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Biology Year 11 Module 3

Biological Diversity
Topic
Outline
4. Effects of
1. Evidence for Environment
Evolution Effects of biotic & abiotic factors
Palaeontology. Patterns of change on abundance & diversity
Transitional forms Biogeography Australian case studies
Comparative Embryology
Comparative anatomy
Biochemistry & DNA
Selective breeding
Important technologies
2. Theory of 3. Adaptations
Charles Darwin &
Evolution Structural, physiological
Alfred Wallace Main points of the theory & behavioural
Natural Selection Survival of the Fittest Observing adaptations
Divergent evolution Convergent evolution Darwin’s observations

Micro-evolution The pace of evolution

Case studies

What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Evidence for Evolution
Palaeontology. Patterns of change in the fossil record. Transitional forms.
Biogeography. Comparative anatomy & embryology. DNA & biochemical evidence. Selective breeding.
Technologies which help gather the evidence.

2. The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Darwin & Wallace and their theory. Natural Selection. “Survival of the Fittest”.
Divergence & Speciation. Convergent evolution. Examples of “micro-evolution”.
The pace of evolution: “Gradualism” v. “Punctuated Equilibrium”. Case studies: horse & platypus.

3. Adaptations
Structural, physiological & behavioural adaptations. Observing & studying adaptations.
Darwin’s observations.

4. Effects of Environment
Effects of biotic & abiotic environmental factors on the abundance & diversity of a species.
Case studies: Prickly Pear & Cane Toad.

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Introduction
® Note:
Year 11 students have (or should
keep it simple science have) studied evolution in

Biodiversity
previous years. We do NOT
assume that every detail is
refers to the variety of living things which live in a particular place, remembered or understood. We
ecosystem, or on the entire Earth. The estimates of how many different have briefly revised many ideas &
types of living things there are on Earth vary upwards from “about 1 facts that may be somewhat
million”. This figure includes all the known plants, animals, fungi, algae, familiar, but now need to be
etc., but does not cover the enormous variety of microbes. Other thoroughly understood.
estimates suggest “about 30 million”, but this may be an under-estimate
as well. With that in mind, and in the
interests of logical sequencing & a
The amazing fact is that this vast diversity of life is believed to have simple “flow of narrative”, we have
originated from a single life-form almost 4 billion years ago. This module decided to reverse the syllabus
investigates the relationship between evolution & biodiversity. sequence.

1. Evidence for Evolution

There is overwhelming evidence that life on Earth has undergone a sequence of changes over the past
4 billion years or so. Here, briefly (K.I.S.S. Principle) are the main sources of that evidence:

Palaeontology (The Study of Fossils)

The fossil evidence is undoubtably our most
important, direct evidence showing that life on youngest These fossils
Earth has changed. correlate to
each other.
The fossils not only show that life was once
different, but that the changes follow a pattern or
sequence... that is the meaning of “evolution”... a
sequence of changes over time which follow a
pattern.

Patterns of Change
The
Ancient Life to Modern Life corresponding
Simple types to More complex types rock layers
Less variety to Greater variety (in different
oldest

Less like More and more places)

present-day life to resembling modern life must be the
same age.

How do we know this to be fact? Not only do we

have many fossils of extinct organisms, but we Now we can also place absolute times on many
can place them in time sequence to see these fossils by “Radiometric Dating”... the
patterns. determination of the actual age of things by
measuring the residual radioactivity of certain,
Initially, scientists could only place fossils in
naturally-occurring radio-isotopes in the rocks.
relative time order by correlating the sequences,
More about that later.
as suggested in the diagram.

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What the Fossil Evidence Shows...
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Summary of the Main Events Present

This time-line identifies the major stages in the Day

o
evolution of life on Earth. The main evidence for

Ag
0
this has come from fossils preserved in

rs
sedimentary rocks and from the rocks

ea
themselves. The times suggested are Humans

fY
approximate, but based on radio-metric Birds

so
dating of the rocks. Dinosaurs

n
Reptiles,

llio
First sexual Mammals

Mi
reproduction. Amphibians,
Evolution Insects

00
speeds up Fish

1,0
Animals with hard
First Eukaryotic cells parts (shells etc)
appear. Huge increase
(with membrane- in fossils
based organelles)
First multicellular
plants (algae) and
animals (sponges,
worms, jellyfish).
00

All life was aquatic...

2,0

none on dry land.

Over this time the Earth went

from ANOXIC to OXIC.
Organisms using oxygen for
First autotrophs? cellular respiration appeared.
chemosynthetic
bacteria & archaea
00

First Cyanobacteria, using

3,0

chlorophyll for photosynthesis and

releasing oxygen.

Throughout this immense period all life was prokaryotic,

anaerobic (living without oxygen) and heterotrophic,
feeding on the naturally occurring organic molecules
of the environment.
00

First living things

4,0

somewhere here (?)

Molecules formed
membranes?
00
4,6

Earth
formed Organic molecules began forming naturally in the
conditions of the primitive Earth.
(Research the “Urey-Miller experiment” to learn more)

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Fossils of “Transitional Forms”
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When this fossil was first discovered, its skeleton
Only a tiny fraction of all the zillions of organisms
was clearly that of a small dinosaur. Only later was
that have ever lived have ended up being fossilised.
it noticed that the faint outlines around the fossil
The fossil record is therefore, incomplete and a
were the impressions of feathers. This was a
rather patchy record of evolution.
dinosaur-bird!
Despite this “patchiness”, there are some fossils
Transitional fossils are important evidence that each
that have given us a glimpse of the change that
new type of life that “appears” in the fossil record
occurred when one type of life was evolving into
did in fact evolve from a previous ancestor.
another. Such fossils are called “Transitional
Scientists have discovered transitional fossils
Forms”
showing:
Perhaps the most famous is
Archaeopteryx.
• reptiles evolving to become mammals.
(“Archae”= ancient, “pteryx”= wing) • ferns evolving to become cone-bearing plants.
• lobe-finned fish evolving into amphibians.
Actual Fossil Reconstruction
(about 6 have been ...and many more, including fossils of our own
discovered) probable ancestors, some of whom were ape-like,
but undoubtably human-like too!

Bony tail
Bony jaw covered in
with teeth feathers

Clawed wings

It is very unlikely that Archaeopteryx could fly like a modern bird. It may have climbed
trees & glided down on insect & lizard prey

Biogeography (how life is distributed) Evolution explains why. On each separate

continent different animals have evolved to fill
When Charles Darwin travelled around the world on board the “large grazing herbivore” role. In each
HMS Beagle in the 1830’s, it was the distribution of place evolution began from an ancestor quite
different types of life in different places that first gave him different to that on other continents.
the idea for Evolution.
North America. Another aspect of
He noticed that Cattle-related & deer Biogeography was
each continent seen by Darwin on a
had its own much smaller scale in
characteristic the Galapagos Islands.
plants & He discovered that the
Original illustration from
animals, often islands were populated Darwin’s journal
showing similar OZ by many different
features marsupials species of small birds... finches. Although all
although often were obviously related to each other, each
not closely separate island had its own particular species.
Sth America.
related to each Camel-related
other. Why?
For example,
each continent The explanation is:
has Africa. Horses • the islands were first colonised by one type of
characteristic & antelope finch which spread to all of the islands in the
grazing group.
mammals:
• on each separate island conditions were
All these mammals are relatively large, fast-running, different (eg different foods available) so each
with flat, grinding teeth, and all lead pretty much the same population evolved in a different way, into a
lifestyle. So why is there not just one type of large grazer different species.
in the world, living on every continent?

BIOGEOGRAPHY doesn’t prove Evolution has occurred, but many facts about the
distribution of organisms are best explained by Evolution
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Comparative Embryology
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If the embryos of various vertebrate animals are Some Vertebrate Embryos...
compared, it is found that they are remarkably
similar, even though they later develop into
quite different animals.

Why should they be so similar when they

grow up to be very different animals? Why
should (for example) a human embryo have a
tail and gill arches like a fish?
Evolution explains this as the result of all these ...and
animals evolving from a common ancestor which had what they develop into
an embryo like this.

Comparative Anatomy
When the body structures of different 1 bone in
organisms are compared, it is often obvious upper arm Not
that they share common features, even though to
those body parts might be used in different same
2 bones scale
ways. in forearm

The classic example of this is the Pentadactyl 5 sets

Limb structure of the vertebrate animals of finger
bones
Human Whale Bat
Each limb is used in very different ways by arm flipper wing
animals that have very different lifestyles, yet
(“Penta”= 5, “dactyl”=fingers)
all have exactly the same basic arrangement of
bones. Why?

Once again, these are FACTS that are consistent with, and easily explained by, the
concept of EVOLUTION.

Evolution explains this as the result of all these animals evolving from a
common ancestor which had this bone structure.

Biochemistry
All the life-forms on Earth have remarkable similarities at the
molecular level. All organisms have basically the same:

• genetic code in their DNA.

• enzymes used for basic metabolic processes, such as cellular
respiration.
• structural chemicals in their basic cell structure, such as the
phospholipids in membranes.
WHY SHOULD ALL ORGANISMS HAVE THE SAME STRUCTURES AND CODES IN THEIR DNA?
Once again, this doesn’t prove that evolution occurred, but it is consistent with the idea
that life on Earth has evolved from common ancestors who had these biochemical features.
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Selective Breeding
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People wonder how one organism can just “turn-into” another by evolution.
Well, no individual animal evolves at all. The changes occur from one
generation to another, as certain features are “selected” in favour of others.

Humans have been doing it deliberately to plants & animals for millenia.
Human farmers have always chosen which seeds to keep for next year’s crop, or All the different breeds of dogs
which bull to breed with the cows. are descended from the wolf.

This has drastically changed all these plants and animals. Modern wheat is nothing
Try Worksheet 1
like the wild grass we believe it was bred from. Cabbages and cauliflowers used to be the same thing, but have
been changed by selective breeding. Our favourite pets have all been drastically changed since the time of their
original wild ancestors.

Selective Breeding proves that a species can be changed.

Humans can do it artificially, in the wild it happens by “Natural Selection”

Technologies That Help Us Gather the Evidence

Radiometric Dating The time it takes for the
ere radiation to drop to half
This is one of the key technologies in our search from h the previous level is
for an understanding of the evolution of life on 100 constant.
Earth. It is the method that allows us to measure This is the “Half-life”.
the age of rocks & fossils.

The atoms of each chemical element are not all

RADIATION LEVEL

re

exactly the same. They have the same number of

he

protons & electrons (that’s what makes them that 50

to

element), but the number of neutrons in the atom

can vary. Atoms of the same element, but with a to here
different number of neutrons, are called “isotopes”. 25
Some isotopes are “radio-active” and give off
nuclear radiations... hence “radio-isotopes”.
0 TIME
These were covered briefly in Module 1 in relation
half-life half-life
to how we use the “tracer technique” to unravel cell half-life
functions & chemical pathways.
Radio-isotopes “decay” at a predictable rate.
By measuring the amount of radiation present now, That is, the level of radiation dies down over time
and knowing the “half-life” of the isotope, the age of in an exact mathematical way.
objects can be calculated.
Carbon-14 is not much use beyond about 40,000
years, but there are other isotopes (e.g. potassium
The most famous example is “Carbon Dating” which
and uranium) with half-lives of many millions of
uses an isotope of carbon (called “carbon-14”) to
years. These can measure the ages of fossils and
find the age of artifacts from human history.
rocks which formed millions, or even billions of
years ago.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,700 yrs, so if a
bone or wooden tool is measured to have only 1/4
as much radiation as it would have had originally, “Radiometric Dating” is how we know the age of
then 2 half-lives have gone by since that bone or the Earth, of different fossils etc, and can describe
tree died... therefore, it must be 11,400 years old. the entire history of life on Earth fairly precisely.

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® Technologies That Help Us Gather the Evidence (cont.)

keep it simple science
The Electron Microscope
This device was described in Module 1 as having a major
impact on our understanding of cells and cell structures.
Electron microscopes can also allow scientists to study
ancient fossil cells in rocks and to make comparisons with
some types of “primitive” cells which still live today. This
gives us further clues about how ancient life-forms lived and
evolved.

Some deep ocean sediments are millions of years old and μm

10μ
contain “micro-fossils” which can be identified with an
electron microscope. This leads to an understanding of not Micro-fossils from deep ocean sediment.
Electron Microscope photo by Hannes Grobe.
only ancient creatures, but gives clues about past climates. Used under CCA 3.0 Unported Licence

Biochemical Analysis & DNA Technology

It’s well known from TV crime dramas that by Simplified “Tree of Life”
analysing traces of DNA from a crime scene, a
This diagram shows the major “branches” of life, as
criminal can be positively identified.
revealed by the study of cell chemicals, DNA
sequences and biochemical pathways within different
The technique is also used to identify the remains
types of living things today.
of victims of war or natural disasters. By comparing
DNA samples from human remains with samples Animals Fungi
from the relatives of missing people, scientists can
positively determine which family the victim is from. Plants
Protists
The same technique can be used to find the
“relatedness” of different living things, and even
give estimates of how long ago 2 related types
divided from each other, in an
Archaea Eukaryotic
evolutionary sense. Bacteria Life
For example, DNA studies suggest This shows that there are now
strongly that humans and chimpanzees considered to be three major
are closely related; our DNA is 99% identical. “Domains” (or types)
of life on Earth.
Our ancestors and chimp ancestors must have
separated only about 5 million years ago. We’re Last Common Ancestor
pretty certain about this, even though fossil “proof” (of all modern life forms)
has not been discovered
yet. (To be fair, we DO
have many fossils of
our primitive ancestors
& various “ape-man
cousins” which First Living Things
support this idea.)

More generally, biochemistry and DNA studies have This complements the evidence of the fossil record,
shown: to give us a clearer picture of the exact sequence of
evolution.
• that all life forms on Earth are related.
This means that all living things today evolved It also shows that all life today is related, because every
from one original type. type has evolved from a common ancestor. This
common ancestor was not necessarily the very first life
• which types are more closely, or more distantly, form, but just one of an unknown number of primitive
related. types which lived more than 3 billion years ago.

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keep it simple science

2. The Theory of Evolution
The previous section presented an outline of the observed “Facts of Evolution”. The many thousands of
gathered observations & measurements made over the last 200 years or so, leave no doubt that
life on Earth has changed and evolved over billions of years.
Now we come to the explanation of how & why that has occurred... the “Theory of Evolution”. Like all scientific
theories (eg Atomic Theory, Relativity, Plate Tectonics, Quantum Theory, etc.) the explanation of the evolution of
life is NOT just an hypothesis; it is NOT just an “unproven idea”.
It is a coherent, internally-consistent explanation for the observed facts. Like all scientific theories, it is
subject to “falsification” and because it was very controversial for many years, Evolution has been
subjected to greater scrutiny, and more attempts to disprove it than perhaps any other theory in Science.
Over 150 years after being first proposed, the Theory of Evolution has not only survived,
but has become more powerful.
You are about to study THE major idea which under-pins every aspect of modern Biology! Learn well !

Origins of a Theory Charles

Darwin
Darwin & Wallace
In the 1830’s a young naturalist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), voyaged around the
world on the naval survey ship HMS Beagle. He became convinced that living things
had changed over time, and spent the next 20 years researching, gathering evidence
and developing the “how” of a theory to explain evolution.
Meanwhile, another Englishman, Alfred Wallace (1823-1913) came up with exactly the
same idea after his journeys in the 1840’s and 1850’s. We often give Darwin most of
the credit for this major scientific theory, but Wallace’s contribution should not be
forgotten.

In 1859 they jointly published an outline of their theory, and Darwin followed up with his detailed book
“Origin of Species” about 2 years later. In it, he presented many pieces of evidence. Since then, many more
have been added.

The Darwin-Wallace Theory of Evolution

You need to learn the details of this theory. This is best done as a series of numbered points.

1.
All organisms produce 3.
more offspring than can Nature selects which
possibly survive. individuals survive.
Plants scatter thousands of seeds This is called “Natural 5.
and maybe only one ever makes it to Selection”. Over generations,
plant maturity. Oysters produce a It is explained in more detail the species
on the next page.
million eggs at a time, but only 1 or 2 changes... it
survive. In all species, the breeding evolves.
rate is far higher than
the survival rate. Each generation is
slightly different than the
one before, because only
4. some, selected
individuals have bred and
2. Those best suited to passed on their
In every species there is their environment characteristics.
variation among the survive, reproduce,
individuals. and pass on their
Each animal or plant is slightly
characteristics.
different to the other members of the This is called “Survival of the
species. The differences may be Fittest”, and it will be discussed
slight, and might not be easily in more detail soon.
visible, but they’re important!

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Natural Selection How Evolution Works
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A population of a species with a lot of “variations”
“Natural Selection” refers to the way that the
conditions of nature constantly select who survives
and who dies. If survival depends on speed to run
from a predator, then the faster individuals survive,
and the slower ones get eaten. In a drought those hairy long long light big squat
plants with slightly thicker cuticle on their leaves neck legs colour ears body
conserve water and survive, while others die.
What Factors Help Survival? Then, the climate changes... winters get colder
Anything might help survival under different conditions...
Natural Many die in the harsh winters
• a stronger immune system survives diseases. Selection
• being more inquisitive might find more food.
• more timid behaviour might avoid dangers.
• bright coloured flowers might attract more pollinators.
hairy survives Squat survives
• larger body size might deter predators.
• being smaller may be better to hide from predators
Survival Survivors breed
It may seem as if “Evolution” is an intelligent force over many generations
which directs organisms in a an appropriate direction. In
of the
our fictitious population of animals, (at right) the climate “Fittest”
became colder and it would seem that some evolutionary
force caused an appropriate change in the population...
the animals became squat & hairy to conserve body heat
better. The survivors pass on their characteristics.
Generations later, most of the population are squat & hairy.
No single animal changed, but the population has changed
But of course “squat” and “hairy” were already in the
because of which animals survived & reproduced.
population. Their type simply became more common, and
finally predominant, because they survived in greater The Species has Evolved.
numbers and reproduced to pass on their characteristics Eventually it changes so much that it becomes a
to their offspring. different species.

“Survival of the Fittest”

What is Meant by the “Fittest”? ...and “Survival”?
In evolutionary terms, the “fittest” refers to “Survival” does not just mean
those individuals who have some to stay alive! The biggest
characteristic(s) which suit the environment in toughest animal in the herd,
some way and give them a better chance to who scares predators away,
survive. gets to eat most of the food and
lives to a ripe old age, is a
In modern Biology these advantageous complete evolutionary failure if
characteristics are called “adaptations” and it does not reproduce!
will be studied in more detail later in this
module. In evolutionary terms “Survival”
means to survive long enough
“Fittest” refers to those individuals with a to reproduce.
combination of characteristics best suited to
their environment. It doesn’t just mean biggest, Reproduction is the true measure of “survival”.
fastest, strongest... those best suited to some
environments might be the smallest, sneakiest, An animal which does not live long, but manages to
most cautious types... or the most charming & produce many, viable offspring is an evolutionary
socially acceptable. success!
The Importance of Variation
It is vital for the on-going survival of a species that it has variation among the individuals of the population.
When changes occur in the environment, a species with a lot of variation has more chance to survive,
because out of all the different “types” there is a good chance that at least some will survive to breed &
continue the species. A species with little variation within it, might have no survivors from an environmental
change, and become extinct.

What constitutes an environmental change? It could be...

• a change of climate. • a new disease, predator or competitor. • a change in availability of a food.
...or any other biotic or abiotic factor of the environment.
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Divergent Evolution (“Diverge” = move apart) & “Speciation”
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Many New Species
Rember Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos After a Mass Extinction
Islands? The fossil record shows that that there have been at
Ancestral Finch least 6 “mass extinctions” in the past when 50% (or
From one more) of all the living things on Earth were wiped
ancestral out by a sudden environmental change.
species of
finch over a After every mass extinction in the past, life has
dozen Island 1 always “bounced back” with even greater variety of
Island 2 Island 3
different species than before. Survivors evolve rapidly into
species evolved on the islands in the many different new types simultaneously... new
group. Once a population of finches colonised a types “radiate” from a few “source” species.
new island they were isolated from other
populations. Movement of birds between islands After the Permian Extinction
must have been a rare event, and each population About 250 My BP (Mega years (millions) Before Present),
was effectively cut off from other populations. over 90% of life was wiped out by sudden, massive climate
changes. The reptiles had first evolved some 50 million
On each island conditions were different... years before the mass extinction, but were relatively
different foods were available, different unimportant in a world dominated by amphibians on land
conditions of water supply, shelter, nesting sites, and fish in the oceans.
predators and so on. Natural selection caused
each population to evolve along a different path Within 20 million years after the great extinction, the
until they became different species... they had reptiles had evolved into many new types and “taken
diverged to create multiple species from one! over” many vacant ecological niches.

Now, even if they mixed together again, they Most famous, of course, were the many dinosaurs,
could not interbreed because their mating rituals, but also notable were the pterosaurs (flying
sperm & egg cells and DNA have changed to reptiles), and 2 families of swimming reptiles, the
become incompatible. They are forever separate. ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, who went on to
This is how we think all species have arisen from dominate the oceans, just as the dinosaurs
common ancestors over millions of years. dominated the land for the next 180 million years.
How One Species Evolves into 2, or More
This species of animals has spread out widely They are all one species, but have
across a continent. many variations among the
individuals.

Over thousands of years, volcanic

eruptions and earth movements enlarge The species becomes divided into 2 groups
the mountain range. which are isolated from each other and rarely
meet or inter-breed.

In this region the winters have become cold. In this region a new predator has migrated in.
“Squat” and “hairy” have a survival advantage. Big ears hear it coming; long legs run away faster;
Natural Selection weeds out those “less fit”. lighter colour is better camouflage.
A different set of variations are “fittest” here.

As always, the survivors breed. The “survival traits” become predominant in

each region over a number of generations.

Over generations, the animals in the 2 regions evolve to be quite different.

Eventually they become unable to interbreed, even if they get the chance. They are now 2 different species.
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More on Divergent Evolution & “Speciation”
keep it simple science
Note that without isolation, a species may still evolve & change into a new form when conditions change.
However, for multiple species to evolve from one, it is essential that different groups are isolated from each
other. Divergent Evolution & “Speciation” relies on isolation.
Be aware that for some creatures (eg worms) a paved roadway can be a barrier which can isolate
2 populations. Cleared farmland can be a barrier which isolates different groups of forest-living animals.

In early 2018, a press release on Is There a Target?

research in Brisbane revealed that It is easy to imagine that evolution has a “target” that it aims for.
the “water-dragon” lizards may be Some people believe that humans are the final, ultimate product of
evolving into different “sub-species” evolution.
in different parts of Brisbane. The
lizards live in parks & wetlands, but Looking back at fossil ancestors of a modern species, it’s easy to
in a city each local population is think that those ancestors were deliberately evolving to become
isolated from the others & faces the modern, “final” species. Of course, the modern species is NOT
slightly different “selection the final outcome at all. Evolution has no targets. It is an on-going
pressures”. process which continues to cause changes.
Genetic studies show that these
groups are diverging. The effect of In 100 million years time, the fossils of today’s creatures will seem
isolation is the key to this. very primitive.
Of course, by then it won’t be us humans doing the study!

This module set out to investigate the link between Biodiversity & Evolution.
We hope you just found that link!

Convergent Evolution (“Converge” = come together)

If totally different organisms live in the same kind of environment and lead similar
lifestyles they will be subject to the same sorts of “Selection Pressures” and evolve
many of the same features, so they may come to resemble each other even though
not closely related at all.

A classic example is the shark (a fish), dolphin (a mammal) and the extinct
ichthyosaurus (a reptile).

All 3 animals are (were) fast-swimming fish-hunters of the ocean. All evolved the
same streamlined shape, powerful tail, dorsal fin and sharp teeth to suit this
lifestyle. The resemblance is superficial, and they are very different in the
details of body structure and metabolism. For example, the shark is a gill-
breathing ectotherm (“cold blooded”), while the dolphin is a lung-breathing
endotherm (“warm blooded”).

Another example of this “convergent evolution” involves the eye of vertebrates

compared to the eye of the squid & octopus group. Although not at all closely related, (octopus are related
to snails) the eyeball of an octopus seems remarkably similar to yours, although when studied carefully the
actual structures and embrionic development are very different in detail.

These “similar but different” eyes seem to be the result of convergent evolution. The
Physics of optics dictates that if you want to form a clear image with light rays, then
you need a sealed container (eyeball) with a small aperture (pupil), a lens to focus
the light rays and a light-sensitive receptor (retina). Our vertebrate ancestors and
the octopus must have independently evolved the same sort of optical solution.
(Insects and others evolved totally diffent eyes, with different optics which cannot
form single, clear images as we can.)
Try Worksheet 2
Other examples of convergent evolution involve different types of plant fruits, and
many superficial similarities between unrelated (or only distantly related) species
which lead similar lifestyles. Example: the (extinct) marsupial Thylacine (“Tasmanian
Tiger”) had many similarities to the fox or wolf. Having a similar lifestyle results in
Natural Selection “choosing” similar survival characteristics. This leads to the evolution of similar-looking
adaptations.

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Observing Natural Selection Occurring
keep it simple science Environments can change in many different ways. For example, we know that ice-ages
come and go, and climates change as the continents gradually “drift” to new locations.
Any change in an environment will result in Natural Selection picking out different characteristics for survival
and the species will evolve in line with the environmental change. Sometimes it is possible to observe small
evolutionary changes in a population when the environment is altered in some way.
This is sometimes called “micro-evolution”. In modern studies, DNA technologies allow the genetic changes
to the population to be accurately measured.

Case Study: English Pepper Moth In unpolluted Lighter-coloured

forests, the moths survive and
A classic example of “micro-evolution” is the breed in greater
change in the population of the English Pepper lighter-coloured
moths are numbers
Moth which has been studied and documented
over the past hundred years. camouflaged...
They are “fittest”
This moth always rests during the day on tree for survival and
trunks, which in natural forests, are mostly breeding.
covered in light-patterned lichens. Under these Population ratio.
conditions the light “peppery” moths are the The black form is
Predators spot the black rare.
most common form, although occasional black moths more easily
moths occur.
In polluted
During the coal-burning phase of the Industrial forests, the Black moths
Revolution many forests were damaged by dark-coloured survive and
pollution. The lichens were killed and tree trunks moths are breed in greater
blackened with soot. better numbers
camouflaged...
It was observed that the Pepper Moth population They are
changed in the proportion of peppery to black “fittest” for
types. survival and
breeding.
Population ratio.
Now that industrial pollution has been stopped, The lighter form
the moths have evolved back to being mostly of Predators spot the lighter is rare.
the lighter-coloured type. moths more easily

Resistance to Antibiotics
One of the great advances for human health in the 20th century was the discovery
of antibiotic medicines. The first of these, Penicillin, revolutionised the treatment of
a variety of infectious diseases. In combination with programs of mass
immunisation, antibiotics helped eliminate the frequent epidemics of disease which
had occurred throughout human history. Antibiotics have saved countless lives!

However, as early as the 1950’s some disease germs began to show resistance to
Penicillin. At the time there were many other antibiotic drugs being developed, so if one didn’t work the doctors could
try another.
But how could these bacteria become resistant? Simple! Another case of micro-evolution.
Among the billions of individual bacteria there were always a few with some degree of resistance to the drug. If the drug
was used correctly, all the disease germs in the sick person would probably be wiped out; no problem. However, there
have been many cases of incorrect and unwise usage. (see below)

In such cases, some of the bacteria with resistance to the antibiotic survive the treatment. The drug has acted as a
“selecting agent” for evolution by killing all the non-resistant bacteria, but leaving resistant bacteria alive. After the
treatment stops the survivors breed. The next generation of those bacteria contains many more resistant types. These
can spread through the environment and later cause infections in more victims. Next time, the antiobiotics don’t work
so well. There are now some disease germs resistant to multiple antibiotics.

Mis-Use of Antibiotics
1. In some countries antiobiotics can be purchased “over the counter” & used without medical supervision. Poor &
uneducated people often use the drugs incorrectly by stopping the treatment as soon as the patient feels better. This
leaves “resistant bugs” alive to breed & evolve.

2. Intensive farming of pigs & chickens runs the risk of disease epidemics. It was discovered decades ago that adding
low levels of antibiotics to their feed reduces the risk & achieves faster growth rates. However, the low-levels of
antibiotic also act as a “selection agent” promoting the micro-evolution of resistant bacteria. These have spread
through the environment and are now a threat to vulnerable people world-wide.

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Micro-Evolution (cont.)
keep it simple science Spread of the Cane Toad
Australia has some serious ecological problems with introduced
species. One of the worst is the cane toad. This toxic frog kills any
wildlife which tries to eat it and it breeds prolifically.

Because it is generally slow-moving, the spread of the pest from tropical

Cane toads in a
QLD was always predicted to be very slow. Studies in the 1960’s
revealed an average rate of spread of about 6km per year. QLD back yard

However, the species has now invaded into NT and threatens the famous Kakadu environment. A study
published in 2006 revealed that the average rate of spread is now over 30km per year. The reason for this is
micro-evolution. The toads at the front of the invasion are larger & have longer legs. They move faster &
more frequently.

Those toads which enter new territory tend to be the fastest & have a survival advantage in terms of food
availability. And guess what? Their available mates are also big, fast & long-legged. So their offspring
inherit these traits. The species is evolving! This is called the “Olympic Village Effect”. Discuss.

The Pace of Evolution

“Gradualism” Model “Punctuated Equilibrium”
Charles Darwin, who developed the Theory of Many scientists now believe the sudden apparent
Evolution by Natural Selection, always believed “explosions” of new species are real.
that evolution was a slow, steady, gradual process.
Recent studies on living EVOLUTION by
In modern terms, he imagined that a steady species show that PUNCTUATED
accumulation of “micro-evolution” changes would Natural Selection can
occur very rapidly.
EQUILIBRIUM
result in new species
forming over 500,000
EVOLUTION by generations or more.

STABLE
Also, the times in the

AGAIN
GRADUALISM fossil record can now be
He suggested that the only measured more
reason the fossil record accurately. This shows
seemed to show the sudden that in some cases
appearance of new species “sudden explosions”
SLOW, STEADY CHANGES OVER A LONG TIME

was because fossils give a really did happen quite

terribly incomplete and quickly.
patchy account of myriad
tiny changes. The “Punctuated
Equilibrium” model
In reality, said Darwin, the proposes that many
actual changes to living species remain the same ...THEN A
things were the slow and (more or less) for RAPID
perhaps millions of
NO CHANGE...

gradual accumulation of BURST

years. Then, in response
small changes over perhaps
to some change in the
OF
millions of years. environment, the species CHANGES
can undergo a rapid
It looks like sudden burst of changes over
changes have occurred (perhaps) just 100 or
because we only get a 1,000 generations rather
“glimpse” now and then, than millions.
due to discovering a fossil
that dates from 1000’s of The changes occur due
generations after discovery to Natural Selection in an environment that has
of an earlier fossil. changed dramatically, perhaps following a mass
extinction event.
Which of these models is correct? Well, perhaps both of them can occur!
The scientific studies to observe micro-evolution have discovered some very rapid (small) changes to a
population by Natural Selection. However, we have not yet observed the evolution of any new species.
We believe the Theory of Evolution is basically correct, but many details remain unknown.

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Case study: Evolution of the Horse
keep it simple science
It’s all very well to demonstrate cases of “micro-evolution”, but have we ever seen a
complete species change? Well no, not in real time. However, there are some cases where
we have discovered such a range of fossil stages that we can be fairly certain about the
evolutionary pathway of a particular species. The best known is the horse.
Thousands of fossils of horse ancestors & “cousins” have
been discovered & studied. The following sequence of
known fossils is often presented as being a true, linear
“family tree”, but we cannot be 100% sure of that. It gives
Equus
Mesohippus an idea of the general trend, but should not be taken to be
perfectly correct.

The modern horse family includes donkeys, zebras & one

species of “true” wild horse. (Most “wild horses” are feral
domestic animals known as brumbies or mustangs.) The nearest
Eohippus living relatives of horses are the tapirs & rhinoceroses.

Artistic reconstruction of a modern (wild) The reconstruction

horse surrounded by some of its probable at right shows
ancestors. Art by Hendrich Harder. Phenacodus, a likely
ancestor of both horses and rhinoceroses. About the size of a sheep,
it lived in Europe about 55 My BP.
From 52 My BP in Nth America we
have fossils of Eohippus (“dawn
horse”). It was the size of a small dog Art by Hendrich Harder.
with teeth suggesting it was a forest browser of leaves & fruits. Its feet had 5
toes, 4 of which had a hoof-like toenail. (The “thumb” did not touch the
ground.) The abundant fossils of Eohippus span over 10 million years with
little apparent change.

We believe that about 35 My BP the climate of North America began to get drier.
This caused a gradual shift from forests to open grasslands. In response,
Eohippus reconstruction by Natural Selection favoured larger teeth to eat tough grass and a taller, faster
Charles Knight build with good running ability to see & escape from predators in open country.

Suddenly, (Punctuated Equilibrium?) a new type appeared in the

fossil record... Mesohippus (“middle horse”). It ran on only 3
hoofed toes, had a longer neck & larger grinding teeth. By about 30
My BP Mesohippus was one of the most abundant mammals in
North America.

The climate continued to become drier & cooler. A new, larger

animal called Miohippus appeared in the fossil record and soon
afterwards (about 25 My BP) the fossils of Mesohippus disappear. Art by Hendrich Harder.

Miohippus thrived, spread widely & diversified into several different species. One of these, Merychippus,
flourished. It had bigger grinding teeth, stood 1m tall and ran mainly on the hoof of its large middle toe. By
about 15 My BP it had radiated into about 20 different species. Several of these are possible candidates to
be the direct ancestor of modern horses.

Hipparion (12 My BP) spread across Nth America, Asia & Europe, while Pliohippus (10-5 My BP) was once
thought to be the definite ancestor (but not any more). Both these were as large as a pony and clearly
recognisable as “horses”. With massive grinding teeth, they ran on their middle toe hoof, although other
vestigial toes were still visible on each side.

The earliest fossils of a member of the modern horse group Equus, date back 3.5 My BP from Idaho, USA.
However, DNA studies suggest that the most recent common ancestor of all living equines lived several
million years earlier than that.

It seems we still have some missing fossils to search for to clarify the precise line of descent.

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Case study: Evolution of the Platypus
keep it simple science
Whereas the evolution of the horse can be traced by a multitude of fossils, the story of the
platypus has virtually no fossil evidence available so far. Instead, we must rely on
evidence from DNA technology & general inferences derived from the
abundant fossil evidence of related animal groups.
Evolution of Mammals The platypus belongs to a mammal
The first mammals are thought to have begun evolving group called “Monotremes”. It has fur
& is “warm-blooded”, but lays eggs
from reptiles before the appearance of the dinosaurs. like a reptile. It has no nipples, but
About 260 My BP a group of “mammal-reptiles” called females “ooze” milk
Therapsids actually became one of the dominant animal from skin glands
types on the planet. Their dominance was cut short by on their belly.
the mass extinction event of 250My BP when over 90%
of all life-forms were wiped out. In the “Triassic
Takeover” which followed, an obscure group of reptiles
evolved rapidly & dominated most ecosystems for the
next 180 My... that was the Age of Dinosaurs.

During that time the mammals were minor players, but by no means rare. We have discovered
thousands of fossils & can trace the general evolutionary pathways.

From 190 My BP we have this little guy. Lizard shaped, but furry,
it probably laid eggs, but had mammal-type teeth & probably
was “warm-blooded”. Twenty-five million years later, his
descendants began a critical series of divergent evolutionary
by Nobu Tamura events. The following diagram summarises what we know in the
CCA 3.0
simplest possible way. (KISS Principle!)

Echidna
= extinct line First 40-20 My BP The family tree shows one
Monotremes
Platypus thing very clearly...
165 the platypus is NOT very
Ancestral My BP closely related to other living
Mammals
mammals.
Try Worksheet 3
Simplified Family Tree First
showing how the Platypus Marsupials
is related to other
First
mammals Placentals
100-90 Myr BP

Fossil Evidence for Platypus Evolution

From 110 My BP we have Steropodon at right, discovered in NSW. He by Nobu Tamura
CCA 3.0
looks a bit like a platypus, but is not considered a direct ancestor, but
a rather a “cousin”. Fossil remains have also been found in Argentina
which shows that the Monotreme group had spread across the ancient supercontinent Gondwana.

From QLD we have fossil remains from a giant (1.3m long) platypus species from about 10 My BP. After that
we get to fossils of modern-type platypus from just 100,000 yr BP. THAT’S ABOUT IT !

DNA Evidence This confirms what we already suspected... the

The platypus genome has been completely platypus’s line of evolution is very ancient (& very
sequenced & analysed. It shows: different) compared to other mammals. Early
Biologists considered it to be “primitive” and
• the platypus has many genes in common with both therefore, “inferior” in some way. Conversely, we
reptiles & birds. It even has some fish genes. now consider it a superb ancient survivor and a
great evolutionary success.
• that its ancestors must have split-off from the How long it can survive the human world is
ancestors of other mammals about 165 My BP. another story.

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keep it simple science

3. Adaptations
Ever notice how each living thing seems to “fit into” its natural environment? Each plant or animal has
special features which help it survive & thrive in its natural habitat & “way of life”... its biological “niche”.
These special features are called “adaptations”. By now you should realise that these
adaptations are the result of Natural Selection.
Structural Adaptations Physiological Adaptations
The most obvious type of adaptations are those which are Physiology is the study of how living things function.
part of an organism’s Physiological adaptations are those special functions of
body structure, such as the body which help the plant or animal survive in its
the thick fur on this niche.
american bear. This is a
structural adaptation Examples
which helps the bear • Freshwater fish constantly absorb water into their blood
survive the cold winters & tissues (via their gills) because of osmosis. Their
of its natural kidneys compensate by constantly excreting excess
environment. water as a dilute urine.
The shape of this cactus is
also a structural adaptation to • In contrast, many mammals, including red kangaroos,
suit its natural desert live in arid conditions & need to conserve water. Their
environment. By being thick & kidneys function differently & produce very small
chunky (some are almost amounts of concentrated urine.
spherical) it has a very small
SA/Vol ratio. This allows • Many arid environment plants are able to store carbon
maximum volume to store dioxide in their tissues. This allows them to open
water in special spongy stomates at night & “capture” CO2, then close stomates
tissues, while having minimum all day (reduces water loss) while using the stored CO2
surface area for water loss by for photosynthesis while the sun shines.
evaporation.
Its leaves have evolved into spikes with no stomates...
less transpiration, but also handy for repelling grazing
Behavioural Adaptations
are seen in animals only, where their inherited, instinctive
animals. behaviour helps them
In contrast, this rainforest survive. For example, the
native usually suffers no blue tongue lizard will
shortage of water. In fact, it “sunbake” on a cool
has a funnel shape with a morning to warm itself up
“drip-tip” so that heavy rain for the day’s activities. If it
will run off quickly without becomes too hot, it will
damage. Its problem is low seek a cool shady spot.
levels of light on the floor of
When observing animals for behavioural adaptations, you
a dense forest. need to be careful not to be mislead by learned
behaviours.
To compensate, its leaves are
huge to gather as much light Things that an animal learns during its life are NOT
as possible for adaptations which have evolved, although the intelligence
photosynthesis. Its leaf cells are packed with chloroplasts to allow learning might be considered a physiological
giving it a deep green colour. adaptation & the brain structure involved is a structural
one.
Ancestral v. Recent Adaptations
If you examine any living thing to identify A more sophisticated way to look at the magpie is to
some possible adaptations, you may need look at the special features of this species (which
to think beyond the obvious features. For make it a magpie instead of an eagle) and relate these
example, consider the common magpie. to its lifestyle. Theoretically, these “species-specific”
features may be adaptations which evolved much
The obvious features of this animal include more recently and help the magpie thrive in its
the wings which allow it to fly. While it is biological niche.
true that wings are a structural adaptation to
allow flight, this is a somewhat child-like For example, look at the size & shape of its beak. If
observation which simply identifies the you watch a magpie foraging for food, you may see
magpie as a member of the bird class. how that beak is a structural adaptation. What about the
magpie’s characteristic song? They all sound the same, so
Wings with feathers first evolved (we think) among perhaps this is an inherited, instinctive behaviour. (But beware
dinosaurs, so these are “ancestral adaptations” we of learning.) It may require some research into magpie society
expect to see in any bird... even some which do not & to think about WHY they sing, but the sort of question you
fly. These ancient adaptations are perhaps 200 need to ask yourself is: “if that song is a behavioural
million years old. adaptation, how does it help the magpies survive as a
species?”
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Prac Work on Adaptations
keep it simple science Look for adaptations of the plants
As part of your studies you will be & animals which help them cope
required to investigate & study the with those challenges.
adaptations of a wide range of
plants & animals. This might be Also bear in mind the ideas above.
It’s all very well to observe a
done by examining specimens in
periwinkle snail & identify its hard
the laboratory, or researching on shell as protection against
the internet, or by going on a field predators, waves & drying out.
trip, or all of these. However, a snail-animal’s shell is
an ancestral adaptation at least 500
If you live near the coast, a My old. You need to think more
favourite field trip is to study the Life in a rockpool carefully about how that particular
life-forms on a rock platform. animal is adapted.

Be aware that most of the living things on a rock For example, for many periwinkles their small size may be
important. Being small allows them to hide in cracks &
platform are sea creatures which have adapted to living
crevices where they remain moist & sheltered from the
in the tidal zone. The major challenges they face are: waves.

• drying out when exposed at low tide. Even if your prac. work is totally different to this, the ideas
• waves which could dislodge them. here might be a useful guide on how to approach your
• avoiding the predators lower down on the ocean floor. studies.

Darwin’s Observations of Adaptations

In the 1830’s when Charles Darwin travelled aboard HMS Beagle, he collected thousands of specimens & documented a
multitude of observations about plants & animals. Although he didn’t realise it until later, his fascination with the
“special features” of species and the differences he saw in related species in different places was
really all about the study of adaptations.
(For a modern reader with the hind-sight of Theory of Evolution, it is interesting to read his journal
“The Voyage of the Beagle”... in many places you can hear Darwin’s brain ticking over!)
The specimens & data he collected were later used as evidence in his development of his great theory.

The Galapagos Finches Darwin in Australia

One of Darwin’s most famous observations concerned the On its journey around the world, the Beagle called into
finches of the Galapagos Islands. In his journal he wrote: Sydney, and Darwin spent time ashore, travelling
“one might really fancy that... overland to Bathurst and collecting and studying
one species has been taken and modified for different ends.” Australia’s flora and fauna. He travelled in summer
(Jan.1836) during a prolonged drought. Overall, he was
He noted how the 13 species of finches were obviously NOT impressed.
closely related to each other, but each had a different size &
shape of beak. Later he was able to relate these differences to However, he noted how well suited the plants were to the
the different foods available in different habitats & islands on dry Australian climate. He was later to link this to his
which each species was found. idea of Natural Selection, explaining the plant
For example, the bird characteristics as adaptations to the climate.
illustrated as number 1,
relies on a diet containing He also noticed similarities between some Australian
hard seeds. In modern plants and species he had seen in S.America and in
words, we would say that its Africa. He could not explain this except by seeds
strong, heavy beak is an drifting across oceans, and he carried out many
adaptation to the foods experiments immersing plant seeds in sea-water to
available. This species test if it was possible. (He had no knowledge of Plate
evolved from the original, Tectonics & the movement of the continents.)
ancestral type, to “fit” better
to its habitat. He was fascinated by the marsupial fauna, but
considered them as “inferior” to the placental
Illustration 4 is a species which survives largely on catching mammals of other continents, and believed they had
small insects. Its beak has evolved into a shape similar to only survived because of lack of competition from
other (unrelated) insect-eaters... an example of convergent “real” mammals.
evolution.
In terms of evolution he believed the marsupials were
In all cases the adaptations of the species is the product of bound to lose the “Survival of the Fittest”
Natural Selection choosing which individuals in each competition and would eventually become extinct.
generation are “fittest”. Over many generations the species
evolved to become better suited to its niche by possession of Try Worksheet 4
suitable adaptations.

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4. Effects of Environment on Organisms

®

keep it simple science

The diversity & abundance of any species within an ecosystem depends on a whole host of factors...

Biotic Factors Abiotic Factors

(“biotic” = living) The impacts of (non-living)
examples... these factors is Availability of water
covered in more
Food organisms detail in the next Availability of oxygen
Predators module.
Light intensity
Disease organisms Temperature range
Competitors Soil characteristics ...and many more.
Any, or all of these factors can affect the abundance (population size) of a species.
For example, an abundant food supply may lead to population increase due to more successful raising of
young. Conversely, an increase in predation, or a disease epidemic can “crash” a population,
or even cause extinction.

Environmental factors may also place a species under “selection pressure”. If a species is being
“challenged” by any environmental factor, that factor may become the reason for individuals surviving &
breeding, or not. Those with some slight advantage for survival have an increased chance of breeding &
passing on their genes for “fitness characteristics”. Over generations, more & more individuals within a
population will be found to have those features which may now be called “adaptations”.

To finish this module, we will look briefly at both situations by way of Australian examples.

Case Study: Prickly Pear

“Prickly Pear” cactus is a Prickly Pear infested with In 1925 the cactoblastis moth was
cactoblastis larvae.
native of arid areas from Image by Ignacio Baez, USDA introduced from Argentina to control
Mexico to Argentina. It was the prickly pear. The moth larvae eat
introduced to Australia in 1788 into the fleshy leaves so they collapse
(and several times later) to & the plants die & rapidly rot.
establish a dye industry, as
food for cattle during drought The moth spread quickly & by the
and as an ornamental & hedge 1930's the insects had dramatically
plant. reduced the Prickly Pear population.
The moth population also fell to a low
Native animals, such as emus, level as its food supply had been
ate the fruit & seeds. Their reduced. Today, only small isolated
droppings spread the seed populations of prickly pear and small
which grew well in Australian numbers of cactoblastis moths exist.
conditions. The plant is
drought tolerant & well-suited The 2 populations are in “equilibrium”
to the climate. & each controls the other.

By the 1920’s over 200,000 km2 of land were This is an example of how a biotic factor can
infested, mainly in NSW & QLD. Chopping it cause a change in abundance.
out was useless because pieces of the plant
can grow by putting down roots wherever they It is also an example of a successful
fall on the soil. Large areas of pasture were “biological control” where one living thing is
eventually abandoned as the prickly pear took used to control a “pest” species.
over.
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Case Study 2: Cane Toad
keep it simple science
If the story of the Prickly
Why it became a Pest Pear is about the success of
a biological control
program, then the Cane
Cane Toad Toad story is about a
terrible failure of an attempt
at biological control.
Climate Distribution
Native of tropical Sth America
(Introduced via Hawaii) History of Introduction
Cane toads were introduced to Queensland in 1935 to
control an infestation of two species of beetles which
Habitat had been attacking sugar cane crops.
Thrives in warm, moist coastal
areas. The cane toads originally came from South America,
but were brought from Hawaii where they were being
trialled as a biological control for the cane beetle. The
Food Resources toads had little effect on the beetles, which were later
Will eat anything that will fit in its
controlled by a pesticide.
mouth!
Environmental Impacts
Absence of Predators Cane Toads have serious impacts by reducing
Toxins in skin kill or repel almost biodiversity in natural ecosystems. They have no
all predators. natural predators in Australia, and their skin toxin kills
native predators that normally eat frogs.
Reproduction For example, the decline in numbers of snakes,
Each female lays up to 30,000 eggs goannas and quolls in Kakadu National Park has been
per month. Tadpoles develop linked to the arrival of Cane Toads there.
rapidly.
As the adundance & distribution of the toads
increases, the abundance of some other species
Dispersal declines. This is a typical pattern when biotic factors,
Not highly mobile, but “population
such as competition and/or predation, change.
pressure” can extend range by 5-30
km per year.
The toads thrive in many habitats (including urban
areas) and their huge appetite for anything they can fit in their mouth is a threat to many native
insects and amphibians. Many species of native frogs are threatened by predation and
competition for breeding sites. They have been declared a “Key Threatening Species” by
environmental authorities.

Evolution
Earlier in this module, evidence was presented about “micro-evolution” occurring among those
cane toads which are leading the spread of the toads’ distribution. Revise if necessary.

On a more positive note, there is also evidence that some native species are changing behaviours
to cope better with the toad menace. Some predatory birds have learnt to safely kill & eat parts of
a toad while avoiding the toxic glands in the skin. Try Worksheet 5
Some species of snakes & re-introduced quolls are now avoiding the toads & their populatons are
increasing slowly. These changes in other species should NOT be assumed to be due to Natural
Selection... they may be due to learning, although snake-learning doesn’t seem very likely!

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