Conjunction Rules in English Grammar PDF
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Conjunction is a word or a group of words which connects two or more than two words, phrases,
clauses, sentences etc.
Types of Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction joins together clauses of the same parts of the speech i.e. adverb-adverb,
noun-noun, adjective-adjective. E.g. He came to meet me, but I was not at home.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning.
E.g. Since I was busy, I could not call you up.
Conjunction Rules:
Rule 1
The conjunction both is followed by and
E.g. He is both intelligent and hard working.
Rule 2
The conjunction so....as / as....as is used to make comparison between two persons and things.
so as is used in negative sentences.
E.g. He is not so good as you.
But as....as is used in both affirmative and negative sentences
E.g. He is as good as you.
He is not as good as you.
Rule 3
Although/ Though is followed by yet or a comma(,)
E.g. Though he worked hard, he failed.
Although these books are costly yet the students buy them because these are useful.
Rule 4
Always use the correct pair
No sooner........than
Hardly.... when or before
Scarcely.... when or before
Barely.... when or before
E.g. No sooner had he solved the riddle than he was applauded.
Hardly had I come out of the room
before I saw him dying.
Scarcely had he asked the question
when Agnes slapped him.
Barely had he bought the car before it was stolen.
Hardly, scarcely, and barely are negative words. Do not use not, no, never with the clause containing
these words.If a sentences starts with a negative word, use inversion form i.e. helping verb before the
subject.
Rule 5
Lest is followed by should or first from of verb. Lest is a negative word. Do not use not, never, no with
lest.
E.g. Walk carefully lest he should fall.
Walk carefully lest he fall.
Rule 6
Until is time oriented and unless is action oriented. Until and unless are negative words.
Do not use not, never , no, with the clause containing these words.
E.g. Wait here until I return.
Unless you work hard, you will not pass.
Rule 7
In affirmative sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by if/ whether. In negative or interrogative
sentences doubt and doubtful are followed by that.
E.g. I doubt if he will come.
I do not doubt that he will come.
Rule 8
Always use the correct pair not only....but also.
E.g. He cheated not only his friends but also his parents.
Rule 9
Between is followed by and from is followed by to.
E.g. You will have to choose between good and bad.
She keeps singing from morning to evening.
Rule 10
Neither of means none of the two. when more than two person or things are present none of is used.
Either of means one of the two. when more than two person or things are present one of is used.
E.g. None of his friends helped him.
One of the students of your class is responsible for this loss.
Rule 11
Do not use seldom or ever in place of seldom or never.
E.g. The national network seldom or never telecasts good programmers.
Rule 12
After rather /other, the subordinating conjunction than should be used.
E.g. He has no other object than to get a handsome job.
I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle.
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D Y PATIL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
2021 - 2022
What does summary writing involve?
Summaries come in different forms. You may have to:
- Read one lengthy passage and summarise points related to a particular aspect or
aspects of it which occur throughout the passage.
- Read two lengthy passages and summarise all the points relating to a particular
aspect or aspects of them.
- No matter what form the question takes, the basic principles of summary writing
remain the same.
What is important is that you show evidence that you:
- Have understood what you have read
- Can select relevant information
- Can show your understanding of what you have read through using your own
words where possible and in a shorter form than in the original.
Remember
You will never be asked to summarise a passage unless it is possible to do so, by using fewer words than
were in the original!
Some practical guidelines -
Whatever level of examination you take, your summary writing can be improved if
you keep the following points clearly in your mind.
1 - Summary writing needs good planning and cannot be rushed.
2 - Most examination questions will give a clear indication of the number of words
that you should aim to write, for example, ‘You should write between 200–250
words.’
As you can see, the writing itself will not take very long; the most important part of
the process is deciding what to include and what should not be included – that’s
why your active reading skills are essential.
3 - It is important to organise your time efficiently when answering a summary task and, as part
of your preparation for an examination, you should look closely at your time management in
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your previous assessments.
Remember that this time allowance includes reading the original passage(s), making notes of
the relevant points and planning your answer.
If you have a clear understanding of what you are going to write for your final version, the
actual writing of it will not take very long at all.
Once you have this basic approach clear in your mind, you can begin the task with
confidence.
Don’t panic: remember, all the information you need to include will be in the
original passage(s), so all you have to do is identify the really important points.
Note
Note-making is particularly important. Writing a list of the main points with a heading will help in
your planning. It’s a good way to help you keep focused on relevant details for your summary
Writing a summary
The following guidelines apply particularly to writing the type of summary based on
aspects of a single, lengthy passage.
Step 1: Read the question carefully
This is very important, as it is unlikely that you will be required to summarise the
whole of the original passage(s).
The wording of the question will direct you towards the points you should include. For
example, the whole passage may be about everyday life in Japan, but you may be asked
to summarise only what it tells you about going to school in that country. You must,
therefore, keep the wording of the question clearly in mind when reading
the passage(s).
Step 2: Read right through the passage(s) once (Skimming) This will
allow you to gain a good, overall understanding of what the material is about.
Remember that it is important that your summary shows that you have a clear
overview of your subject matter.
Step 3: identify the information that is relevant (Scanning) Refresh your
memory of what the question asks you to do and then read through the passage(s) again
very carefully.
TIPS
1 Some points in the passage on which your summary will be based may be harder to find than others –
this may
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be because they are implied by the writer, rather than being explicitly stated. Your final summary will be
more successful if you are able to identify and include these implied points.
2 You can safely ignore: illustrations, quotations, long descriptions and strings of adjectives.
Step 4: Highlight the relevant points on the text/passage. At this
stage you should underline or highlight on the text, all the information that is
relevant to the question. You must be ruthless. Ignore anything that is not relevant,
no matter how interesting you may find it.
Step 5: Make notes in your own words
Now is the time to put pen to paper.
You should make rough notes of the points you have highlighted, using your own
words as far as possible. Remember, the use of your own words is important as this is
a way of showing that you have understood the passage(s).
Try to:
- paraphrase (rephrase) parts of the text to which you refer
- use synonyms instead of the exact words from the text.
This will make it very clear that you understand what you have read.
Step 6: Count the main points
Once you have noted all the main points, count how many you have identified. If
you have identified 10 points and you are aiming to write a summary of about 150
words, then, as a rough guide, try to write about ten words for each point.
Step 7: Final check
Once you have written your summary, read it through to check that it makes sense. You
may not have to count the number of words you wrote. If, for example, you know that
you usually write about eight words per line, then a quick count up of the number of
lines you have filed will give some indication of how many words you have written in
total.
Step 8: Write the summary
Once you have written rough notes in your own words, you should write them up as a
piece of continuous prose, trying to keep your expression as concise as possible. If
your notes are sufficiently detailed, this may only be a fine-tuning job.
Key terms
Paraphrase: To express something someone has said or written in a different way.
Synonyms: Words with the same or similar meaning – instead of the exact words from the
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text.
Continuous prose: Writing in fuller sentences as opposed to bullet point form.
Study tip
Check that you have made each point only once: it’s an easy mistake to include three
examples of the same point. The writer of the original passage is allowed to repeat ideas;
you don’t have the space to do so.
Study tip
One of the main mistakes in summary writing is to use up too many words writing the early
points, so the summary becomes top-heavy and unbalanced. Remember that all points should be
given equal weighting.
Study tip
An important word of warning – do not include:
• personal opinions
• any introduction such as, ‘In this passage the writer says…’
• extra information or explanations
• your own comments or opinions on the points made in the original text(s) •
lengthy quotations from the original passage(s).
The readers of your summary do not want to know your personal opinions about the topic;
instead, they want to know how well you have understood the original writer’s viewpoint.
Do not let yourself become obsessed with writing an exact number of words as by
doing so, it is very likely that your written expression will be affected.
Style matters
In many summary questions, in addition to marks being awarded for a selection of
the correct points, such as those listed below, further marks may be available for
written expression. It is, therefore, important that you take care with the quality of
your writing as well as the content, as these marks could have a significant influence
on your overall grade. Guidance as to what is good summary style is contained in the
bullet points below.
The following points should be followed very carefully; they contain some
important advice.
» Concision of expression is something which typifies the very best summaries. This
can be achieved by making sure that you focus clearly on only the points stated in the
wording of the question.
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» One way of doing this is to make sure that you don’t include any irrelevant
comments; a generalised introductory paragraph is not necessary and simply uses up
unnecessary words.
» Quoting whole phrases or sentences from the original does not give a
clear indication that you have understood the text.
» Using ‘Complex sentences’ are a great way to include more than one point in one phrase
which also positively impacts your writing style. It will also allow you to accommodate more
relevant points within the word limit.
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Prepared By Ms. Sheelaa
WRITER’S EFFECT NOTES
Adjectives
These are words that describe nouns e.g. ‘harsh’, ‘excruciating, ‘noble’. Writers use them to create a specific picture
in the readers mind.
Alliteration
Repetition of a sound at the beginning of words, e.g. ‘Cruel Catherine…’ It is used to stress certain words or phrases
or to make a point to the reader.
Colour
Using colour words like ‘red’ , ‘blue’ or ‘yellow’. Colour creates images in the readers mind and can affect
atmosphere through connections the reader makes with that colour e.g. red associates with ‘danger’ ‘anger’ or
‘love.’
Contrasts
Strong differences between two things. A writer might write a paragraph about a beautiful place and follow it with
a paragraph describing a run-down place to show the differences between the ways in which two groups of people
live.
Humour
Making a character or situation appear in a funny way can be used to mock the character or the place, or it could
show that a character is humorous.
Imagery
(including similes, metaphors, colour and use of the 5 senses- sight, sound, touch, taste and smell)
The words allow the reader to create an image in their and involve the reader in the moment being described.
Metaphor
An image created by referring to something as something else, e.g. ‘storm of controversy.’ This shows meaning by
directly comparing something to something else.
Negative diction
Words that are negative, e.g. ‘cruel’, ‘evil’, ‘dark’. This gives a negative tone and can portray negative feelings
towards a character or situation.
Onomatopoeia
Words that sound like what the describe, e.g. ‘The clash of the symbols startled John.’ The reader can almost hear
the sound for themselves.
Personification
Making an object/ animal sound like a person, giving it human characteristics, e.g. ‘the fingers of the tree grabbed
at my hair as I passed.’
Positive diction
Words that are positive, e.g. ‘happy’, ‘joyous’ They give a positive tone or portray positive feelings towards a
character or situation.
Sentence Length.
Short sentences are just a few words long, without detail. ‘I wondered if he knew what he was doing to me. It hurt.
A lot.’ Short sentences affect the speed the piece is read and grabs attention.
Simile
A comparison between two things that includes the words ‘as’ or ‘like’, e.g. ‘Her voice cut through him like a knife.’
This shows meaning by comparing something to something else
Verbs
Action words such as ‘scrambled’, ‘sprinted’, ‘leaped’. The writer uses these to add action to the writing.
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Useful prompts:
This highlights… This connotes…
This shows… This means…
This makes us feel… This suggests…
This creates… This represents…
This implies… This symbolises…
Prepared By Ms. Sheelaa
You can start with:
- The word “(word)” gives the impression of…
- The phrase “(phrase)” invites the reader to…
- The term “(word)” encourages us to…
You can explain the meaning of a word by:
- Its associations/connotations
- Its exact definition
You can explain the effects of the language to the readers by:
- How does it make the reader feel? Why?
- Has it impacted on the relationship between the reader and the writer? Why?
- What is the writer trying to achieve?
Phrase & Evidence Meaning (denote) Effect (connote)
(Identify a word/ a (What does the (How this affects readers)
quote) word/ expression (What could be the writer’s aim)
denote)
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When you are writing an informal letter or sending an email to a friend, it is very important for the examiners to try
and make it sound friendly and chatty.
Add a few bits of personal chat, usually at the start of the letter, to make it seem genuine
Make sure main part of letter relates to task and that you use appropriate tone.
Don’t be bright and cheerful if writing to pass on bad news.
Do not use ‘text’ speech eg ” Hey Bobby! how r u?” or “I got a present 4 u”
Do not use slang e.g. ‘gonna’ or ‘cos’
Use contracted verb forms like we’ve, I’m, etc.
Use short sentences and active verb forms. Write the address and date on the right.
Useful Phrases
Dear ….Best wishes…;Yours faithfully…; I am sorry to inform you that…; I am very grateful for… Why don’t we…
I will not be able to attend the…; Give my regards to…; I look forward to hearing from you…; Let me know as
soon as… I’m really sorry I…We had a little bit of luck…
Some useful expressions to begin an informal letter
Thank you for your letter which I received yesterday. I was pleasantly surprised to hear from you. It was
wonderful to hear from you after so long. Thank you for your letter. I was pleased to hear that you are in good
health. It was really nice hearing from you. I am glad that you like your new school.
Some useful expressions to end an informal letter
I promise to write to you soon. I hope you will reply soon. Give my best wishes to your parents. I am looking
forward to seeing you. I look forward to hearing from you.
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