Three Dimensional Cephalometry A Color Atlas and Manual 1st Edition by Gwen Swennen, Filip Schutyser, Jarg Erich Hausamen ISBN 3642064841 9783642064845 Instant Download
Three Dimensional Cephalometry A Color Atlas and Manual 1st Edition by Gwen Swennen, Filip Schutyser, Jarg Erich Hausamen ISBN 3642064841 9783642064845 Instant Download
https://ebookball.com/product/three-dimensional-imaging-for-
orthodontics-and-maxillofacial-surgery-1st-edition-by-chung-how-
kau-stephen-richmond-isbn-9781118786642-6858/
https://ebookball.com/product/endoscopic-sinus-surgery-anatomy-
three-dimensional-reconstruction-and-surgical-technique-4th-
edition-by-peter-wormald-isbn-1638534500-9781638534501-3330/
https://ebookball.com/product/a-color-atlas-of-complete-
dentures-1st-edition-by-hobkirk-
isbn-0723416036-9780723416036-8304/
https://ebookball.com/product/a-color-atlas-of-removable-partial-
dentures-1st-edition-by-davenport-
isbn-0723416206-9780723416203-8306/
Ultrasonic Topographical and Pathotopographical Anatomy A Color Atlas
1st Edition by ZM Seagal, OV Surnina ISBN 1119224055 9781119224051
https://ebookball.com/product/ultrasonic-topographical-and-
pathotopographical-anatomy-a-color-atlas-1st-edition-by-zm-
seagal-ov-surnina-isbn-1119224055-9781119224051-3082/
https://ebookball.com/product/financial-analysis-tools-and-
techniques-a-guide-for-managers-1st-edition-by-erich-a-helfert-
isbn-0132556842-9780132556845-10386/
https://ebookball.com/product/color-atlas-of-endodontology-1st-
edition-by-rudolf-beer-michael-a-baumann-syngcuk-kim-richard-
jacobi-isbn-0865778566-9780865778566-7024/
Color Atlas of Clinical and Oral Pathology 1st Edition by Brad Neville
ISBN 081211311X 9780812113112
https://ebookball.com/product/color-atlas-of-clinical-and-oral-
pathology-1st-edition-by-brad-neville-
isbn-081211311x-9780812113112-7928/
https://ebookball.com/product/clinical-neuropathology-text-and-
color-atlas-1st-edition-by-catherine-
haberland-1888799978-9781888799972-12126/
Gwen R.J. Swennen Three-Dimensional Cephalometry
Filip Schutyser · Jarg-Erich Hausamen A Color Atlas and Manual
Gwen R.J. Swennen
Filip Schutyser
Jarg-Erich Hausamen
Three-Dimensional
Cephalometry
A Color Atlas and Manual
123
Gwen R.J. Swennen, MD DMD PhD Filip Schutyser, MSc
Associate Professor Research Coordinator
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Medical Image Computing (Radiology – ESAT/PSI)
Medizinische Hochschule Hannover Faculties of Medicine and Engineering
Hannover, Germany University Hospital Gasthuisberg
and Leuven, Belgium
Consultant Surgeon
Department of Plastic Surgery Jarg-Erich Hausamen, MD DMD PhD
University Hospital Brugmann Former Professor and Chairman
and Queen Fabiola Children’s University Hospital Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
Brussels, Belgium Medizinische Hochschule Hannover
Hannover, Germany
Library of Congress Control Number: 2005929880 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific state-
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the ment, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of regulations and therefore free for general use.
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any
banks.Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only information about dosage and application contained in this book. In
under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, every individual case the user must check such information by consult-
1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be ing the relevant literature.
obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution
under the German Copyright Law. Editor: Gabriele Schröder, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg
Desk editor: Martina Himberger, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg
Springer is a part of Springer Science + Production: ProEdit GmbH, Elke Beul-Göhringer, Heidelberg
Business Media Cover design: Estudio Calamar, F. Steinen-Broo,
Pau/Girona, Spain
springeronline.com Typesetting and reproduction of the figures:
AM-productions GmbH, Wiesloch
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006
Printed in Germany Printed on acid-free paper
24/3151beu-göh 5 4 3 2 1 0
This book is dedicated to
my wife Valérie and my son Joaquin.
Radiographic cephalometry has been one of the most With “Three-Dimensional Cephalometry – A Color
important diagnostic tools in orthodontics, since its Atlas and Manual” by the authors Swennen, Schutyser
introduction in the early 1930s by Broadbent in the and Hausamen you have an exciting book in your
United States and Hofrath in Germany. Generations of hands. It shows you how the head can be analysed in
orthodontists have relied on the interpretation of these three dimensions with the aid of 3D-cephalometry.
images for their diagnosis and treatment planning as Of course, at the moment the technique is not available
well as for the long-term follow-up of growth and in every orthodontic office around the corner. How-
treatment results. Also in the planning for surgical ever, especially for the planning of more complex
orthodontic corrections of jaw discrepancies, lateral cases where combined surgical – orthodontic treat-
and antero-posterior cephalograms have been valu- ment is indicated, it is my sincere conviction that with-
able tools. For these purposes numerous cephalomet- in 10 years time 3D cephalometry will have changed
ric analyses are available. However, a major drawback our way of thinking about planning and clinical
of the existing technique is that it renders only a two- handling of these patients.
dimensional representation of a three-dimensional
structure.
It was almost 75 years before the next step could
be taken in the use of cephalometrics for clinical and July 2005 Anne Marie Kuijpers-Jagtman,
research purposes. The development of computed DDS, PhD, FDSRCS Eng
tomography and the dramatic decrease in radiation Professor and Chair
dose of the newer devices brings three-dimensional Department of Orthodontics
analysis of the head and face to the scene. A major step and Oral Biology
forward is also that 3D hard and soft tissue representa- Radboud University Nijmegen
tions can be combined in the same image, which Medical Centre
enables in depth analysis of these tissues in relation to Nijmegen, The Netherlands
each other possible.
VII
Foreword
Few can fail to feel enlivened by entering a bookshop, co-authors and former colleagues have shown tireless
and to encounter a new surgical textbook always pro- dedication in the production of this book.
vokes excitement. I am therefore most honoured to be It is clear that 3-D imaging has become an essential
asked to pen this foreword to what is truly a new book. tool in planning and managing the treatment of facial
This is not just a rehashing of old ideas on familiar top- deformity. The development of spiral CT and cone
ics, but a most innovative exploration of an increasing- beam CT has revolutionised this technique, the former
ly important diagnostic medium, 3-D imaging. providing outstanding resolution and the latter, with
We have all been assailed by sometimes startling its low cost, allowing unique accessibility. Both tech-
3-D images, but on cooler reflection have realised these niques reduce radiation levels to permit use in non-
were no more than clever pictures, of little value to life-threatening conditions, such as facial deformity.
patient or clinician. This book, however, provides a These technological advances would be worthless,
logical comprehensive text on the role of 3-D imaging however, without this type of comprehensive textbook.
in the surgical management of facial deformity. It skil- This book educates and is a source of reference for all
fully provides a range of knowledge from the basic surgeons, regardless of seniority. It will be invaluable to
principles of radiological imaging to its use, giving the those in other surgical specialities, who are less com-
patients the best options for a predictable and good monly involved in the management of facial deformity.
outcome. Seeing the list of authors, it should come as This volume is a joy to read and is enhanced by the
no surprise that this is innovative and highly informa- high quality of the production and technical editing.
tive. Professor Jarg-Erich Hausamen has established
a centre of excellence for maxillofacial surgery. His
modest persona, coupled with his great depth of July 2005 Peter Ward Booth, FDS, FRCS
knowledge and teaching skills, has made his unit an in- Consultant Maxillofacial Surgeon
ternational name for innovation, training and, above Queen Victoria Hospital
all, patient care. It is not surprising, therefore, that his East Grinstead, United Kingdom
IX
Foreword
Similar to the biological and intellectual environment, method that the authors presents in this atlas will allow
craniofacial growth is not a linear phenomenon. It all professionals, including those who are not experts
is characterized by periodicity: an initial phase of in imaging but have an interest in virtual computer-
rapid growth is followed by a slowing of activity until aided planning and surgery, to become familiar with
a provision of new resources allows a new period of three-dimensional cephalometry.
increased growth. Gwen R. J. Swennen and his co-authors have gained
During the past three decades, craniofacial surgery considerable experience in this field. This atlas is the
has witnessed a paradigm shift as a result of the work result of a team effort and the reflection of an excellent
of Paul Tessier, Fernando Ortiz Monasterio and others. and safe clinical practice. I have to congratulate Gwen
A precise craniofacial imaging system for planning, Swennen on his wonderful work, his boundless enthu-
monitoring and evaluation of results therefore became siasm and his unending dedication to his profession.
necessary. During the same three decades, medical im- It is a pleasure and a privilege to work with him in my
aging has developed in the same way. Since the use of department as he not only acquires learning but also
the first cephalometric radiographs in our clinical transmits it.
practice in the 1970s, the development of computer
tomography associated with the progress in computer
technology gives us today access to unprecedented July 2005 Albert De Mey, MD
static and dynamic medical imaging. The need for an Professor and Chairman
atlas that allows appropriate application of advanced Department of Plastic Surgery
three-dimensional craniofacial imaging methods is University Hospital Brugmann
apparent. Brussels, Belgium
This book is not a “cookbook” for clinical practice Queen Fabiola Children’s
but a guide to three-dimensional treatment planning University Hospital
and evaluation of treatment outcome. The step-by-step Brussels, Belgium
XI
Preface
On the day he won the Nobel Prize in 1979, Three-dimensional (3-D) cephalometry is a power-
Godfrey Hounsfield had some home-spun words ful tool for planning, monitoring and evaluation of
of advice for all would-be Nobel laureates: craniofacial morphology and growth. It allows objec-
tive immediate and long-term postoperative assess-
Don’t worry too much if you don’t pass exams, ment of virtual planned or assisted craniofacial surgi-
so long as you feel you have understood the subject. cal procedures. The accuracy and reliability of 3-D
It’s amazing what you can get by the ability cephalometry, however, depends on the correct appli-
to reason things out by conventional methods, cation of the method. This atlas is a practical straight
getting down to the basics of what is happening. forward „step-by-step“ manual for both orthodontists,
maxillofacial, craniofacial and plastic surgeons inter-
Sir Godfrey N. Hounsfield, ested in virtual computer-aided planning and surgery.
28 August 1919–12 August 2004 Because this book is an atlas and manual, the emphasis
is on little text and numerous comprehensive color
illustrations.
„Cephalometric radiography“ was introduced in ortho- In order to help the reader become familiar with
dontics in 1931 by B. H. Broadbent and H. Hofrath, voxel-based 3-D cephalometry, Chap. 1, deals with
who developed simultaneously and independently the principles of 3-D volumetric CT. Chapter 2 focuses
standardized methods for the production of cephalo- on basic craniofacial anatomical knowledge. 3-D
metric radiographs. It was, however, not until the 1960s cephalometry demands new knowledge from ortho-
that this method gained worldwide acceptance for the dontists regarding interpretation of CT anatomy. On
evaluation of craniofacial morphology and growth in the other hand, maxillofacial and craniofacial plastic
daily clinical practice. Meanwhile, cephalometric surgeons are often not familiar with conventional
analysis has proven to be a valuable tool for planning, cephalometry and may need some additional expertise
monitoring and evaluation of orthodontic, surgical regarding cephalometric radiography. The nomencla-
and combined treatment protocols, especially in ture is in English, based on the recommendations
regard to stability. found in the 4th edition of Nomina Anatomica. Chap-
„Computer tomography“ (CT), developed by G.N. ter 3 highlights the set-up of a precise and reliable 3-D
Hounsfield in 1972 based on the mathematical and pi- reference system that allows longitudinal comparison
oneer work of A.M. Cormack, represented a major of craniofacial growth patterns and comparison of
breakthrough in diagnostic radiography. Cormack and pre-operative findings, virtual planning and post-
Hounsfield’s pioneer work was rewarded with the operative results. In the following chapters, „step-
Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology, which they by-step“ virtual definition of 3-D cephalometric hard
shared in 1979. CT is nowadays available practically (Chap. 4) and soft (Chap. 5) tissue landmarks is de-
worldwide, is becoming more and more cost-efficient, scribed concisely. Only landmarks whose accuracy and
and the new generation of spiral multi-slice (MS) CT reliability has been statistically validated are described
and cone beam CT causes less irradiation for the patient. in detail; additional landmarks are mentioned. To en-
Currently voxel-based craniofacial surgery and vir- sure uniformity, internationally accepted landmarks
tual assessment of craniofacial morphology and are used and named according to the Greek or Latin
growth are becoming increasingly popular. Recent anatomical terminology as proposed by L.G. Farkas,
advances in computer software technology allow the who stated „...the use of the internationally accepted
combination of conventional cephalometric radiogra- anthropometric symbols, without any individual modi-
phy and CT methods. It was therefore a fascinating fications, is a „sine qua non“ for easy understanding of
challenge to develop a new method of voxel-based papers based on anthropometry...“.
„three-dimensional cephalometry“.
XIII
Preface
The next two chapters deal with 3-D cephalometric lights some interesting future perspectives of 3-D
planes (Chap. 6) and 3-D cephalometric hard and soft cephalometry.
tissue analysis (Chap. 7). A great number of analytical It is our sincere hope that this atlas will prove to be
and investigatory cephalometric procedures have been a valuable reference on the basic principles of 3-D
described in the literature. To avoid confusion, mean- cephalometry for different specialities involved in the
ingful practical cephalometric measurements are de- assessment of the head and the face, such as ortho-
scribed that provide data for clinical decision making. dontics, maxillofacial, craniofacial and plastic surgery,
Moreover, additional measurements designed for sci- medical anthropology and dysmorphological genetics.
entific research and validation purposes are supplied. We hope that this atlas will stimulate both clinicians
No descriptive data are given because normative hard and researchers to extend their expertise and to fur-
and soft tissue data are not yet available. A separate ther develop the rapidly expanding and interesting
chapter (Chap. 8) deals with the potential of 3-D field of virtual craniofacial assessment.
cephalometry to assess craniofacial growth. Finally,
clinical orthodontic and surgical applications of 3-D Hannover, Gwen R.J. Swennen, MD DMD PhD
cephalometry are illustrated in Chap. 9. Since 3-D July 2005 Filip Schutyser, MSc
cephalometry is still very new, the future will certainly Jarg-Erich Hausamen,
bring innovations. The last chapter (Chap. 10) high- MD DMD PhD
XIV
Acknowlegdements
I especially wish to thank my teacher and mentor Pro- I would like to express my special thanks to Pieter
fessor Jarg-Erich Hausamen, who encouraged me to De Groeve (Medicim NV, Sint-Niklaas, Belgium) for his
write this book. Without his inspiration, guidance and untiring efforts to develop 3-D cephalometry and to
advice the book would never have appeared. my colleagues Dr. Enno-Ludwig Barth and Dr. Christo-
I am also deeply grateful to Johan Van Cleynen- pher Eulzer (Department of OMF Surgery, Hannover
breugel (Medical Image Computing, ESAT/PSI, Univer- Medical University, Hannover) for their invaluable
sity of Leuven) for his support. I further wish to thank help in validating the 3-D cephalometry method pre-
Professor Albert De Mey (Department of Plastic sented here.
Surgery, University Hospital Brugmann and Queen I am indebted our photographer Klaus Fröhlich
Fabiola Children’s University Hospital, Brussels) and (Department of OMF Surgery, Hannover Medical Uni-
Professor Chantal Malevez (Department of Maxillo- versity, Hannover) for the excellent clinical images and
facial Surgery, Queen Fabiola Children’s University our dental technicians, Mr. Böhrs and Ms Luginbühl
Hospital, Brussels) for their continuous support. I am (Department of OMF Surgery, Hannover Medical Uni-
very grateful to Professor Henning Schliephake (De- versity, Hannover) for their support and help. I wish to
partment of OMF Surgery, Georg-August University, thank Professor H. Hecker (Department of Biometry,
Göttingen), Dr. Peter Brachvogel (Department of OMF Hannover Medical University, Hannover) for his
Surgery, Hannover Medical University, Hannover) and assistance in the statistical validation study. I also am
Dr. Alex Lemaître (Facial Plastic Surgery, Private very grateful to Professor C. Becker and Ms Utenwold
Practice, Brussels) for teaching and sharing their clini- (Neuroradiology Department, Hannover Medical Uni-
cal and scientific knowledge with me. I also thank versity, Hannover) for their support and help.
Johannes-Ludwig Berten (Department of Ortho- Last but not least, I would like to thank Springer for
dontics, Hannover Medical University, Hannover) for their energy and cooperation in publishing this atlas.
the interesting late evening discussions on craniofacial
morphology and problems related to orthognathic Brussels, July 2005 Gwen R.J. Swennen,
surgery. MD DMD PhD
XV
Acknowlegdements
I would like to dedicate this book to the memory of my puting“ at the Catholic University of Leuven. I also
mentor, Johan Van Cleynenbreugel. He taught me med- wish to thank Pieter De Groeve, whose committed
ical image computing and also stimulated my passion efforts were important in realizing the 3-D cephalo-
for it. I wish to continue working with his scientific metric approach as a user-friendly software applica-
spirit and hope to exploit the valuable expertise that he tion.
imparted to me „at maximum“.
I am grateful to Paul Suetens for his inspiring
research environment „ESAT/PSI Medical Image Com- Leuven, July 2005 Filip Schutyser, MSc
XVII
Contents
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 3
XIX
Contents
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 8
3-D Cephalometric Soft Tissue Landmarks 3-D Cephalometry and Craniofacial Growth
Gwen R.J. Swennen Gwen R. J. Swennen
XX
Contributors
Johan Van Cleynenbreugel, MSc PhD Gwen R.J. Swennen, MD DMD PhD
Professor Associate Professor, Department of Oral
Medical Image Computing (Radiology – ESAT/PSI) and Maxillofacial Surgery
Faculties of Medicine and Engineering Medizinische Hochschule Hannover
University Hospital Gasthuisberg Hannover, Germany
Leuven, Belgium and
Consultant Surgeon, Department of Plastic Surgery
Filip Schutyser, MSc University Hospital Brugmann
Research Coordinator and Queen Fabiola Children’s University Hospital
Medical Image Computing (Radiology – ESAT/PSI) Brussels, Belgium
Faculties of Medicine and Engineering
University Hospital Gasthuisberg
Leuven, Belgium
XXI
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer
Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
Filip Schutyser, Johan Van Cleynenbreugel
1
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
With 3-D cephalometry, the head is geometrically Image formation is based on the following proce-
analysed in three dimensions. In order to do so, an ac- dure. Using an X-ray beam, a set of acquisitions is
curate volumetric measurement of the head is needed, made, covering the entire field of view. This process is
together with the appropriate tools to access this 3-D repeated for a large number of angles, yielding line
dataset. This implies a toolset to access the data of im- attenuation measurements for all possible angles and
portance in a reliable and repeatable way. Moreover, it for all possible distances from the centre. Based on all
is important to bridge classical 2-D approaches with these measurements, the actual attenuation at each
new 3-D analysis methods. point of the scanned volume can be reconstructed.
To measure the anatomy of the head, CT imaging is To acquire a volume of data, two scanning modes are
the modality of preference because of its high contrast possible: sequential CT or spiral CT. With sequential
for bony tissues. In Sect. 1 of this chapter the focus is on CT, the table with the patient is positioned, and attenu-
CT imaging of the head. ation data are acquired. Then the table is moved to a
After a correct CT acquisition of the head, the 3-D next position, and a new acquisition is made. With spi-
data need to be visualized appropriately. Therefore, a 3- ral CT, the table moves from the starting position to the
D scene approach is applied. Section 2 of this chapter end position while X-ray attenuation data are ac-
details this approach. quired. From these data, a set of consecutive CT slices
To bridge this new 3-D technology with the classical is computed.
clinical daily practice, which consists of the use of 2-D Three CT technologies can be distinguished (Fig.
cephalometry, virtual 2-D cephalograms are generated 1.1):
and co-visualized with the 3-D data, taking into ac- 1. Single-slice CT
count the geometrical relationships. In this way, a com- This type of CT scanner is the oldest. From an X-ray
bined 2-D and 3-D approach opens the way towards re- source, a fan-beam X-ray is emitted through the im-
liable and repeatable 3-D analysis of the head. Section aged object towards a single array of detectors. The
3 of this chapter explains this technology. tube–detector unit rotates around the patient. Se-
quential as well as spiral scanning is possible.
2. Multi-slice CT
1.1 The multi-slice CT scanner, introduced in 1998,
CT Imaging of the Head allows acquisition of multiple slices simultaneously
using adjacent detector arrays. In 2004, this number
1.1.1 of arrays varies from 2 to 64 slices. This technology
CT Scanner implies faster imaging and reduced dose. Sequential
as well as spiral scanning is possible.
Computed tomography is an imaging modality that 3. Cone-beam CT
produces cross-sectional images representing the X- With cone-beam CT (CBCT) scanners, the detector
ray attenuation properties of the body. is extended to a 2-D detector. For the field of dento-
2
1.1 CT Imaging of the Head CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.2. With appropriate window/level settings, the structures of importance are visualized with the preferred contrast
maxillofacial imaging, dedicated devices are devel- By definition, the CT number of water (H2O) is 0 HU.
oped. With one rotation of the tube–detector unit, a Air is typically about –1000 HU.
large part of the skull can be imaged. With dedicat- Since the dynamic range is too high to be perceived
ed cone-beam reconstruction algorithms, a detailed in a single image, a window/level operation – this is a
CT data volume is obtained. Since the focus of CBCT grey level transformation – must be applied. This op-
devices is on bone imaging, the dose can be signifi- eration rescales the CT numbers around a defined
cantly reduced. number, i.e. the level, in a range defined by the window
to 256 grey values that are shown on the computer dis-
1.1.2 Characteristics of a CT Dataset play. With appropriate settings of window/level, soft
tissues or bone, for example, are visualized with more
The attenuated X-rays are captured by the detectors of contrast (Fig. 1.2).
the CT scanner and digitized. Reconstruction algo- The spatial resolution in a CT image is non-isotrop-
rithms convert these data into a single CT slice or a set ic and non-uniform and depends on a number of fac-
of CT slices. Thus, the slices have a digital nature. They tors during acquisition (e.g. focal spot, size detector el-
can be printed on film, but, with increasing frequency, ement and table feed) and reconstruction (reconstruc-
they are stored and sent digitally. For digital transmis- tion kernel, interpolation process, voxel size). For den-
sion of CT slices, a dedicated open communication to-maxillofacial CT imaging, a resolution of 0.5 mm in
protocol has been established: Digital Imaging and X, Y and Z directions is achievable. When the resolu-
Communications in Medicine (DICOM). DICOM also tion is reduced, the reduction typically applies to the
specifies a file format for storage of CT slices as digital cranio-caudal (Z) direction.
files. Systems to store and retrieve all this image infor- Image noise depends on the total exposure and the
mation have been developed. This type of information reconstruction noise. Increasing the current in the X-
technology system is called a Picture Archiving and ray tube increases the signal-to-noise ratio, and thus
Communication System (PACS). reduces the quantum noise of the statistical nature of
The CT volume consists of a 3-D array of image ele- X-rays, at the expense of patient dose. The applied fil-
ments, called voxels, with a CT number with a range of ters and interpolation methods in the reconstruction
typically 12 bits, expressed in Hounsfield units (HU). algorithm influence image noise.
3
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
a b
Fig. 1.3. Movements of the patient during CT acquisition results in some blurred CT slices (a). As a consequence, the 3-D rendering of the bone is also distorted
(b) at the position of the blurred CT slices
CT imaging also shows artefacts. Several factors in- derestimation. This results in streaks tangent to
fluence these artefacts: edges.
䡲 Beam hardening 䡲 Motion
Ideally, an X-ray source would emit mono-energetic A short movement of the imaged object results in in-
rays. However, this is not the case. Low-energy pho- consistent measurements, and thus causes artefacts
tons are preferentially absorbed, i.e. the X-ray beam (Fig. 1.3).
hardens as it passes through tissue. The harder the 䡲 Stair-step artefact
beam, the less it is further attenuated. All beams The interpolation process inherent to spiral CT in-
passing through a particular point in the imaged volves several types of artefacts. The most common
volume follow different paths and therefore experi- example is the stair-step artefact. This artefact is vis-
ence a different degree of beam hardening. Hence, ible as regular step-like disruptions along edges
they attain different attenuation values. This phe- with an inclination with respect to the longitudinal
nomenon causes beam-hardening artefacts such as axis. This artefact can be typically observed in the
reduced attenuation towards the centre of an object cranium (Fig. 1.4).
and streaks that connect objects with strong attenu- 䡲 Other artefacts
ation. A variety of other artefacts are related to poor cali-
䡲 Scatter bration or system failure. Also, the number of detec-
Not all photons follow a straight path due to Comp- tors has to be sufficiently high, or the beam suffi-
ton scatter. As a consequence, the measured intensi- ciently wide, to avoid under-sampling artefacts.
ty is always an underestimation of the integrated av- Moreover, the number of views needs to be suffi-
eraged attenuation. This results in streaks tangent to ciently large to avoid alternating dark and bright
edges. streaks in the peripheral image region where the
䡲 Non-linear partial volume effect sampling density is smallest.
Because of the finite beam width, every measure-
ment represents an intensity averaged over this Artefacts due to amalgam fillings or brackets are typi-
beam width. It can be shown that this value corre- cally a combination of beam hardening, scatter and
sponds with an underestimation of the integrated non-linear partial volume effect (Figs. 1.5, 1.6).
averaged attenuation. The larger the attenuation dif- Based on these findings, a generic CT protocol is
ferences along the beam width, the larger this un- proposed. The patient should be scanned in one con-
4
1.1 CT Imaging of the Head CHAPTER 1
lower then 1. In order to image the soft tissues correct-
ly, the use of fixation bandages or cushions should be
avoided. Although this increases the risk of motion
artefacts, only then are the soft tissues correctly im-
aged. These are the acquisition settings.
For the reconstruction settings, a bone filter is pre-
ferred, but very sharp filters should not be used, be-
cause this boosts the amount of noise. As a reconstruc-
tion interval, half the detector width should be chosen,
and this should be in the range of 0.5–1 mm. This
typically results in datasets of 150–200 slices, or 75–
100 MB.
1.1.3
Radiation Dose
a b
Fig. 1.5 a, b. Metal orthodontic brackets caused some artefacts at the level of the teeth. However, the amount of artefacts is fairly small
5
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
a b
Fig. 1.6 a–c. Amalgam filling cause several artefacts.On the axial CT slices (a),
the typical star-shaped artefacts are visible. On the bone surface (b) and skin
surface (c), the streaks are also visible. However, when the occlusal plane is
c
positioned parallel to the axial slices during CT acquisition, the number of
affected slices is small
However, the biological damage varies not only with veloped. Multiplying the equivalent dose of an organ
the absorbed energy but also depends heavily on the with the corresponding weighting factor gives the ef-
wavelength of the radiation. To take this effect into fective dose, expressed in sieverts (Sv), of that organ.
account, the absorbed dose has to be multiplied by The effective dose for the patient then is the sum of the
a radiation-weighting factor, yielding the equivalent effective doses for all organs. The sum of all weights
dose. equals 1. Well-accepted weighting factors are defined
The harm induced by the radiation also depends on by the International Commission on Radiological Pro-
the irradiated organ. The risk for cancer or genetic dis- tection (ICRP) in ICRP publication 60. Because of the
orders for the same equivalent dose varies among or- potential risk of medical irradiation, the ICRP also rec-
gans. Therefore, tissue-weighting factors have been de- ommends keeping the magnitude of individual exam-
6
1.1 CT Imaging of the Head CHAPTER 1
Table 1.1. The effective doses of different acquisition schemes accord- range of mandible and maxilla. The tube potential is
ing to the settings explained in Sect. 1.1.3 110 kV and the tube current is about 2.5 mA. The re-
Acquisition Effective Equivalent natural sulting effective dose is 0.05 mSv. However, due to this
dose background radiation lower dose, the resulting CT images show more noise
and artefacts, and detailed information about soft tis-
CT full skull 0.93 mSv 97 days sues is lost.
CT mandible, maxilla, orbit 0.41 mSv 50 days These dose values should be compared with the
CT mandible, maxilla 0.31 mSv 38 days classical cephalogram and orthopantogram (OPG)
CT dental mandible 0.27 mSv 33 days doses. Table 1.1 gives an overview of the doses, and
CT dental maxilla 0.21 mSv 26 days shows the equivalent time to have the same dose as nat-
CBCT 0.05 mSv 6 days ural background radiation.
Cephalogram 0.1 mSv 12 days
OPG 0.05 mSv 6 days 1.1.4
3-D Image Volume
7
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
1.2 the scene from various angles and positions, the cam-
3-D Scene Approach era is moved around.
In this virtual scene, various actors are present.
To effectively depict the volumetric data block of CT Based on the volumetric CT data, surface models of the
numbers, a visualization paradigm is needed. A scene- bone and skin surface can be computed. These surface
based approach is adopted. The virtual 3-D space is representations are computed as isosurfaces. An iso-
considered as a 3-D scene with medical image data as surface is a surface that connects points within the im-
actors. This scene is viewed with a virtual camera, and age volume with a specified CT number. These surfaces
the resulting views are shown on the screen. To inspect are added to the scene. Also CT slices are positioned in
this scene. Furthermore, related data such as rulers,
surgical devices and markers feature in the scene
(Fig. 1.9).
It is important to visualize only the structures of in-
terest during a certain stage of inspecting the patient’s
anatomy or performing surgical planning. Therefore,
all the objects in the scene have a visibility property.
Any object hiding the object of interest can be made
temporarily invisible.
Besides visualizing the image data, the paradigm
also allows for actions in this scene. In addition to
the ability to move the virtual camera around, a mode
to interact with objects is required. Then actions
such as indicating landmarks, performing virtual os-
teotomies and moving bone fragments become possi-
ble (Fig. 1.10).
Today, these visualizations are possible on desktop
or laptop computers (e.g. CPU P4 2.0 GHz, RAM
512 MB, graphics card nVidia GeForce Series) with
dedicated image-based planning software (e.g. Maxil-
im, www.medicim.com). The Maxilim data files (.mxm)
have an average size of 50 MB.
Fig. 1.9. The virtual scene can be composed with the structures of interest
8
1.2 3-D Scene Approach CHAPTER 1
a b
c d
Fig. 1.10 a–d. As an example, virtual osteotomies can be simulated. First a cut surface is designed. A possibility is to draw a line (a), and add depth dimension
(b, c). Finally the bone is cut and split (d)
9
CHAPTER 1 From 3-D Volumetric Computer Tomography to 3-D Cephalometry
a b
Fig. 1.11. For a lateral cephalogram, the patient is positioned in a standard way in the X-ray machine
1.3 1.3.2
Virtual Cephalograms Generation of the Virtual Cephalogram
10
1.3 Virtual Cephalograms CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.12. A virtual cephalogram is computed
from the CT image volume. A virtual parallel X-ray
beam is sent through the patient. Extra radiation
dose is avoided, and the geometrical relationship
is known
1.3.3 1.3.4
Visualization of Virtual Cephalogram and 3-D Data Benefits of This Environment
The orientation of the virtual X-ray image plane is per- The 3-D scene allows combination of 3-D hard and soft
pendicular to the bundle of rays. Therefore, this X-ray tissue representations with lateral and frontal cephalo-
image can be added to the 3-D scene as a textured rec- grams. This allows the set-up of a reliable 3-D cephalo-
tangle. Since this image is a projection image, its posi- metric reference system (Chap. 3). Moreover, 3-D
tion on the ray is not fixed, but adjacent to the CT im- cephalometric hard (Chap. 4) and soft (Chap. 5) tissue
age volume. landmarks can be precisely defined and accurately po-
Since the projection direction is known, for each sitioned. Each landmark is visualized on the surface
point of the X-ray image a projection line is defined.All representations together with its projection points on
points on this line are projected on a single point in the both cephalograms. Depending on the nature of a
X-ray image. This line also intersects with the bone or landmark, it can be easily indicated on the bone sur-
skin surfaces in the 3-D scene. Therefore, when a point face and adjusted on the cephalograms, or vice versa.
is indicated on the cephalogram as a point on the bone This ease of indicating landmarks is an important ben-
surface, the 3-D point should be positioned on this line efit of this approach.
and on the bone surface. This combination of 2-D and Once landmarks are defined, they can be combined
3-D information is the key to accurate indication of to define anatomical planes (Chap. 6). Moreover, based
landmarks in a repeatable way. on these landmarks and planes, a complete set of hard
and soft tissue measurements can be defined: linear
measurements (3-D distances, distances with respect
to a reference frame) angular and proportional meas-
urements (Chap. 7).
11
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial
Anatomical Outlines
Gwen R. J. Swennen
13
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.1. a Anterior view of the skull in centric occlusion (adult cadaver skull). 1 Frontal bone; 2 Coronal suture; 3 Parietal bone; 4 Sphenoparietal suture;
5 Sphenofrontal suture; 6 Greater wing of sphenoid bone; 7 Sphenosquamosal suture; 8 Temporal bone; 9 Lesser wing of sphenoid bone; 10 Superior orbital fissure;
11 Inferior orbital fissure; 12 Sphenozygomatic suture; 13 Zygomatic bone; 14 Zygomaticofrontal suture; 15 Supraorbital margin; 16 Supraorbital foramen; 17 Fron-
tonasal suture; 18 Nasal bone; 19 Internasal suture; 20 Nasomaxillary suture; 21 Vomer; 22 Middle nasal conchae; 23 Inferior nasal conchae; 24 Frontomaxillary
suture; 25 Infraorbital margin; 26 Infraorbital foramen; 27 Maxilla; 28 Frontal process of maxilla; 29 Zygomaticomaxillary suture; 30 Alveolar process of maxilla;
31 Anterior nasal spine; 32 Mandible; 33 Vertical ramus of mandible; 34 Mandibular angle; 35 Body (or horizontal ramus) of mandible; 36 Mental foramen;
37 Alveolar process of mandible; 38 Symphysis of mandible; 39 Fracture line; 40 Saw line
14
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.1. b Anterior view of skull in centric occlusion (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
15
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.2. a Right lateral view of the skull in centric occlusion (adult cadaver skull). 1 Frontal bone; 2 Coronal suture; 3 Sphenofrontal suture; 4 Greater wing of
sphenoid bone; 5 Sphenosquamosal suture; 6 Parietal bone; 7 Squamosal suture; 8 Parietomastoid suture; 9 Lambdoidal suture; 10 Squamous portion of temporal
bone; 11 Processus mastoideus of temporal bone; 12 Occipitomastoid suture; 13 Occipital bone; 14 Sphenozygomatic suture; 15 Zygomatic bone;
16 Zygomatic arch; 17 Zygomaticofrontal suture; 18 Zygomaticotemporal suture; 19 Zygomaticomaxillary suture; 20 Nasal bone; 21 Nasomaxillary suture; 22 Fron-
tomaxillary suture; 23 Lacrimal bone; 24 Maxillary bone; 25 Anterior nasal spine; 26 External acousticus meatus; 27 Styloid process (incomplete);
28 Condyle of mandible; 29 Coronoid process of mandible; 30 Vertical ramus of mandible; 31 Mandibular angle; 32 Body of mandible; 33 Mental foramen;
34 Mental protuberance; 35 Saw line; 36 Screwhole; 37 Condylar process of mandible
16
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.2. b Right lateral view of skull in centric occlusion (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
17
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.3. a Endocranial view of the skull base (adult cadaver skull). 1 Anterior cranial fossa; 2 Crista galli; 3 Frontal bone; 4 Frontal crest; 5 Frontoethmoidal suture;
6 Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone; 7 Sphenofrontal suture; 8 Middle cranial fossa; 9 Sphenoid bone; 10 Lesser wing of sphenoid bone; 11 Tuberculum sellae;
12 Hypophyseal fossa (sella turcica); 13 Dorsum sellae; 14 Optic canal; 15 Anterior clinoid process; 16 Posterior clinoid process; 17 Carotid sulcus;
18 Foramen rotundum; 19 Lingula of sphenoid bone; 20 Oval foramen of sphenoid bone (foramen ovale); 21 Spinous foramen (foramen spinosum); 22 Foramen
lacerum; 23 Squamous portion of temporal bone; 24 Petrous portion of temporal bone; 25 Petrosquamosal fissure; 26 Jugular foramen (foramen jugulare);
27 Internal acoustic meatus; 28 Parietal bone; 29 Posterior cranial fossa; 30 Occipital bone; 31 Clivus; 32 Great foramen (foramen magnum); 33 Occipitomastoid
suture; 34 Internal occipital crest; 35 Internal occipital protuberance; 36 Frontal sinus
18
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.3. b Endocranial view of the skull base (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
19
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.4. a The skull base with the mandible removed: exocranial view (adult cadaver skull). 1 Median palatine suture; 2 Palatine process of maxilla; 3 Incisive
foramen (foramen incisivum); 4 Transverse palatine suture; 5 Palatine bone; 6 Greater palatine foramen; 7 Posterior nasal spine; 8 Vomer; 9 Zygomatic process of
maxilla; 10 Zygomatic arch; 11 Zygomatic process of temporal bone; 12 Pterygoid hamulus; 13 Medial lamina of pterygoid process; 14 Lateral lamina of pterygoid
process; 15 Infratemporal crest, greater wing of sphenoid bone; 16 Oval foramen of sphenoid bone (foramen ovale); 17 Spinous foramen (foramen spinosum);
18 Foramen lacerum; 19 Articular tubercle; 20 Carotid canal; 21 Incomplete styloid process; 22 Mandibular fossa; 23 Jugular foramen (foramen jugulare);
24 Stylomastoid foramen; 25 Mastoid foramen; 26 External acoustic meatus; 27 Occipitomastoid suture; 28 Occipital condyle; 29 Parietal bone; 30 Condylar canal;
31 Lambdoidal suture; 32 Inferior nuchal line; 33 External occipital protuberance; 34 Great foramen (foramen magnum)
20
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.4. b The skull base with the mandible removed: exocranial view (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
21
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.5. a Superior view of the skull (calvaria) (adult cadaver skull). 1 Frontal bone; 2 Fracture line; 3 Coronal suture; 4 Parietal bone; 5 Sagittal suture
22
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.5. b Superior view of the skull (calvaria) (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
23
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.6. a Interior view of the calvaria (adult cadaver skull). 1 Frontal sinus; 2 Frontal bone; 3 Fracture line; 4 Outer table; 5 Diploe; 6 Inner table; 7 Frontal crest;
8 Coronal suture; 9 Parietal bone; 10 Sagittal suture; 11 Foveolae for arachnoid granulations; 12 Meningeal arterial grooves
24
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.6. b Interior view of the calvaria (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
25
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.7. a Dorsal view of the skull (adult cadaver skull). 1 Parietal bone; 2 Sagittal suture; 3 Saw line; 4 Occipital bone; 5 Suture bone; 6 Lambdoidal suture;
7 Parietomastoid suture; 8 Occipitomastoid suture; 9 Mastoid process; 10 Superior nuchal line; 11 Inferior nuchal line
26
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.7. b Dorsal view of the skull (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
27
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Fig. 2.8. a Paramedian view of the skull with the mandible and calvaria removed (adult cadaver skull). 1 Frontal bone; 2 Parietal bone; 3 Arteria sulci;
4 Occipital bone; 5 Squamosal portion of temporal bone; 6 Coronal suture; 7 Squamosal suture; 8 Lambdoidal suture; 9 Frontal sinus; 10 Sphenoidal sinus; 11 Nasal
bone; 12 Frontonasal suture; 13 Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone; 14 Vomer; 15 Dorsum sellae; 16 Clivus; 17 Spina nasalis anterior; 18 Spina nasalis posterior;
19 Hypophyseal fossa (sella turcica); 20 Hypoglossal canal; 21 Internal acoustic meatus; 22 Pterygoid fossa; 23 Pterygoid hamulus; 24 Alveolar process of maxillary
bone; 25 Incisive canal; 26 Palatine process of maxilla; 27 Screwhole
28
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.8. b Paramedian view of the skull with mandible and calvaria removed (3-D CT, adult cadaver skull)
29
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Skull of a Newborn
a b
Fig. 2.9. a The skull of a new-born: anterior view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a new-born: anterior view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Anterior fontanelle; 2 Frontal
eminence; 3 Frontal suture; 4 Parietal eminence; 5 Coronal suture; 6 Deciduous molar
a b
Fig. 2.10. a The skull of a new-born: right lateral view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a new-born: right lateral view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Anterior fontanelle;
2 Frontal eminence; 3 Coronal suture; 4 Parietal eminence; 5 Lambdoidal suture; 6 Sphenoidal fontanelle; 7 Greater wing of sphenoid bone; 8 Squamous portion
of temporale bone; 9 Transverse occipital suture; 10 Squamous portion of occipital bone; 11 Posterolateral fontanelle; 12 Tympanic ring
30
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
a b
Fig. 2.11. a The skull base of a new-born: exocranial view (cadaver skull). b The skull base of a new-born: exocranial view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Mandible;
2 Premaxilla; 3 Choana; 4 Vomer; 5 Tympanic ring; 6 Lateral portion of occipital bone; 7 Petrous portion of temporal bone; 8 Squamous portion of temportal bone;
9 Parietal eminence; 10 Mastoid fontanelle; 11 Transverse occipital suture; 12 Squamous portion of occipital bone
a b
Fig. 2.12. a The skull of a new-born: superior view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a new-born: superior view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Frontal eminence; 2 Anterior
fontanelle; 3 Coronal suture; 4 Parietal eminence; 5 Sagittal suture; 6 Posterior fontanelle; 7 Squamous portion of occipital bone
31
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
Skull of a Newborn
a b
Fig. 2.13. a The skull of a new-born: dorsal view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a new-born: dorsal view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Parietal eminence; 2 Sagittal
suture; 3 Posterior fontanelle; 4 Squamous portion of occipital bone
32
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
Skull of a 6-Year-Old Child
a b
Fig. 2.14. a The skull of a 6-year-old child: anterior view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a 6-year-old child: anterior view (3-D CT, cadaver skull). 1 Deciduous (milk)
teeth; 2 Rudiments of permanent teeth
a b
Fig. 2.15. a The skull of a 6-year-old child: right lateral view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a 6-year-old child: right lateral view (3-D CT, cadaver skull)
33
CHAPTER 2 Basic Craniofacial Anatomical Outlines
a b
Fig. 2.16. a The skull base of a 6-year-old child: exocranial view (cadaver skull). b The skull base of a 6-year-old child: exocranial view (3-D CT, cadaver skull)
a b
Fig. 2.17. a The skull of a 6-year-old child. Superior view (cadaver skull). b The skull of a 6-year-old child. Superior view (3-D CT, cadaver skull)
34
2.1 3-D CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
a b
Fig. 2.18. a The skull of a 6-year-old child: dorsal view. (cadaver skull). b The skull of a 6-year-old child: dorsal view. (3-D CT, cadaver skull)
35
2.2 Multiplanar CT Anatomy of the Skull CHAPTER 2
2.2 2.2.1
Multiplanar CT Anatomy of the Skull Axial CT Slices
a b
Fig. 2.19. a Virtual scene shows 3-D hard-tissue surface representation and orientation of axial, virtually reconstructed coronal and sagittal slices (patient K.C.).
b Virtual scene shows orientation of axial, virtually reconstructed coronal and sagittal slices (patient K.C.)
Fig. 2.20. 3-D hard-tissue surface representation shows the position of orbito-
meatal orientated axial slices 1–8 (Figs. 2.21–2.28) (patient K.C.)
37
Other documents randomly have
different content
2. Die Astronomie nach ihrer Begründung als
Mechanik des Himmels.
Wir haben in dem vorigen einleitenden Abschnitt in großen Zügen
die Entstehung des Weltbildes von den ältesten Beobachtungen bis
zur Begründung der Fixsternastronomie durch Herschel verfolgt.
Trotz der Vollendung, welche die Gravitationsmechanik durch
Laplace erfahren hatte, bereitete der von Herschel aufgefundene
Uranus den Astronomen große Schwierigkeiten. Nachdem für diesen
Planeten Beobachtungen vorlagen, die sich über 40 Jahre
erstreckten, war man zur Herstellung von Tafeln8 geschritten. Bald
nach der Entdeckung des Uranus hatte sich ergeben, daß einzelne
Stellungen dieses Planeten schon von älteren Astronomen9 im
Verlauf des 18. Jahrhunderts vermerkt worden waren; nur hatte man
diese Beobachtungen auf einen Fixstern 6. Größe, nicht aber auf
einen unserem Sonnensystem angehörenden Weltkörper bezogen.
Jene älteren Beobachtungen ließen sich jedoch nicht mit den
neueren zu brauchbaren Tafeln vereinigen. Man verwarf daher die
ersteren als ungenau, obgleich man damit den betreffenden
Beobachtern gewaltige Fehler zur Last legte.
Als nach der Herausgabe der Uranustafeln ein Vierteljahrhundert
verflossen war, stellte sich indes dasselbe Verhältnis zwischen den
neuesten und jenen Beobachtungen heraus, die zur Aufstellung der
Tafeln gedient hatten. Ein solcher Mangel an Übereinstimmung ließ
sich nicht abermals einer Ungenauigkeit zuschreiben. Es erhob sich
daher die Frage, ob die Theorie der Planetenbewegung etwa nicht
genügend ausgebildet sei und das Gravitationsgesetz z. B. für
größere Entfernungen keine strenge Gültigkeit besitze; oder ob der
Uranus noch anderen Einflüssen gehorche neben denjenigen, welche
die Sonne, Jupiter und Saturn auf ihn ausüben. Sollte es nicht unter
der letzten Annahme, so fragte man sich, möglich sein, durch ein
aufmerksames Studium der Abweichungen, welche der Uranus
darbietet, die bislang unbekannte Ursache dieser Abweichungen zu
ermitteln und den Punkt am Himmel anzugeben, wo der fremde
Körper, jene vermutliche Quelle aller Schwierigkeiten, seinen Sitz
hat? Diese Frage war es, mit der sich um das Jahr 1845 auf Aragos
Veranlassung ein junger, bis dahin kaum bekannter Franzose namens
Leverrier beschäftigte10. Das Problem war offenbar eine Umkehrung
der von Laplace zuerst bewältigten Störungsrechnung. Hatte man
früher aus der Kenntnis der Elemente des störenden Körpers die
Abweichungen des Planeten von der elliptischen Bahn berechnet, so
galt es jetzt, aus der genauen Kenntnis dieser Abweichungen die
Stellung und die Masse des störenden Weltkörpers zu ermitteln.
Hierbei ließ sich Leverrier zunächst durch einige Analogieschlüsse
leiten. Er nahm an, das zu entdeckende Gestirn sei von der Sonne
doppelt so weit wie der Uranus entfernt und befinde sich in der
Ebene der Ekliptik. Am 31. August des Jahres 1845 konnte er der
Pariser Akademie die Bahnelemente, die Masse, den Ort und die
scheinbare Größe des vermuteten Planeten mitteilen. Da sich die
Berliner Sternwarte damals im Besitz einer sehr genauen Karte der
von Leverrier angegebenen Gegend des Himmels befand, so wurde
diese Warte von dem Ergebnis der Rechnung in Kenntnis gesetzt. An
demselben Abend, als die Mitteilung aus Paris in die Hände Galles 11
gelangte, welcher derzeit in Berlin den Posten eines astronomischen
Hilfsarbeiters inne hatte, gelang diesem die Entdeckung des
gesuchten, später Neptun genannten äußersten Planeten. Er fand
ihn an einer Stelle, die nur einen Grad von dem durch Leverrier
berechneten Ort entfernt, war. Diese Entdeckung bedeutet einen der
größten Triumphe der Wissenschaft. »Das geistige Auge sah einen
Weltkörper und wies ihm seine Bahn und seine Masse an, ehe noch
ein Fernrohr auf ihn gerichtet wurde«12.
Dem geschilderten glänzenden Erfolg der theoretischen Astronomie
konnten sich die insbesondere durch Bessel bewirkten Fortschritte
der Beobachtungskunst würdig an die Seite stellen13.
Ermöglicht wurden die Fortschritte der beobachtenden Astronomie
vor allem durch die Vervollkommnung, welche die dioptrischen
Instrumente in der Hand eines Fraunhofers und anderer
hervorragender Optiker erfahren hatten. Ein Instrument, das die
geringsten Sterndistanzen zu messen gestattete, war Fraunhofers
Heliometer. Es gab Resultate, die auf Bruchteile von Bogensekunden
genau waren. Fraunhofer hatte dies durch Bisektion des Objektives
seines Instruments erreicht. Zur Ermittlung der Distanzen diente die
Verschiebung, die notwendig war, um die durch beide
Objektivhälften gesehenen Bilder zu vereinigen. Ein derartiges, erst
nach dem Tode Fraunhofers vollendetes Heliometer hatte14 auf
Veranlassung Bessels die Königsberger Sternwarte erworben.
Die vorzüglichen Ergebnisse, die Bessel mit diesem Instrument
erhielt, bewogen ihn, sich im Jahre 1837 dem schon so oft
vergeblich in Angriff genommenen Problem einer Bestimmung der
Parallaxen von Fixsternen15 wieder zuzuwenden. Zum Gegenstande
seiner Untersuchung wählte Bessel die jährliche Parallaxe des 61.
Sterns des Schwans, weil er dieses Gestirn, obgleich es für das bloße
Auge kaum sichtbar ist, für den nächsten oder einen der nächsten
von allen Fixsternen hielt. Seit der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts wußte
man durch Bradley, daß die Fixsterne eigentümliche, stetig
fortschreitende Bewegungen an der Himmelskugel zeigen, die eine
Änderung ihrer Stellungen gegen benachbarte Sterne zur Folge
haben und endlich die Gruppen, in welchen die Fixsterne erscheinen,
gänzlich umgestalten müssen.
Der 61. Stern des Schwans besaß nun die größte von allen
Eigenbewegungen, die Bessel bekannt waren. Er fand sie gleich 5
Sekunden für das Jahr. In Ermangelung eines anderen Anzeichens
für die größere oder geringere Nähe eines Fixsternes nahm Bessel
an, daß einer starken Eigenbewegung eine geringe Entfernung und
damit eine bedeutende Parallaxe entsprechen müsse. Der 61. Stern
des Schwans bot auch den Vorzug, daß er von vielen kleinen Sternen
umgeben ist, unter denen sich Vergleichungspunkte nach Belieben
auswählen ließen. Ferner besteht der 61. Stern des Schwans aus
zwei Weltkörpern; er ist also ein Doppelgestirn. Bessels
Beobachtungen waren Messungen der Abstände des in der Mitte des
Doppelgestirns liegenden Punktes von zwei Sternen der 10. Größe,
die sich in seiner Nähe befinden. Abbildung 1 zeigt die Lage des
Doppelsterns zu diesen beiden kleinen Sternen (a und b).
Dies brachte Graham auf den Gedanken, die Osmose zur Trennung
der Kolloide von den Kristalloiden zu benutzen, ähnlich wie man den
verschiedenen Grad der Flüchtigkeit verwertet, um beispielsweise
Salmiak von Kochsalz durch Erhitzen des Gemenges zu trennen. Für
seinen Zweck benutzte Graham den in Abb. 2 dargestellten, von ihm
Dialysator genannten Apparat. Er spannte über einen leichten Holzreif
eine Scheibe aus Pergamentpapier. Auf den Boden der so
entstandenen Höhlung goß er die Lösung, welche dialysiert werden
sollte. Das so erhaltene, siebförmige, zum Teil mit Flüssigkeit gefüllte
Gefäß wurde in einen größeren, mit Wasser versehenen Behälter
gesetzt, so daß es in der durch die Abbildung erläuterten Weise auf
dem Wasser schwamm. Letzteres nimmt, zumal wenn man es
häufiger erneuert, die Kristalloidsubstanz auf, während der kolloidale
Stoff nur in geringem Maße die Membran durchdringt. Infolgedessen
besteht die in dem Dialysator befindliche Flüssigkeit schließlich aus
einer fast reinen Lösung der Kolloidsubstanz. Grahams bekanntestes
Beispiel einer solchen Trennung ist die Darstellung kolloidaler
Kieselsäure durch Dialyse34. Er versetzte eine Lösung von
Natriumsilikat mit einem Überschuß an Salzsäure35 und brachte das
so entstandene Gemenge von Wasser, Kieselsäure, Kochsalz und
Salzsäure in den Dialysator. Nach einiger Zeit waren das Salz und die
Säure in das umgebende Wasser diffundiert, und in dem Dialysator
befand sich fast reine, gelöste Kieselsäure. Wurde die Lösung der
Kieselsäure etwas konzentriert und einige Tage aufbewahrt, so
machte sich eine neue, merkwürdige, mit dem kolloidalen Zustand
verknüpfte Erscheinung bemerkbar. Die Kieselsäurelösung
verwandelte sich nämlich in eine farblose, fast durchsichtige Gelatine
oder Gallerte. Durch eine solche gelatinierte Lösung geht, wie
Graham nachwies, die Diffusion einer Kristalloidsubstanz mit wenig
verringerter Geschwindigkeit, fast wie durch reines Wasser, vor sich,
während die gelatinierte Lösung für eine Kolloidsubstanz fast
undurchdringlich ist. Das Verhalten von Pergamentpapier und
tierischer Membran ließ sich also daraus erklären, daß diese
Scheidewände sich ganz wie gelatinöse Lösungen verhalten, weil sie
selbst Kolloidsubstanzen sind. Graham dehnte die Untersuchung
über den kolloidalen Zustand auf viele anorganische und organische
Verbindungen aus. Er wurde dadurch zum Begründer eines
besonderen Zweiges der Wissenschaft, den man heute als
Kolloidchemie bezeichnet. Graham ging so weit, die beiden von ihm
aufgestellten Gruppen von chemischen Verbindungen als »zwei
verschiedene Welten der Materie« zu bezeichnen. Kristalloide und
Kolloide sollten sich zu einander etwa wie der Stoff eines Minerals zur
organisierten Substanz verhalten. Spätere Untersuchungen ließen
jedoch erkennen, daß ein solch scharfer Gegensatz nicht vorhanden
ist. Der Unterschied in dem Verhalten der Kristalloide und der Kolloide
ist mehr gradweise als gegensätzlich. So diffundieren auch manche
Kristalloide nur langsam durch tierische Membranen hindurch. Solche
Kristalloide verhalten sich hinsichtlich der Diffusion also ähnlich wie
Kolloidsubstanzen, deren Diffusion ja auch nicht aufgehoben, sondern
nur sehr verlangsamt ist. Die Theorie erklärt diese Unterschiede aus
der Annahme, daß die Zwischenräume der Membransubstanz für die
Moleküle gewisser Substanzen zu klein sind, um einen raschen
Durchgang zu gestatten. Solche Stoffe sind es, die als Kolloide
erscheinen.
Eine Stütze fand diese Ansicht durch das von St. Claire-Deville
entdeckte und von Graham näher untersuchte Verhalten der Gase
gegen erhitzte metallische Scheidewände36. Die bekanntesten
Beispiele hierfür sind der Durchgang von Wasserstoff durch erhitztes
Platin und von Kohlenoxyd durch glühendes Eisen. Nach der
Vorstellung von St. Claire-Deville und Graham handelt es sich hier
um eine Porosität, der ein weit höherer Grad von Feinheit zukommt
als der Porosität von Gips, gebranntem Ton und ähnlichen Stoffen.
Beide Forscher nahmen an, daß die Erscheinung auf intermolekulare
Poren hinweist, die durch die Hitze in solchem Maße vergrößert
werden, daß sie Gasmolekeln den Durchtritt gewähren, für die sie bei
gewöhnlicher Temperatur zu eng sind.
Eine Fortsetzung fanden die osmotischen Untersuchungen, für die
Dutrochet und Graham die Grundlagen geschaffen hatten,
besonders von seiten der Physiologen. Sie erkannten, daß der
tierische und pflanzliche Stoffwechsel, sowie die in den Zellen
auftretenden Druckkräfte durch osmotische Vorgänge bedingt sind.
An die zu physiologischen Zwecken angestellten osmotischen
Untersuchungen knüpfte endlich die physikalische Chemie im
neuesten Stadium ihre Entwicklung wieder an, um tiefer in das
Wesen des chemischen Prozesses und in den molekularen Aufbau der
Verbindungen einzudringen. Doch kann sowohl von diesen als auch
von den physiologischen Ergebnissen der modernen Forschung erst
an späterer Stelle die Rede sein. Daß die Dialyse auch für die Technik
von Bedeutung geworden ist, sei hier nur nebenbei unter Hinweis auf
die Zuckergewinnung erwähnt. An die Stelle des früheren, stets nur
unvollkommenen Auspressens trat die Gewinnung des zuckerhaltigen
Saftes durch Diffusion, sowie die Trennung des Zuckers von den nicht
kristallisierenden Substanzen durch Dialyse37.
Erst um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde auf dem Gebiete der
Physik der Gase ein Problem zum Abschluß gebracht, mit dem sich
schon das 17. Jahrhundert beschäftigte und das in seinen Anfängen
bis in das griechische Zeitalter zurückreicht. Es ist dies das Problem,
den Zusammenhang zwischen Volumen, Druck und Temperatur der
Luft, sowie der Gase im allgemeinen zu ermitteln. Wir haben das
Problem in früheren Abschnitten durch seine einzelnen
Entwicklungsphasen verfolgt. Es hatte einen gewissen Abschluß durch
Boyle und durch Gay-Lussac gefunden. Boyle hatte das Gesetz für
die Abhängigkeit des Volumens vom Druck, Gay-Lussac die
Beziehung zwischen Volumen und Temperatur entdeckt. Nach der von
Gay-Lussac angestellten Untersuchung dehnen sich alle Gasarten,
wenn man sie in gleichem Maße erwärmt, um gleichviel aus, nämlich
für jeden Grad Celsius um 1/255 des Volumens, das sie bei 0°
einnehmen38. Diesem nicht nur für die Wärmemessung, sondern auch
für andere Zweige der Physik sehr wichtigen Koeffizienten hatte man
durch Jahrzehnte volles Vertrauen entgegengebracht, zumal Daltons
fast gleichzeitig angestellte Untersuchung dasselbe Ergebnis zu
bringen schien39. Es ist von höchstem Interesse, zu sehen, wie das
scheinbar zum Abschluß gebrachte Problem durch Zweifel an der
Richtigkeit des Gay-Lussacschen Gesetzes um 1837 wieder
aufgerollt wurde und zu einer Fülle von neuen, nach immer größerer
Genauigkeit strebenden Messungen und theoretischen Folgerungen
Anlaß gegeben hat.
Der erste Physiker, der sich mit einer Nachprüfung des von Gay-
Lussac ermittelten Wertes befaßte und infolgedessen den erwähnten
Anstoß gab, war Rudberg 40. Er bemerkte, daß die in Frage stehende
Konstante, die für die Thermometrie, die barometrische
Höhenmessung, die Ermittlung der Geschwindigkeit des Schalles und
manches andere in Betracht kommt, erheblich geringer ist, als von
Gay-Lussac angegeben. Als Grund dieser Abweichung vermutete
Rudberg, daß Gay-Lussac bei seinen Versuchen die Luft und die
übrigen Gase nicht genügend getrocknet habe41. Rudberg bemühte
sich daher, die Luft zunächst soweit wie möglich von Feuchtigkeit zu
befreien. Dazu bediente er sich des in der Gluthitze geschmolzenen
und bei Luftabschluß erkalteten Chlorkalziums. Abb. 3 erläutert seine
Versuchsanordnung. Die Glaskugel ab wurde mit dem
Chlorkalziumrohr ED verbunden. Um die in der Kugel ab befindliche
Luft zu trocknen, wurde sie durch starkes Erhitzen der Kugel zum
großen Teile ausgetrieben. Beim Erkalten füllte sich die Kugel mit
Luft, die durch das Chlorkalziumrohr ED treten mußte. Um jede Spur
von Feuchtigkeit zu entfernen, wiederholte Rudberg diese
Verrichtung etwa 50mal. Darauf wurde die Kugel in den Siedeapparat
AB gebracht und nebst ihrem Inhalt auf 100° erhitzt. Schließlich
wurde die Spitze der Kugel während des Siedens zugeschmolzen und
erst unter Quecksilber wieder abgebrochen, nachdem die Kugel durch
schmelzenden Schnee auf 0° abgekühlt war. Unter Berücksichtigung
des Barometerstandes fand Rudberg auf diese Weise für die
Temperaturdifferenz von 0° bis 100° die Ausdehnung der Luft zu
0,364 bis 0,365.
Abb. 3. Die genauere Bestimmung des Ausdehnungskoeffizienten
der Luft.
ebookball.com