies at the nexus of basic cognitive science
and content domains in which people are going to generate novel creative
products. It is at this nexus where the field can go beyond merely elucidating
the basic cognition underlying creativity, to generating proposals for tools
that can support the creative process.
This book presents a collection of chapters that lie at the leading edge of
research on innovation and tools to support innovation processes. Much
of this work reflects collaborations between scientists with different types of
expertise. For example, the chapter by Smith, Kerne, Koh, and Shah reflects
a collaboration between people with expertise in psychology, engineering,
and computer science. The chapter by Tversky and Suwa involves a colla-
boration between a psychologist and an information scientist. The work by
Dahl and Moreau brings together two researchers in consumer behavior
4 TOOLS FOR INNOVATION
who have a strong background in psychology. These examples demonstrate
the importance of thinking broadly about creativity in order to make
headway on what may be the most daunting question in psychology:
‘‘Where do new ideas come from?’’ and one of the most daunting question
in domain-specific design: ‘‘How do we develop methods and tools that
enhance and empower designers to create novel ideas?’’
In this chapter, we set the stage for the rest of the book by starting with a
brief definition of creativity and innovation. A more elaborate discussion of
innovation and creativity is presented in the chapter by Weisberg. Then we
discuss the importance of interdisciplinary research for developing tools for
innovation. This section certainly discusses advantages of interdisciplinary
research for the study of innovation tools. However, this work also focuses on
the importance of research on innovation for basic research in the component
disciplines of cognitive science. Often, people involved in basic research view
the flow of information from basic science to applied science without recog-
nizing the role that applications of basic research can play in basic science.
Finally, we identify aspects of the innovation process that seem particularly
promising for generating tools. Some of these areas are ones that are represented
with chapters in this volume. Others are important avenues of future research.
INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY
...............................................................
Figure 1–1 shows a classic image of a lone individual endeavoring to create.
This model is being called into question as cognitive science research
illuminates our understanding of creative cognition. For one thing, crea-
tivity does not happen in isolation, but rather in groups. For another,
creativity requires a lot of information about the domain being studied.
Despite our greater understanding of creativity, however, an agreed-upon
definition for innovation and creativity is elusive. There are probably as
many definitions of creativity and innovation as there are researchers who
study this process (and probably more). In the next chapter, Weisberg
discusses definitions of innovation and creativity in detail. We will not
commence that discussion here.
In practical settings, however, there are three crucial aspects of innova-
tion that are important. First, for a solution to some kind of practical
problem to be innovative, it must be truly novel in the history of the field.
For example, in patent law, an invention or process can be patented only if
it is not previously known to individuals skilled in the art. That is, if the idea
