Review Questions and Answers for Dental

Assisting 1st Edition by Betty Ladley Finkbeiner

ISBN 0323052843 9780323052849 download

https://ebookball.com/product/review-questions-and-answers-for-
dental-assisting-1st-edition-by-betty-ladley-finkbeiner-
isbn-0323052843-9780323052849-6754/

Instantly Access and Download Textbook at https://ebookball.com

 Get Your Digital Files Instantly: PDF, ePub, MOBI and More
Quick Digital Downloads: PDF, ePub, MOBI and Other Formats

Review Questions and Answers for Dental Assisting 2nd Edition by Betty
Ladley Finkbeiner ISBN 0323101712 9780323101714

https://ebookball.com/product/review-questions-and-answers-for-
dental-assisting-2nd-edition-by-betty-ladley-finkbeiner-
isbn-0323101712-9780323101714-5166/

Practice Management for the Dental Team 9th Edition by Betty Ladley
Finkbeiner, Charles Allan Finkbeiner ISBN 0323597653 9780323597654

https://ebookball.com/product/practice-management-for-the-dental-
team-9th-edition-by-betty-ladley-finkbeiner-charles-allan-
finkbeiner-isbn-0323597653-9780323597654-5630/

Practice Management for the Dental Team 7th Edition by Betty Ladley
Finkbeiner, Charles Allan Finkbeiner ISBN 0323065368 9780323065368

https://ebookball.com/product/practice-management-for-the-dental-
team-7th-edition-by-betty-ladley-finkbeiner-charles-allan-
finkbeiner-isbn-0323065368-9780323065368-7334/

Questions and Answers for Dental Nurses 3rd Edition by Carole Hollins
ISBN 1118341643 9781118341643

https://ebookball.com/product/questions-and-answers-for-dental-
nurses-3rd-edition-by-carole-hollins-
isbn-1118341643-9781118341643-6734/
Essential Orthopedic Review Questions and Answers for Senior Medical
Students 1st Edition by Adam Eltorai, Craig Eberson, Alan Daniels ISBN
9783319783871 3319783874

https://ebookball.com/product/essential-orthopedic-review-
questions-and-answers-for-senior-medical-students-1st-edition-by-
adam-eltorai-craig-eberson-alan-daniels-
isbn-9783319783871-3319783874-6634/

Forensic Pathology Review Questions and Answers 1st Edition by John

Wayne, Cynthia Schandl, Erin Presnell ISBN B076HRQC1B 978-1498756389

https://ebookball.com/product/forensic-pathology-review-
questions-and-answers-1st-edition-by-john-wayne-cynthia-schandl-
erin-presnell-isbn-b076hrqc1b-978-1498756389-3570/

Delmar Dental Assisting Exam Review 1st Edition by Melissa Thibodeaux

ISBN 0827390718 9780827390713

https://ebookball.com/product/delmar-dental-assisting-exam-
review-1st-edition-by-melissa-thibodeaux-
isbn-0827390718-9780827390713-6744/

Critical Care Medicine Review 1000 Questions and Answers 1st edition
by Abraham Sonny,Edward Bittner,Sheri Berg,Ryan Horvath 9781975103071
1975103076

https://ebookball.com/product/critical-care-medicine-
review-1000-questions-and-answers-1st-edition-by-abraham-sonny-
edward-bittner-sheri-berg-ryan-
horvath-9781975103071-1975103076-4484/

Questions and Answers in Community Dentistry 1st Edition by Pradnya

Kakodkar ISBN 8184488076 9788184488074

https://ebookball.com/product/questions-and-answers-in-community-
dentistry-1st-edition-by-pradnya-kakodkar-
isbn-8184488076-9788184488074-6776/
MOSBY

REVIEW
Questions and Answers
FOR

DENTAL ASSISTING
This page intentionally left blank
MOSBY

REVIEW
Questions and Answers
FOR

DENTAL ASSISTING
Edited and Contributed by
Betty Ladley Finkbeiner, RDA, MS
Faculty Emeritus
Washtenaw Community College
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Dental Assisting/Educational Consultant
Fort Myers, Florida
11830 Westline Industrial Drive
St. Louis, Missouri 63146

MOSBY REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR DENTAL ASSISTING ISBN: 978-0-323-05284-9
Copyright © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s
Rights Department: phone: (+1) 215 239 3804 (US) or (+44) 1865 843830 (UK); fax: (+44) 1865 853333;
e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier website
at http://www.elsevier.com/permissions.

Notice

Neither the Publisher nor the Editors assume any responsibility for any loss or injury and/or damage to
persons or property arising out of or related to any use of the material contained in this book. It is the
responsibility of the treating practitioner, relying on independent expertise and knowledge of the patient,
to determine the best treatment and method of application for the patient.
The Publisher

Library of Congress Control Number 2007941950

Senior Editor: John Dolan

Managing Editor: Jaime Pendill
Editorial Assistant: Joslyn Dumas
Publishing Services Manager: Melissa Lastarria
Project Manager: Mary Pohlman
Design Manager: Amy Buxton

Printed in United States of America

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate v

Contributors

Sharron J. Cook, CDA

Instructor, Dental Assisting
School of Health Sciences
Columbus Technical College
Columbus, Georgia

W. Stephen Eakle, DDS

Professor, Clinical Dentistry
Chief, Section of Patient Care
Division of General Dentistry
Department of Preventive and Restorative Dental
Sciences
School of Dentistry
University of California
San Francisco, California

Charles John Palenik, MS, PhD, MBA

Director, Infection Control Research and Services
School of Dentistry
Indiana University
Indianapolis, Indiana

Joseph W. Robertson, DDS

Private Practice
Troy, Michigan

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate vii

Reviewers

Sharron J. Cook, CDA

Instructor, Dental Assisting
School of Health Sciences
Columbus Technical College
Columbus, Georgia

Heidi Gottfried, BA, CDA

Director and Chairperson
Dental Assisting Program
Gateway Technical College
Kenosha Campus
Kenosha, Wisconsin

Theresa A. Groody, EFDA, CDA, BHS

Expanded Functions Dental Assisting Coordinator
and Assistant to the Dean of Continuing Studies
Harcum College
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate ix

Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide a steadfast you choose the topic (General Chairside, Radiation
review for the dental assisting student preparing for Health and Safety, or Infection Control), and how
course review, local or state exams, or for national many questions you want to work through. Ques-
certification. Three comprehensive tests are included tions are randomized from each test, so you will not
in the same format as the national exam. Tests are necessarily see the questions in the same order they
divided into the following categories: appear in the book. Immediate feedback is given
• General Chairside (360 questions total/120 after an answer is selected.
questions per test) The CD also includes questions for a variety of
• Radiation Health and Safety (300 questions Expanded Functions. Questions can be selected by
total/100 questions per test) topic or by state. If you choose the state option, the
• Infection Control (300 questions total/100 program will randomize questions for each topic
questions per test) recognized by the state selected.
For added convenience, each question is repeated
in the answer key with the rationale for the correct EXPANDED FUNCTIONS
choice so that the results can be checked. It should be noted that Expanded Functions (EF)
The CD in this book will allow you to test your- vary by state. The EF questions that are included
self electronically and includes additional practice have not been written for any particular location.
with the approved Expanded Functions in your state. We urge all users of this product to be familiar with
the current approved EF for their state by contacting
ABOUT THE CD the appropriate board of dentistry or other govern-
The accompanying CD provides more opportuni- ing agency.
ties to review specific topics. All 960 questions in the
book are available electronically. The program lets

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate xi

Preparing for a Credentialing

Examination—Guidelines for
the Candidate Betty Ladley Finkbeiner

As you open this book you may be asking yourself, appropriate guidelines from various governing agen-
“Why am I doing this”? You may think, “I don’t cies can only serve to protect you, the dental staff,
need to do this to have a job as a dental assistant”. and the patients.
That may be true in some situations but in many Finally, having a credential that recognizes your
regions of the country you need a validated standard knowledge and skills can only serve to increase your
of performance in accordance with state dental laws. self-esteem. For some, this is most important as it
However, there are many reasons why you should shows that you have a documented base of knowledge
have a professional credential. Anyone who tells you that is recognized by the dental profession and you
otherwise is not thinking about your professional have become an important member of the dental
worth or the importance of such a credential to your health team ... it could also result in a salary increase.
patients.
The first and foremost reason for a credential is
to practice legally. As a dental assistant you should be GETTING READY
familiar with the dental law within the state where you What is the most important thing a student should
are employed. Many states require documentation of do to prepare for an examination?
a professional credential to prove your performance a. Get a good night’s sleep before the examination
in one or more areas of dental assisting. A list of and eat only a light breakfast.
national organizations and contacts for each state’s board b. Take two aspirin before entering the examina-
of examiners is included in the back of this book. tion room to ward off the distraction of a
Patients who are in the care of a licensed dentist possible headache.
expect that the dentist will employ qualified person- c. Develop an attitude of cautious optimism, that
nel. Further they should expect that each of these is, “I believe I will pass this examination.”
employees will have completed all the necessary edu- d. Develop a thorough understanding of the body
cation, and where applicable, secured a professional of knowledge and concepts to be covered by
credential. By obtaining a recognized professional the examination.
credential in dentistry, you have proven that you have If you chose “D”, you are off to a good start in
the minimal qualifications to practice the duties that preparing yourself for any examination, particularly
are legally delegable in your state. The credential ones like the Dental Assisting National Board or the
should be posted where patients can visibly recognize state board credentialing exams. There is only one
your professional status. way to conquer a well-developed examination—to
By completing the Dental Assisting National know the answers to the questions. The “trick” to
Board (DANB) Certified Dental Assistant (CDA®), obtaining good test scores is primarily to retain and
Infection Control or Radiography examination, you apply the knowledge and skills learned in formal
have validated that you are familiar with the basic course work and in clinical applications.Various ways
concepts of a technical safe practice.This is important of helping you develop this strategy will be discussed
to your employer and to the patients who come un- later.
der your care. Today’s patients are concerned with If you selected “C”, you chose an important re-
their safety and are aware of potential hazards that sponse but not the “Best” one. It is important to go
exist in health care.You can allay some of those fears into any examination with a positive attitude and
if you demonstrate your knowledge in the areas of with minimal anxiety, but such an attitude is realis-
infection control, radiography, and quality assurance. tic only if you do have a good command of the
Further, putting into practice these concepts and the subject.

xi
xii Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate

If you chose “A”, then perhaps you interpreted Many multiple choice questions are written with
the words “prepare for an examination” to mean only distracters (responses that are not the answers) that are
those things that should be done on the day before partially correct or that are correct but are not the
and the day of an exam. But preparation for an ex- best answer.
amination begins on the day you learn the first vo- Some critics of multiple choice tests claim that
cabulary word or the first concept associated with you can score well on such a test by memorizing
any area of learning. Exams are just one phase in the facts and learning some tricks to answering such
total ongoing learning process. questions. Such criticism is not true for any well
Alternative “B” in the opening example is not a suit- developed national or state credentialing examina-
able response. It should be obvious that neither aspirin tion. The test you take will have been prepared by
nor any other drug can compensate for knowledge. test specialists. Each test question will have been
Before beginning to study for any type of examina- tried out in regular testing situations with students
tion, there are at least three things to do: (1) secure a in classes for dental assistants. You will be taking a
set of objectives for the area or areas that the examina- great risk if you assume that skillful “guessing” will
tion is designed to evaluate, (2) secure a set of sample produce a passing score.
questions that are similar to the ones to be used on the No written examination can test your ability to
examination for which you will be studying, and (3) apply the knowledge or the understanding that you
review the materials in 1 and 2 thoroughly. must possess to function as a dental assistant. Some
state credentialing exams are apt to include a practi-
LEARNING ABOUT THE EXAMINATION cal or clinical test, a test in which you will be asked
Whether you are preparing for a national certifica- to “demonstrate” what you have learned by doing
tion examination such as the DANB or a state board such things as producing a full crown or intracoronal
or regional credentialing exam you need to be fa- interim restoration or placing a rubber dam. Any of
miliar with the material that will be covered. During the clinical tasks, especially expanded functions that
the application process you will be provided with an you have learned to do, may serve as a “situational”
outline of the content and rules to follow on ex- test in which your actual performance is observed
amination day. Pay close attention to the content and graded. It provides final evidence of whether or
outline and to the number of questions to be asked not a candidate can “put it all together” and function
on each topic. (For information about the DANB satisfactorily in a setting that simulates real life in a
examination visit the website at www.danb.org and dental office.
click on the DANB Exam button on the left.) The purpose of any credentialing examination is
If you are taking a state board or regional type to determine the extent to which each candidate has
examination that includes a clinical component, mastered the knowledge, concepts, and skills neces-
thoroughly review the list of materials you are to sary to perform satisfactorily as a dental assistant.
bring. If a patient is part of the clinical component, No examination, either written or practical, can be
review the clinical requirements of the patient to long enough to actually cover every concept or skill.
ensure that your patient meets the criteria for the Therefore test developers must select questions
exam procedure. You should become familiar with and practical situations that are typical of the total
the patient prior to the examination and not be body of knowledge and skills in dental assisting. As
forced to work with an unfamiliar patient. Do not a candidate, you will not know what specific
wait until the day before the test to prepare your concepts and skills you will be tested on. The only
clinical tray or box since you may find that you do solution is to be well prepared in all aspects of dental
not have access to some material or instrument and assisting.
may need to buy or borrow some device. For written examinations, the multiple choice
questions are considered the most versatile. It is a
EXAMINATION FORMAT good method for measuring the knowledge of tech-
In addition to knowing the content to be covered, it nical vocabulary and specific information that dental
is important to know that written examinations are assistants must possess. It is also an effective method
usually multiple choice. All questions are apt to be of measuring your understanding of relationships
in that format with one best answer for each question. and interrelationships (which things go together and
 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate xiii

which do not). It may be used for measuring as possible, and when necessary, recopy the notes for
your application of knowledge to situations that better understanding. If after you have reviewed and
are different from ones you may have previously edited your notes you have doubts about a concept
experienced. or basic information, be sure to ask your instructor as
About the only type of cognitive skill that is not soon as possible for clarification.
measured well by the multiple choice questions is In addition to identifying the key concepts from
creativity. Although credentialing examinations are text materials, lectures, and notes, it is important to
designed to find out whether you have mastered the develop a thorough understanding of the dental vo-
basic fundamental skills of a subject area; they are not cabulary. Every profession has its own vocabulary—
designed to discover potential talent for creative not only the technical words that identify important
innovations. materials, concepts, rules, and ideas, but also the
On any certification, registry, or licensure exami- words commonly used to communicate in the pro-
nation, you will be tested on how well you have fession. Technical vocabulary will be tested in any
acquired and internalized the basic language, con- written or practical exam. In addition, the questions
cepts, and skills of dental assisting; those things that that you will be asked on any credentialing examina-
must become second nature to you as a practicing tion will be worded in the day-to-day language of
dental assistant. the profession.To progress through the test efficiently,
it is essential that you understand quickly and com-
STUDYING pletely each question that you are asked. If you
The best preparation for a credentialing examination do not understand a question, it will be difficult to
is to be prepared for every dental assisting class that answer it correctly.
you take.The required textbooks for courses in dental In addition to the general suggestions for learn-
assisting should be studied carefully not only for im- ing and studying throughout your education, there
mediate acquisition of knowledge, but particularly for are other options that may be helpful as you review
internalization and retention of that knowledge. Many material in preparation for a credentialing examina-
students find it helpful to highlight key passages in a tion. Some schools provide review sessions or classes
text so that they can go back and skim those passages to prepare you. However, if these are not available,
easily. This same marking system also works one of the most effective steps you can take is to
if you have taken online courses and have down- develop cooperative study sessions with one or two
loaded lectures. Sometimes the author(s) of a text will friends. Such sessions are best conducted as much
emphasize important points for you by paragraph like a classroom situation as possible; that is, each
headings or by italicized sentences. Acquisition and person should develop a series of questions to ask
retention of important concepts require repetition the other(s) along with the materials necessary to
for most people. Therefore taking the time during answer the questions prior to the joint study session.
an initial reading to make review work easy is time If your colleagues miss any of the questions, you
well spent. should be prepared to explain the answer to them
Taking good class notes is a very important study and vice versa. Teaching the concepts or skill to
skill. Many instructors spend some time making key someone else is one of the best learning techniques
points and quite a lot of time illustrating these to acquire that concept or skill yourself. Conse-
points. Most students are well advised to concentrate quently, your weakest area is the best one to teach
on writing down the key points without trying to to others. Naturally study sessions such as these are
take notes verbatim. It may be helpful to write down not comparable to a formal class, but they should be
some of your instructor’s examples but only if these conducted in a businesslike fashion. If these study
examples seem necessary to remember the discus- sessions become just a social outing among friends,
sion. If the instructor provides outlines or copies of you may enjoy them, but they will cease to contrib-
PowerPoint presentations, use a colored marker to ute much to your exam preparation.
highlight important points. Regardless of whether you take a formal review
Some students find it difficult to review their own class or develop a study session with colleagues, such
notes after a lecture. It is wise to date the notes, make an experience will likely be very beneficial. A bonus
a heading title on the page, review the notes as soon of these sessions is enhanced confidence in your
xiv Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate

ability to do well in an examination. Nothing builds aminations that the directions for this one will
confidence as much as feeling that you have mas- be the same.
tered some area of knowledge or skill so well that • If the directions are not completely clear to
you can help others understand it. you, ask the examiner in charge of the session
to explain exactly what is required.
FRAME OF MIND • Understand completely the mechanics that you
It is wise and prudent to prepare yourself physically are expected to follow during the examination.
for an exam by getting at least 8 hours of sleep and • In a written test you will be given multiple
avoiding caffeine. Keep in mind that the test you are choice questions in a booklet and a separate
taking in dental assisting is to measure your mental answer sheet.
abilities not your physical prowess. Studying all night – Do not make responses hurriedly or carelessly.
before an examination is not a recommended behav- – Be certain you place your answer on the
ior. Physical fatigue can depress test taking efficiency. correct form, correct line and in the space
The best physical preparation is simply to avoid any provided.
major variation from your normal routine. • On a computer test you will enter your answers
Preparing for a good mental attitude means that on the screen.
you develop a confidence that you have adequately – Be certain that your selection is placed in the
prepared yourself and that you expect to do well. correct space provided.
You may approach an examination with some de- • Be cautious when you correct an answer that
gree of anxiety, like an athlete who enters a compe- your previous answer has either been erased or
tition. This feeling is not necessarily bad. Research deleted in either the paper or computer test
indicates that some test anxiety, as long as it is not format.
severe, may help to produce a positive result. • Be certain to answer every question.
There is a myth that large numbers of students – In the computer format, most test formats
“clutch” when taking examinations, particularly will indicate that you have not answered spe-
written examinations. No doubt there are some cific questions and you can then scroll back
individuals who have developed psychological blocks to these questions.
to taking tests, but from my teaching experience, – In a written format, you will need to review
I have noted that many (probably most) students your answer sheet for blank spaces to ensure
who claim that a low test score was caused by an that you have entered an answer for every
inability to perform well on tests have not developed question.
the requisite knowledge and skills to answer the – You must arrive at one correct or one “best”
questions. answer.
Sometimes repeated practice on similar written – If you must, “guess” between two alterna-
examinations will be helpful. But if you feel you have tives, eliminate the two or three you know
a serious test taking problem, it may be necessary to are wrong first.
seek some professional counseling to overcome this – If you can eliminate any responses as incor-
situation. Some of the following suggestions may rect based on your knowledge, you will not
help if you have difficulty taking a test. be guessing randomly but will be exercising
• Bring all of the necessary admission and testing “informed guessing”.
materials with you. • In a clinical examination, you may be expected
– Follow the guidelines provided for you by to select instruments, arrange instruments, and/
the testing agency. or perform some other task.
• When entering the testing room, choose a seat – Acquaint yourself with the physical facility.
that will be comfortable for you, unless you are – If the required procedures are not clear to
assigned a seat or location. you, ask for clarification.
• Read carefully the printed directions given • Whether a written or clinical examination,
to you. budget your time.
• Listen carefully to the verbal directions. Do not – Make a quick overview of the number of
assume that because you have taken many ex- tasks required in the clinical examination or
 Preparing for a Credentialing Examination—Guidelines for the Candidate xv

the number of questions to be answered in a • Be cautious when reviewing your answer sheet
written examination. to not make arbitrary changes in your answers.
– Think of the pace you will need to follow to – Be certain to review the question thoroughly
allow appropriate amounts of time for each before making an answer change.
section. – Limited research available suggests the
– Remember that some tasks or questions may “abler” student tends to increase his or her
require more time than others. test scores “a bit” by carefully reviewing
• Many test takers find it wise to work all the items, whereas lower scoring students do
way through a written exam at a fairly rapid not. Go back over questions primarily to
pace by answering first all the questions that check that you have not made some obvi-
they “know” or to which they can work out ous error in such things as reading or
the answer fairly quickly. marking.
– This method suggests skipping the tough • When taking a clinical examination, many of
questions the first time through and coming the same principles apply.
back to them. – Proceed cautiously and deliberately, making
– It helps you to build on your own success. sure that you understand the task being
– Success can help to lessen fears or concerns presented.
that you may have about the testing situation. – Be certain to review your work to ensure it
– Sometimes the reading of a question in the meets the clinical criteria before indicating
middle or toward the end of an examination you have completed the tasks.
may trigger your mind with the answer or The credentialing examinations available for dental
may provide an important clue for an earlier assistants have been designed to allow students to dem-
question. onstrate knowledge, and show their proficiency in skills
• Be certain if you skip a question that you take essential to begin work as dental professionals.Think of
caution in entering the next answer in the ap- the credentialing examination in dental assisting as an
propriate space; double check the question opportunity to demonstrate professional competency
number with the number on the answer sheet in your chosen field. Preparation for such an exam is
or the computer screen. preparation for your chosen profession.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

The publisher wishes to thank Betty Ladley

Finkbeiner for her expertise and leadership in this
project. Her work ethic and many insights were an
inspiration to us all.

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 xix

Contents

Preparing for a Credentialing

Examination—Guidelines for the
Candidate Betty Ladley Finkbeiner xi

TEST 1

General Chairside 1
Radiation Health and Safety 22
Infection Control 39
Answer Key 53

TEST 2

General Chairside 79
Radiation Health and Safety 102
Infection Control 123
Answer Key 137

TEST 3

General Chairside 165

Radiation Health and Safety 188
Infection Control 208
Answer Key 221

National and State Contacts 249

Bibliography/Suggested Readings 252
Figure Credits 254

xix
This page intentionally left blank
 TEST

1
General Chairside, Radiation
Health and Safety, and Infection
Control

1
This page intentionally left blank
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 3

General Chairside
Directions: Select the response that best answers each of the following questions. Only
one response is correct.

1. The position of the body standing erect with the feet together and the arms hanging at the sides with
the palms facing forward is referred to as the:
a. resting position
b. anatomic position
c. supine position
d. postural position

2. In the illustration shown, Dr. Curtis was assisted by Debbie May Ross to complete operative treatment
for this patient. What required data are missing from the chart?
a. file number or “NA” if not used, date of the appointment, dentist’s initials
b. time of the appointment, amount of cavity medication used, dentist’s initials
c. type of dental material, amount of cavity medication used, assistant’s initials
d. file number or “NA” if not used, assistant’s initials

PROGRESS NOTES
Name Whitworth, Kimberly Birth date 10/27/69 File # Page 1
11/19/00 19MD 2C Carbo., Life, A J WC

3. The examination technique in which the examiner uses his or her fingers and hands to feel for size,
texture, and consistency of hard and soft tissue is called:
a. detection
b. palpation
c. probing
d. extraoral examination

4. Which type of consent is given when a patient enters a dentist’s office?

a. informed consent
b. implied consent
c. implied consent for minors
d. informed refusal

5. Consent is:
a. an involuntary act
b. voluntary acceptance or agreement to what is planned or done by another person
c. only necessary for surgical procedures
d. something that any person over 21 may give for another’s treatment
4 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

6. A patient’s chart that denotes abnormally small jaws would indicate:

a. micrognathia
b. macrodontia
c. macrognathia
d. anodontia

7. The tooth-numbering system that begins with the maxillary right third molar as tooth No. 1 and ends
with the mandibular right third molar as tooth No. 32 is the:
a. Universal System
b. Palmer Notation System
c. Fédération Dentaire Internationale System
d. Bracket Numbering System

8. An abbreviation used in the progress notes or chart to indicate a mesioocclusobuccal restoration

would be:
a. BuOcM
b. BOM
c. MOD
d. MOB

9. A hereditary abnormality in which there are defects in the enamel formation is:
a. germination
b. fusion
c. ankylosis
d. amelogenesis imperfecta

10. Any tooth that remains unerupted in the jaw beyond the time at which it should normally erupt is
referred to as being:
a. abraded
b. impacted
c. ankylosed
d. fused

11. An oral habit consisting of involuntary gnashing, grinding, and clenching of the teeth is:
a. bulimia
b. bruxism
c. attrition
d. abrasion

12. A horizontal or transverse plane divides the body into:

a. superior and inferior portions
b. dorsal and ventral portions
c. anterior and posterior portions
d. medial and lateral portions

13. The cells associated with bone formation are known as:
a. osteoclasts
b. cancellous cells
c. cortical cells
d. osteoblasts
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 5

14. Which of the following teeth generally have two roots?

a. maxillary first molars
b. mandibular first molars
c. maxillary second premolars
d. maxillary central incisors

15. Which of the following is not a function of the paranasal sinuses?

a. lighten the skull
b. provide resonance
c. aid in digestion
d. warm respired air

16. How many teeth are in the arch of a deciduous dentition?

a. 10
b. 20
c. 32
d. 52

17. The tooth that has two roots and five cusps of which three are on the buccal and two are on the
lingual would be a:
a. maxillary first molar
b. maxillary first premolar
c. mandibular first molar
d. mandibular second molar

18. A 10-year-old patient would likely have which of the following teeth?
a. permanent mandibular central and lateral incisors, primary second molars, permanent
mandibular canines, permanent first molars
b. permanent mandibular central and lateral incisors, permanent first and second premolars, primary
second molars, permanent first molars
c. primary mandibular central and lateral incisors, primary second molars, permanent canines,
permanent first molars
d. permanent mandibular canines, primary central and lateral incisors, primary second molars,
permanent first molars

19. What is the average range of the body’s oral resting temperature?
a. 93.5º F to 99.5º F
b. 95º F to 99.5º F
c. 96.5º F to 100º F
d. 97.6º F to 99º F

20. The most common site for taking a patient’s pulse in the dental office is the:
a. brachial artery
b. carotid artery
c. radial artery
d. femoral artery
6 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

21. The primary step in preventing a medical emergency is to be certain the patient has __________
before treatment is begun.
a. eaten
b. taken all assigned medications
c. completed and updated their medical history
d. signed a consent form

22. Which of the following is each member of the dental team not required to have the knowledge and skills
to perform prior to handling an emergency in the dental office?
a. current credentials to perform basic life support or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
b. current certification to administer all cardiac medications
c. current credentials to perform the Heimlich maneuver
d. ability to obtain and record vital signs

23. The ABCDs of basic life support stand for:

a. access, breath, care, and dial
b. airway, breathing, circulation, and dial
c. airway, breathing, circulation, and defibrillation
d. assess, breath, care, and dial

24. The most frequently used substance in a medical emergency is:

a. glucose
b. oxygen
c. epinephrine
d. ammonia inhalant

25. The dental assistant’s responsibility in an emergency situation is:

a. to recognize the symptoms and signs of a significant medical complaint
b. to provide appropriate support in implementing emergency procedures
c. to identify a specific condition or emergency situation
d. both a and b

26. __________, which is precipitated by stress and anxiety, may manifest in rapid, shallow breathing;
lightheadedness; rapid heartbeat; and a panic-stricken appearance and is treated by having the patient
breathe into a paper bag or cupped hands.
a. Asthma attack
b. Hyperventilation
c. Allergic reaction
d. Angina

27. The list of emergency telephone numbers posted next to each telephone throughout the office should
include all except _____________.
a. police and firefighters
b. nearest hospital, physicians, and oral surgeons
c. patient emergency numbers
d. EMS system

28. To ensure that a medical emergency is observed immediately, it is important for the dental assistant to:
a. check the patient’s pulse periodically during treatment
b. check the patient’s blood pressure periodically during treatment
c. be alert to continuously observe the patient to note any potential problems
d. ask the patient periodically how he or she feels
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 7

29. The three characteristics noted in the patient record when measuring respirations are:
a. rate, rhythm, and flow
b. rate, rhythm, and depth
c. volume, flow, and rate
d. volume, flow, and depth

Use the following chart to answer questions 30 and 31.

30. The symbol on tooth No. 3 indicates that this tooth:

a. has a sealant placed
b. has a stainless steel crown
c. needs to have a sealant
d. has occlusal staining

31. The symbols on teeth Nos. 18 through 20 indicate that:

a. No. 19 is a full gold crown
b. No. 19 is missing and a bridge is present
c. Nos. 18 and 20 are missing
d. Nos. 18 and 20 are pontics
8 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

32. Based on the chart given here, how many permanent teeth are present on the mandible?
a. 6
b. 10
c. 12
d. 14

33. When a patient’s pulse is being taken, his or her arm should be:
a. well supported and above his or her shoulder
b. hanging loosely between his or her knees
c. unsupported and extended below the waist
d. well supported, extended and positioned at the same level or lower than the heart

34. Motion economy is the concept that encourages the dental health care worker to:
a. increase the number and length of motions at chairside
b. decrease the number and length of motions at chairside
c. use quick motions to save energy
d. use slow deliberate motions that exercise the arm to reduce stress

35. Which of the following devices might not be found on a prophylaxis tray?
a. cotton-tipped applicator
b. gauze sponge
c. straight fissure plain cut bur
d. polishing cup

36. Which of the following devices would be a choice for checking a patient’s occlusion during an oral
prophylaxis?
a. cotton-tipped applicator
b. gauze sponge
c. articulating paper
d. straight fissure cross cut bur
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 9

37. Which of the following should be done if the patient has thick, heavy saliva that adheres to the
prophylaxis cup during the polishing procedure?
a. place a saliva ejector in the mouth instead of using the HVE tip
b. keep the HVE tip as close as possible to the polishing cup
c. do not polish the teeth
d. have the patient rinse out in the sink after all the polishing is done

38. What prosthetic device replaces missing teeth by metal framework and artificial teeth?
a. maxillary denture
b. mandibular partial denture
c. bridge
d. restoration

39. The portion of a bridge that replaces the missing tooth is called a(n):
a. denture
b. abutment
c. pontic
d. root

40. Which of the following instruments would be used to measure the depth of the gingival sulcus?
a. periodontal probe
b. cowhorn explorer
c. right angle explorer
d. shepherd’s hook

41. Which of the following instruments is used to scale deep periodontal pockets or furcation areas?
a. curette scaler
b. Gracey scaler
c. straight sickle scaler
d. modified sickle scaler

42. The HVE system is used:

a. to remove liquids slowly
b. to remove large volumes of fluid and debris from the mouth
c. primarily during surgical procedures
d. most commonly during a prophylaxis

43. Which of the following instruments can be used to invert the rubber dam?
a. explorer
b. spoon excavator
c. Svedopter
d. floss

44. If treatment is to be performed on tooth No. 13, which of the following is true about clamp
placement?
a. The clamp is placed on No. 14, and Nos. 14 through 11 are isolated.
b. The clamp is placed on No. 15, and Nos. 15 through 12 are isolated.
c. The clamp is placed on No. 13, and Nos. 14 through 11 are isolated.
d. The clamp is placed on No. 12, and Nos. 12 through 15 are isolated.
10 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

45. You are assisting a right-handed operator in a procedure performed on the patient’s left side. The HVE
tip and A/W syringe are being used. The operator signals for a transfer. You must:
a. return the A/W to the dental unit, hold onto the HVE, and pick up the new instrument to be
transferred
b. transfer the A/W syringe to the right hand, retain the HVE tip in the right hand, and pick up the
new instrument to be transferred
c. lay both the HVE and A/W syringe across your lap, and pick up the new instrument to be
transferred
d. give a signal to the dentist/operator that you are unable to make the transfer at this time

46. Which of the following is not a correct statement for seating the operating team?
a. The operator’s thighs are parallel to the floor.
b. The assistant’s thighs are parallel to the floor.
c. The operator is always seated at the 12 o’clock position.
d. The mobile cart is placed close to the patient chair.

47. When placing the amalgam into the preparation for a 31DO restoration, the first increment should be
placed into the:
a. distoocclusal region
b. proximal box
c. mesioocclusal region
d. midocclusal region

48. Which of the following instruments would be used to grasp tissue or bone fragments during a surgical
procedure?
a. hemostat
b. locking endodontic pliers
c. periosteal elevator
d. rongeur forceps

49. Which of the following is the common choice in providing for retention in a cavity preparation?
a. No. 34 high speed
b. No. 57 low speed
c. No. 2, 3, or 6 low speed
d. No. ½ on low or high speed

50. Which of these would not be a form of matrix for an anterior esthetic restoration?
a. celluloid strip
b. celluloid crown
c. universal metal matrix band
d. Class V composite matrix

51. When placing a composite restoration on the buccal cervical of tooth No. 30, which is the choice
of matrix?
a. universal circumferential metal matrix
b. Class V composite matrix
c. celluloid strip
d. celluloid crown
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 11

52. The most common form of anesthesia used in operative dentistry is:
a. local
b. conscious sedation
c. inhalation
d. general

53. For dental professionals, the safest allowable amount of N2O is _____ parts per million.
a. 50
b. 75
c. 100
d. 1000

54. Which of the following medical conditions is not a contraindication to using a vasoconstrictor in the
local anesthesia during operative treatment?
a. recent heart attack
b. uncontrolled heart failure
c. recent coronary artery bypass surgery
d. diabetes

55. __________ is frequently used on the mandibular teeth and is injected near a major nerve that
anesthetizes the entire area served by that nerve branch.
a. Block anesthesia
b. Infiltration anesthesia
c. Innervation anesthesia
d. Induction anesthesia

56. Nitrous oxide oxygen administration always begins and ends with:
a. the patient deep breathing
b. the patient breathing 100% oxygen
c. taking the patient’s blood pressure and temperature
d. providing a glass of water or other cold beverage

57. Which of the following is not a form of a retention aid for a crown when the tooth is extensively
decayed, is fractured, or has had endodontic treatment?
a. resin-bonded bracket
b. core buildup
c. retention pins
d. post and core
12 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

58. The tray setup in the photograph is used to:

a. place separators
b. fit and cement orthodontic bands
c. directly bond orthodontic bands
d. place and remove ligature ties

59. To control swelling after a surgical procedure, the patient should be instructed to:
a. place a cold pack in a cycle of 20 minutes on and 20 minutes off for the first 24 hours
b. place a cold pack in a cycle of 60 minutes on and 60 minutes off for the first 12 hours
c. place a cold pack in a cycle of 20 minutes on and 20 minutes off for the first 12 hours, then apply
heat in the same form for the next 12 hours
d. place a heat pack in a cycle of 20 minutes on and 20 minutes off for the first 24 hours

60. A painful condition that can occur after a surgical extraction is inflammation known as __________,
also known as __________.
a. periodontitis, lost granulation tissue
b. alveolitis, dry socket
c. hemostasis, dry socket
d. hemostasis, granulation tissue

61. It may take ____________ to complete a dental implant procedure.

a. 1 month
b. 6 to 8 weeks
c. 3 to 9 months
d. 1 year

62. A metal frame that is placed under the periosteum and on top of the bone is called a(n):
a. endosteal implant
b. subperiosteal implant
c. transosteal implant
d. triseptal implant

63. The natural rubber material used to obturate the pulp canal after treatment is completed is called:
a. silver point
b. gutta-percha
c. glass ionomer
d. endodontic filler
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 13

64. In this photograph, which instrument is a barbed broach?

A B C

65. A common solution used for irrigation during the debridement procedure in endodontic treatment is:
a. sodium chloride
b. sterile saline solution
c. sodium hypochlorite
d. sterile water

66. The incisional periodontal surgical procedure that does not remove tissues but pushes away the
underlying tooth roots and alveolar bone is known as:
a. gingivectomy
b. gingivoplasty
c. flap surgery
d. apicoectomy

67. Which of the following does not contribute to periodontal disease?

a. pathologic migration
b. bruxism
c. mobility
d. tooth eruption time

68. The __________ is an instrument that resembles a large spoon and is used to debride the interior of
the socket to remove diseased tissue and abscesses.
a. root tip elevator
b. rongeur
c. surgical curette
d. hemostat
14 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

69. From the instruments shown here, select the curette.

A B C D E

70. Coronal polishing is a technique used for all of the following purposes except ___________.
a. to remove plaque and stains from coronal surfaces of the teeth
b. before placement of dental sealants and orthodontic bands
c. to remove calculus from subgingival surfaces
d. before placement of the dental dam and before acid etching

71. Exogenous stains are caused by an environmental source and are classified into subdivisions,
including which of the following?
a. endogenous
b. extrinsic stains
c. intrinsic stains
d. a and c
e. b and c

72. For which purpose is disclosing solution not used?

a. identifying areas of plaque
b. desensitizing cervical surfaces
c. showing intrinsic stain
d. evaluating the effectiveness of polishing

73. The first step in placing dental sealants is to __________ the surface.
a. etch
b. isolate
c. clean
d. prime

74. Enamel that has been etched has the appearance of being:
a. chalky
b. shiny
c. wet
d. slightly brown
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 15

75. According to Black’s classification of cavities, the type of decay diagnosed on the incisal edge of
anterior teeth and the cusp tips of posterior teeth is ________________.
a. Class VI
b. Class IV
c. Class II
d. Class V

76. The isolation of multiple anterior teeth requires the dental dam be placed ____________.
a. only on the one tooth being restored
b. on the tooth being restored and on one tooth distal on each side
c. from premolar to premolar
d. from first molar to first molar

77. When one or more teeth are missing from the same quadrant, a permanent _______ would most
commonly be recommended by the dentist.
a. partial denture
b. full denture
c. full crowns
d. fixed bridge

78. Gingival retraction cord is placed _____ the crown preparation is completed and is removed _______
the final impression is taken.
a. after, after
b. before, before
c. before, after
d. after, before

79. A ________ is an orthodontic __________ that is a custom appliance made of rubber or pliable acrylic
that fits over the patient’s dentition after orthodontic treatment.
a. Harding retainer, arch wire
b. Hawley retainer, fixed appliance
c. headgear, positioner
d. Hawley retainer, positioner
16 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

80. This tray set-up is for:

a. band removal
b. placing and removing elastometric ties
c. placing separators
d. placing arch wires

81. Instrument “A” in the photograph is used to:

a. insert the orthodontic band
b. force the band down onto the middle third of the tooth
c. aid in forcing the cement out of the band
d. open the buccal tube

A B C D E

82. A(n) __________ is used to provide interproximal space for inserting an orthodontic band.
a. arch wire
b. bracket
c. separator
d. band
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 17

83. ___________, also known as tongue tied, results in a short lingual frenum.
a. Macrodontia
b. Microdontia
c. Ankyloglossia
d. Anodontia

84. __________ is a condition in which an inflammation is uncontrolled within a localized area and
spreads throughout the soft tissue and organ.
a. Angular cheilitis
b. Cellulitis
c. Glossitis
d. Oral cancer

85. ______________ is a superficial infection caused by a yeast-like fungus.

a. Leukoplakia
b. Lichen planus
c. Candidiasis
d. Aphthous ulcer

86. Which instrument would be used to remove the right mandibular first molar?

B
A

87. Which instrument would be used to remove the right maxillary second molar?

A
B C

88. Using Black’s classification of cavities, a lesion on the cervical third of a tooth is considered a Class _____
restoration or cavity.
a. I
b. II
c. III
d. V
18 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

89. Which of the following teeth are not succedaneous?

a. permanent central incisors
b. permanent canines
c. permanent first molars
d. permanent premolars

90. The automatic external defibrillator (AED) is used for all except ___________.
a. to reestablish the proper heart rhythm
b. to automatically perform CPR for 15 minutes
c. to shock the heart
d. to monitor the patient’s heart rhythm

91. Which of the following is not a characteristic that allows dental materials to withstand the oral
environment?
a. mechanical properties and electrical properties
b. corrosive properties and thermal properties
c. solubility and application properties
d. trituration and amalgamation properties

92. A dental restorative material that is applied to a tooth or teeth while the material is pliable and can
be adapted, carved, and finished is classified as:
a. direct restorations
b. indirect restorations
c. crowns, bridges, or onlays
d. implants

93. Which of these would have the least dimensional stability?

a. silicone
b. polysiloxane
c. alginate hydrocolloid
d. agar hydrocolloid

94. The conventional or traditional composites, which contain the largest filler particles and provide the
greatest strength, are known as:
a. microfilled composites
b. hybrid composites
c. midfilled composites
d. macrofilled composites

95. If a light bodied impression catalyst is mixed with a heavy bodied impression base, the resultant mix
might:
a. be discolored
b. set improperly
c. polymerize immediately
d. not mix

96. Addition of cold water to an alginate mix will cause the setting time to be:
a. increased
b. decreased
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 19

97. Select two terms that describe the purpose and consistency of a dental cement used for the final
seating of a porcelain fused-to-metal crown.
a. base and secondary consistency
b. cementation and secondary consistency
c. base and primary consistency
d. cementation and primary consistency

98. Noble metals used in indirect restorations include all except ___________.
a. gold and palladium
b. gold and platinum
c. gold and mercury
d. palladium and platinum

99. Which of the following statements is not true about the use of calcium hydroxide as a frequently
selected cavity liner?
a. It protects the pulp from chemical irritation through its sealing abilities.
b. It stimulates the production of reparative or secondary dentin.
c. It is the most cost-effective liner for use under all types of restorations.
d. It is compatible with all types of restorative materials.

100. The advantage of using a glass ionomer restorative material is:

a. it releases an obtundant
b. it releases fluoride after its final setting
c. it does not need to be cured
d. it has the strongest compressive strength of any restorative material

101. A custom tray is constructed to fit the mouth of a specific patient and is used to __________, _______,
and __________.
a. save money, reduce chair time, reduce patient discomfort
b. adapt to the patient’s mouth, fit around any anomalies, reduce the amount of impression material needed
c. adapt to the patient’s mouth, aid the laboratory technician, provide for a better restoration
d. reduce patient cost, reduce chair time, reduce patient discomfort

102. Which form of gypsum product is commonly used for making diagnostic models?
a. plaster
b. dental stone
c. high-strength stone
d. impression plaster

103. When taking impressions, the next step after seating the patient and placing the patient napkin is to:
a. assemble the materials needed
b. mix the impression material
c. explain the procedure to the patient
d. record treatment on the chart

104. Prior to handing a record to the administrative assistant after treating a patient, the clinical assistant should:
a. retain the gloves used during the procedure so as not to delay the patient’s checkout at the
business office
b. remove clinical gloves and put on polynitrile gloves
c. remove the contaminated gloves and wash hands
d. place polynitrile gloves over the clinical gloves to prevent cross contamination outside the
treatment room
20 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

105. The information in a registration form should include all except __________.
a. name, address, and phone number of person responsible for the account
b. place of employment of the responsible party
c. information concerning the patient’s coverage under an insurance plan
d. age of all dependents

106. Financial arrangements for treatment should not be made:

a. in private
b. before treatment begins
c. after treatment is completed
d. by the business assistant

107. __________ is the amount the dental assistant takes home after all the deductions are made.
a. Gross pay
b. Net pay
c. Withholding
d. FICA

108. ________ is another name for the Social Security funds deducted from an employee’s pay.
a. Withholding
b. FICA
c. Federal tax
d. Gross wage

109. Which of these is an expendable item used in the dental office?

a. hemostat
b. instrument cassette
c. latex gloves
d. computer software

110. Which is a capital item in a dental office?

a. hemostat
b. cotton rolls
c. x-ray unit
d. computer software

111. Oxygen should be stored:

a. horizontally in a cool place
b. vertically and secured
c. horizontally in a warm place
d. outside the office

112. An office system that tracks patients’ follow-up visits for an oral prophylaxis is a(n):
a. screening system
b. on-call record
c. recall system
d. tickler file
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 21

113. Which of the following statements should be reworded on a patient’s record to avoid litigation?
a. The patient experienced difficulty in holding the impression in the mouth.
b. The patient was not used to the new laser system used for the procedure.
c. This patient was a real problem and disrupted our entire day.
d. The patient apologized for being unable to hold the impression long enough.

114. What are the consequences of using a nickname or an incorrect name when filing an insurance
claim form?
a. no payment will ever be made
b. processing of the form will be delayed
c. there are no consequences
d. there will be an underpayment

115. An administrative assistant records information the dentist dictates for a patient’s clinical record after
the treatment is complete. Later, litigation is taken against the dentist in the practice for treatment that
was rendered. The administrative assistant is asked to testify. Which of the following statements is true?
a. The administrative assistant is an expert witness.
b. The administrative assistant is an eyewitness.
c. The administrative assistant can only testify to what he or she was told to write in the record.
d. The administrative assistant should refuse to testify.

116. When speaking to a patient on the telephone, which is the most courteous action?
a. hang up as soon as possible
b. wait for the patient to hang up and then hang up
c. tell the patient when you are going to hang up
d. close the conversation and hang up quickly so the patient does not continue the conversation

117. The leading cause of tooth loss in adults is:

a. dental caries
b. aging
c. periodontal disease
d. lack of home care

118. The first step in patient education is to:

a. instruct the patient how to remove plaque
b. select home care aids
c. listen carefully to the patient
d. reinforce home care

119. The MyPyramid, formerly known as the Food Guide Pyramid, is an outline of what to eat each day.
The largest section on the pyramid is in what food group?
a.dairy
b.meat
c.grains
d.vegetables

120. Which of the following statements is false regarding carbohydrates?

a. They provide energy.
b. They are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables.
c. They provide vitamins.
d. Complex carbohydrates are the major source for dental caries.
22 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

Radiation Health and Safety

Directions: Select the response that best answers each of the following questions. Only one
response is correct.

1. Radiographs are used in an oral diagnosis to detect all of the following except _______.
a. periodontal disease
b. defective restorations
c. malocclusion
d. pathologic conditions

2. In the radiograph below, what is the lesion at the apex of the mandibular central incisor?
a. periapical cyst
b. periodontal abscess
c. osseous stone
d. condensing osteitis

3. Commercially available barrier envelopes:

a. minimize contamination before exposure of the film
b. minimize contamination after exposure of the film
c. are made of a material that blocks the passage of photons
d. are made of a material that blocks the passage of electrons
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 23

4. Preparation of supplies and equipment involves sterilizing which of the following items?
a. film
b. film-holding device
c. lead apron
d. PID

5. Exposed films should _____ dried and then placed in a _____ for transport to the darkroom for processing.
a. not be, gloved hand
b. be, gloved hand
c. not be, disposable container
d. be, disposable container

6. When handling film with barrier envelopes, the barrier envelopes are opened with _____ hands and
the films unwrapped with _____ hands.
a. gloved, gloved
b. gloved, nongloved
c. nongloved, gloved
d. nongloved, nongloved

7. Root fractures occur most often in the _____ region.

a. maxillary central incisors
b. mandibular central incisors
c. maxillary molars
d. mandibular molars

8. The _____ radiograph is the film of choice for the evaluation of mandibular fractures.
a. occlusal
b. periapical
c. bitewing
d. panoramic

9. Overlapped interproximal contacts result from:

a. incorrect vertical angulation
b. incorrect horizontal angulation
c. film placement
d. processing errors

10. The quality of the x-ray photos is determined by the:

a. kilovoltage
b. collimation
c. milliamperage
d. HVL factor

11. When using the bisecting method the object-film distance is kept to a ______.
a. maximum
b. minimum

12. The advantage of double-emulsion intraoral films over the old single emulsion films is:
a. more flexibility
b. faster developing time
c. less radiation exposure to patients
d. increased darkroom illumination
24 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

13. Taking the film to be duplicated out of the mounts:

a. improves the contrast of the duplicates
b. makes processing easier
c. improves the detail of the duplicates
d. prolongs the life of the duplicating device

14. A tissue that lies within the primary dental beam and receives a lot of secondary radiation is the
__________.
a. tongue
b. cornea
c. thyroid
d. inner ear

15. Reticulation of the emulsion is usually the result of:

a. excessive drying
b. improper fixing
c. inadequate rinsing
d. a sudden change in temperature between the developer solution and the water bath

16. All of the following affect the life of processing solutions except ________.
a. number of films processed
b. size of films processed
c. age of the solutions
d. type of safelight

17. If the manual developing time is 5 minutes, then the fixing time should be _______.
a. 2.5 minutes
b. 5 minutes
c. 8 minutes
d. 10 minutes

18. The protective coating on the emulsion is softened by the ___________ and hardened by the
__________.
a. fixer, developer
b. developer, water rinse
c. developer, fixer
d. fixer, water rinse

19. Barrier pack films should be used for:

a. all patients
b. patients with a positive medical history
c. patients who are bleeding
d. patients with contaminated saliva

20. Dark films can be caused by:

a. increased focal-film distance
b. increased object-film distance
c. overexposure
d. underdevelopment
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 25

21. In a full mouth survey:

a. periapical films of edentulous areas are not taken
b. bitewing films of edentulous areas are taken
c. periapical films of edentulous areas are always taken
d. opposing teeth for bitewings are not necessary

22. An overexposed film will appear similar to an _________ film.

a. overdeveloped
b. underdeveloped

23. Reversing the film to the x-ray beam will cause a ___________.
a. darkened film
b. geometric pattern
c. clear film
d. black film

24. When using the bisecting techniques, the imaginary angle that is bisected is formed between the long
axis of the tooth and the:
a. long axis of the PID
b. horizontal axis of the film
c. long axis of the film
d. horizontal axis of the tube head

25. The technique or concept that provides for the orientation of structures seen in two radiographs
exposed at different angles to determine the buccal-lingual relationship of an object is referred
to as the ____________.
a. Compton electron rule
b. Bremsstrahlung
c. buccal object rule
d. cone-beam technology

26. In the bisecting technique the tooth-film distance is:

a. maximal
b. minimum
c. not important
d. decreased by 0.5 inch

27. All bitewings are taken using the:

a. paralleling technique
b. bisecting technique
c. protrusive relation
d. visual focal technique

28. The marked prominence that appears on a maxillary molar periapical film as a triangular radiopacity
superimposed over, or inferior to, the maxillary tuberosity region is:
a. the hard palate
b. a fracture line
c. the coronoid process
d. the maxillary sinus
26 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

29. The main disadvantage of panoramic films is:

a. increased patient exposure
b. loss of definition and detail
c. lack of contrast
d. possible patient movement

30. Which of the following methods is best for taking a radiograph of an impacted third molar on the
mandible?
a. posterior anterior
b. lateral oblique
c. lateral skull
d. posterior anterior of the sinuses

31. Cassettes with intensifying screens are used in extraoral radiography to __________.
a. decrease patient exposure
b. decrease patient chair time
c. decrease processing time
d. eliminate processing time

32. A conventional panoramic projection will show both the right and left joints in the:
a. lateral plane
b. axial plane
c. cross-sectional plane
d. frontal plane

33. One advantage of the storage phosphor technique is that the sensor is:
a. larger
b. smaller
c. slightly more flexible
d. more sensitive to radiation

34. The definition seen on a digital image compared with film is:
a. the same
b. better
c. slightly less
d. exaggerated

35. Three types of direct sensors are ___________, ________________, and _______________.
a. CMOS, MCD, CID
b. XCP, CMOS, CUD
c. CMOS, CCD, CID
d. XCP, CCD, CID

36. The main disadvantage of a metal rubber dam holder in endodontics is:
a. it is bendable
b. it is easier to use
c. it is harder to remove
d. its image will be superimposed on the film
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 27

37. On intraoral radiographs, when the patient’s right is on your left, this is called ______ mounting.
a. labial
b. neutral
c. cross
d. lingual

38. On a routine full mouth survey, it is not possible to see the___________ foramen.
a. mental
b. incisive
c. lingual
d. mandibular

39. It is difficult radiographically to differentiate dentin from:

a. bone
b. enamel
c. cementum
d. pulp

40. Most lesions appear ______________ on processed radiographs.

a. radiopaque
b. radiolucent
c. geometric
d. poorly defined

41. Caries that radiographically involve the dentin are classified as ______.
a. early
b. late
c. incipient
d. advanced

42. An example of caries that is almost never seen on a radiograph is ________.

a. incisal
b. interproximal
c. lingual
d. incipient

43. Temporary acrylic crowns appear ____________ on radiographs.

a. radiolucent
b. radiopaque

44. Gold crowns appear _____________ on radiographs.

a. radiolucent
b. radiopaque

45. Cement bases under restorations appear ______ on a radiograph.

a. radiolucent
b. radiopaque
28 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control

46. Bitewing projections cannot be used to detect:

a. caries
b. bone levels
c. root fractures
d. restorations

47. High pulp horns on teeth are usually associated with _______.
a. elderly patients
b. young patients
c. teenagers
d. male children

48. Fractures of the mandible will appear:

a. not on a periapical film
b. as a radiopaque line
c. as a radiolucent line
d. only if observed within the first 24 hours

49. Implants will appear ______ on radiographs.

a. radiolucent
b. radiopaque

50. To obtain the best definition of a suspected residual root tip, a _______ projection should be used.
a. bitewing
b. periapical
c. panoramic
d. tomograph

51. A malignant tumor of bone will appear ______ on radiographs.

a. radiolucent
b. radiopaque

52. An enlarged and bulbous, or club shaped, root is usually a sign of ____________.
a. pathology
b. concrescence
c. hypercementosis
d. cemental dysplasia

53. Treating a patient without proper radiographs is a breach of the _______.

a. law of ALARA
b. inverse square law
c. MPD
d. standard of care

54. Original radiographs should always be kept in the:

a. dental office
b. patient’s possession
c. insurance office
d. off-site security office
 TEST 1 General Chairside, Radiation Health and Safety, and Infection Control 29

55. The concept that the dental practitioner should expose the patient to the least
amount of radiation exposure within the dental office without excessive cost refers to
the ________.
a. Heinz principle
b. ALARA principle
c. dental insurance regulations
d. OSHA regulations

56. The film below illustrates:

a. bent film with a thin radiolucent line
b. film crease with a thin radiopaque line
c. bent film with distortion
d. film crease with a thin radiolucent line

57. When a clear (unexposed) area appears on the film:

a. the PID was not directed at the center of the film
b. the horizontal angulation was incorrect
c. the kVp setting was incorrect
d. the mA setting was incorrect

58. When overlapped contacts appear on the film:

a. the vertical angulation was incorrect
b. the central ray was not directed through the
interproximal spaces
c. the film was bent
d. the film was improperly placed
Other documents randomly have
different content
where they are not required, and the serious consequences of a slip
are reduced to a minimum, cannot be defended; nor can the
absence of such preventive measures in treacherous earth or soil so
placed as to induce instability, and where the effect of a slip may be
temporarily or permanently disastrous, notwithstanding that
economy in construction has now become the watch-word of
railway-extension; as then the expense of restoration and
maintenance will be very considerably increased and far exceed the
comparatively small cost of initial protection, for public traffic may be
stopped and injury caused to life and property.
The preceding and the following pages have been written in the
hope that they may afford some assistance in arriving at a correct
decision, with regard to the necessity of precautionary works, and
with the view of calling to remembrance many of the principal points
to be considered in order to remedy slips, a matter usually
demanding prompt decision. With respect to the measures that
should be adopted to prevent slips, and the works required when
they have occurred, it would be a mistake to generalize from any
successful application of one method of reparation, as it is necessary
to consider each soil separately, and to discover the reason of a slip;
for an attempt to arrest the forward movement of a large mass will
be futile; the disturbing cause must be ascertained and removed, or
so lessened and controlled as to obviate further motion or
deterioration; sand or porous strata, which may emit water
uniformly, must be treated differently to earth which sets free water
in a particular place, as also the same soil if it should be in a
dissimilar condition. The object of all such works is to support,
maintain, and drain the earth and prevent any accumulation of water
in the slopes and formation, so that movement is improbable;
therefore, water flowing towards the slopes must be intercepted and
led away before it has time to percolate; and the method of
discharging it must be governed by the position and nature of the
soil, the chief aim of draining operations being to cause the earth to
be always in its most consolidated condition. Without obstruction to
the drainage, a general preservative is to cover the surface, and
protect it against the deleterious effects of rain, frost and thaw,
particularly in the case of soils which disintegrate rapidly under the
influence of weather.
Some of the means that can be adopted to prevent slips and
subsidences in cuttings and embankments may be enumerated as
follows.
1. Systematic drainage of a cutting, and the natural ground and
deposited earth in an embankment, so as to augment its weight
sustaining power and general stability.
2. A side ditch near to the foot of each slope, and at the top of the
slope adjacent to the fence line.
3. Catchwater drains upon the slopes.
4. Wells, filled with broken filtering material, contiguous to the fence
line and connecting drains with them.
5. Open timber trenches, strutted at intervals, and acting as drains
and counterforts, at the toe of a slope.
6. A channel for the discharge of any water issuing from an
intercepted field drain.
7. Tapping springs in the slopes or formation of a cutting, or that
exist in the ground upon which an embankment has to be deposited.
8. The profile of the formation being made higher in the centre, so
that water will flow into the side drains or water-table and not
remain, due provision being made for its discharge.
9. Side drains being made before the excavation is commenced or
deposited.
10. No accumulation of water being allowed upon the ground upon
which an embankment has to be deposited.
11. Covering a slope with rammed earth, burnt ballast, chalk, gravel,
ashes, or other protective material.
12. Turfing a slope, or sowing it with grass seed.
13. Depositing layers of material, consolidated by ramming or
otherwise, upon a slope at right angles or diagonally to the line of
the foot of a slope.
14. By benching, or a terrace or cess upon a slope.
15. Covering the toe of a slope with stone pitching.
16. Dividing a slope by trenches filled with stones or absorbent
material.
17. Weighting a slope to counteract the pressure of the internal
water, and to restore the equilibrium.
18. A breast-high retaining wall at the toe of a slope.
19. Covering part or the whole of a slope with fascine mattresses or
brushwood, systematically laid in combination with gravel, stone,
broken bricks, ashes, &c.
20. Counterforts of gravel, chalk, burnt ballast, ashes, rubble, &c., at
the toe and upon a slope.
21. A dry wall at the toe of the slope of a stratum of unstable soil,
found above the formation level and superimposed upon rock or firm
earth.
22. Varying or increasing the flatness of a slope towards the bottom
of a cutting or embankment.
23. In cuttings, by retaining walls, with or without overhead struts.
24. Systematic planting upon the cess and slopes, trees, shrubs, or
bushes having deep wide-spreading roots.
25. The removal of any spoil bank that may have been tipped or cast
out near the top of the slope of a cutting.
26. Removing the turf and all loose or decaying matter from the
natural ground before the earth is deposited.
27. Clearing away all snow and frozen soil before tipping or
excavating, and taking care that no frozen earth is deposited.
28. Forming the ground upon which an embankment has to be
tipped, at an inclination downward from the toe of a slope, towards
the centre, and the construction of a dry drain along the centre line
so as to cause percolating water to flow away, or prevent it reaching
the slopes.
29. Benching the ground upon which an embankment has to be
deposited.
30. Covering the ground upon which an embankment is to be tipped
with a hard permeable layer.
31. Trenches filled with stones or other hard permeable material
across the base of an embankment.
32. Covering the toe of the slope of an embankment with sods or
making a counterfort of turf.
33. Running to spoil all saturated earth, and suspending operations
for a day or two after heavy and continuous rain or a fall of snow, or
frost.
34. Filling any large fissures as they appear.
35. Weighting the earth so as to condense it.
36. Increasing the area of the base of an embankment according to
the bearing power of the soil.
37. By the exclusion of all boulders, roots, turf, branches of trees, or
bushes in forming an embankment.
38. By aiding consolidation and preventing separation at the junction
of two embankments.
39. Tipping an embankment in such a way as to promote
consolidation.
In subsequent chapters many protective and remedial measures are
specifically named. Here reference is made to the more general
principles. The purpose for which a cutting has been excavated, or
an embankment deposited must be taken into consideration in
providing protective works, for the surfaces may only be temporarily
bared, as in trenchwork for walls, or be partly covered with water, as
in canals, and entirely unsubmerged upon one side as in canal,
reservoir, and reclamation embankments; or be fully exposed to
meteorological influences as in railway and road cuttings and
embankments. There can be no stereotyped system of operations
for treating a slip, but experience indicates that a frequently
successful initiatory method is to divide the earth into small portions,
and to proceed to equally consolidate them. However, in the case of
deep cuttings, especially when excavated in the side of a hill, it may
be necessary to drive a heading beneath the formation and to
connect it with a shaft upon the higher side, so as to tap the water-
bearing soil, and to convey the water away to prevent it reaching the
slopes; this may be considered as a slip requiring an exceptional
remedy. Should a cutting be in moving ground or permeable soil of
doubtful stability, such a system of wells and covered galleries,
which are generally successful even in the worst soil, may be
required. The wells should, if possible, be sunk a few feet into an
impermeable stratum, their diameter being the least a man can
excavate, to any size required, and their distance apart, say, from 30
to 60 feet, according to the quantity of water to be collected. They
should be connected by drifts. Smaller intermediate wells can be
made between the main wells. In order to be effectual such works
must be carefully and uniformly constructed, or an accumulation of
water will arise. When a slip is known to have occurred, simply from
want of drainage, a sufficient remedy may be the removal of the
slipped earth and the insertion of drains. An advantage of the loose
counterfort system of drainage as compared with rigid and fixed
drains, is that open drains will follow a slight subsidence of the
earth, and yet maintain their efficiency, but care must be taken that
they do not become choked. In shifting or doubtful soil all works
should be quickly finished, and in sidelong ground it is best to
commence drainage operations on the valley side so as to tap the
water, as if they are begun on the hill-side they may, until through
drainage is effected, form channels for the accumulation of water,
and cause a slip. The repairs of a slip can be commenced at several
places simultaneously if at short distances apart, such as 20 feet or
so, and, as a rule, it is preferable in an embankment that the work
proceeds towards the centre, and not from the central portion to the
slopes. It is advisable to make ditches or galleries in short lengths,
not only to disturb the ground as little as possible, but also to ensure
perfect supervision, as if the work is not carefully and uniformly
constructed, localization of water will ensue.
The extent of a slip will to some extent govern the remedy. Simple
open stone-filled drains, 2 to 4 feet in width, and 1 foot to 2 feet in
depth, extending from the base to the top, may be sufficient for
shallow cuttings or embankments, such as 10 to 15 feet, and larger
and deeper trenches above those depths or heights, and complete
drainage of and around the slipped earth, and division of it by
means of drains and pipes.
In countries where there is an excessive rainfall in a short time, it
has been found necessary to catch as much of the surface flood
waters and torrential streams as possible, and to reduce their
velocity before passing through an embankment or down a cutting,
and to provide a pond or “tumbling bay” at the base of a waterfall
for such purpose, or to erect dams, when the force is not too great,
so as to arrest and lessen the velocity of the flow. Without such
precautions, flood waters will erode the earth, and the beds become
gradually deeper; and walls at the toe, culverts, and dry stone filling
across the whole width of an embankment, and stone covering upon
the slopes where water issues or flows may be required. Catchment
reservoirs have also proved of use in controlling the surface waters
before they reach a cutting or embankment, and in permitting them
to be controlled.
Many of the chief causes of slips in embankments are enumerated in
Chapter I., &c. Some of the most important operations to prevent
slips in an embankment are to thoroughly drain its seat, prevent a
flow upon the surface of the original ground, percolation of drainage
waters into its lower part and filtration of rain-water at the crown,
and to generally protect the surface.
The stability of an embankment is not regulated by the cohesiveness
of the soil, as a sand or gravel embankment, or that formed of any
material whose particles are not deleteriously affected, will stand
with a sufficiently flat slope if protected against erosion, and be
more stable than a clay or any embankment in which the particles
are soluble and soon impaired by water, however great their original
tenacity. If any part of an embankment has become saturated, the
internal water must be tapped and drained; as the lower surface
portion is almost certain to be the wetter, the drains should be made
at the base, trenches filled with open porous material upon the
slopes, and, perhaps, it may be necessary to sink a few shallow
wells. The slopes and formation should be covered so that when the
excess of moisture is extracted from the mass it cannot be replaced.
Porous earth counterforts can be adopted, 6 to 10 feet in width,
placed at intervals depending upon the nature and condition of the
soil and height of an embankment, or a continuous bank of similar
material at the toe to support the embankment during the temporary
weakening from drainage operations. One of the worst cases that
may have to be treated in embankments is in clay or marl soils,
when the central portion has been first tipped in a wet state in the
winter months, and after an interval the embankment completed to
its required width in a frozen condition, or nearly so, or one in which
the earth becomes frozen when deposited.
In Russia it has been found that rain-water percolating into such an
embankment cannot drain away, but accumulates and finally bursts
the slopes, and that water will exude from frozen soil when it thaws,
a considerable time elapsing before all the frozen earth has thawed;
water is thus, as it were, taken into the mass, which in all retentive
soils will be difficult to drain without turning over the earth; and it
will cause slimy surfaces and general instability. It will always be an
expensive operation to make such an embankment secure, and it
cannot be made as firm as one properly deposited. After subsidence
has ceased, an approved remedy in such a case is to cover the
formation with an impermeable layer, and to raise the embankment
to the rail level with sand, which is ultimately alone used for repairs,
the slopes being carefully trimmed and sown.
Although not considered in the usual acceptation of the word as a
slip, the trickling of the surface soil is mentioned as it is a movement
which may, if allowed to proceed, cause a slip, and frequently
necessitates attention because of the soil becoming in a liquid
condition and flowing upon land beyond that acquired for any works,
and also because it obstructs and chokes drains. It may be expected
when a thaw occurs after severe frost, or heavy rain succeeds
drought, or subsequent to a rapid change of weather in any earth of
a clayey or calcareous nature, as, for instance, in clay marl and
argillaceous chalk cuttings or embankments, and if the configuration
of the ground should be favourable to its passage to land outside
that purchased, such issue must be prevented by protecting the
slopes by means of a covering, by draining, or by the consolidation
of the surface of the earth, which latter operation may be difficult, or
by the erection of a small mound near the fence line.
In ground containing salt or other solvents in appreciable quantity,
care should be taken that water does not reach it; if it should, the
soil immediately becomes damaged and subsides; also it is found
that the earth from which soda nitrate is manufactured in North Chili
must be kept perfectly dry to be secure as a foundation. All soils of a
salifiable character should be considered as likely to subside and slip.
In the salt-producing districts in England it is found that when the
brine, which is about 25 per cent. of the mass, is pumped up to the
surface to be made into white salt, the land will subside, as in effect
it is pumping up the underground supporting stratum or rock salt
bed; and when a river is contiguous or copious springs, the rock-salt
will be supplied with water to make it brine. The experience of those
who have had to maintain embankments in these districts indicates
that so long as subsidence is uniform embankments can be raised
and maintained; but when water penetrates into an old pit
previously comparatively dry, unequal and dangerous slips and
subsidences may be expected, and on so large a scale as to require
much expenditure for restoration. If the settlement is uniform, the
easiest way is to simply raise an embankment; the rate of sinking
varies considerably, averaging, say, from 2 to 5 feet per annum, and
depending upon the amount of brine extracted and the percolation
of water, &c. It is obvious that embankments upon such land require
constant attention to prevent serious slips.
At the edge of a cliff or hill where loose rock exists and is joined by
clayey soil, but is sufficiently stable not to slip in a mass, it may be
necessary to have a cover shed over a railway or road to prevent
detached pieces of rock falling upon the surface, the slopes from
being injured, and larger masses sloping down. Covering a slope in
such a case is useless, but an open deep trench, specially
constructed to catch pieces of rock, may suffice.
Important questions to determine when a slip has occurred are:—
1. Should the whole or part of the earth that has slipped be
removed?
2. How are the voids to be filled that have been caused by the slip?
3. Can the disturbed material be again used?
4. What protective measures should be adopted?
A thorough examination of the site of a slip and the slipped earth is
absolutely necessary before the most effectual and economical
means of restoration can be determined, for weakness or the
presence of a disturbing agent in the upper or lower portion of a
cutting or embankment may be the cause of movement. An
embankment may be solid in the mass and only portions may slip
and subside, but then may become unstable and require different
treatment, or local restoration may alone be necessary, and the
slipped earth to be removed be small in quantity. Extensive slips of
the whole of an embankment usually occur from springs in its seat
or the existence of a flow of water upon the ground under the base,
producing a greasy surface. Should it happen that an embankment
of pervious soil is tipped upon impervious ground having a
depression resembling a basin, water will accumulate until it reaches
the level of discharge, and a serious slip may result. In such a case
the slipped earth must be removed and the water tapped and
permanently drained. The upper portion of an embankment may slip
and the lower be stable; if so, it is not so serious as when movement
commences at the toe and the slope bulges outwards and the
embankment subsides; in the former case, provided the lower
portion is not affected or its drainage obstructed, it may not be
necessary to remove the slipped earth, but it is advisable to drain it,
and any localization or lodgment of water between the slipped mass
and the firm part of an embankment must be prevented, or the toe
of the slope will be made in an unstable condition.
In cuttings in order to keep open the formation the whole of the
slipped earth may have to be excavated, but in embankments, so
long as the soil does not extend outside the fencing, its entire
removal becomes optional, and is unnecessary provided further
movement be prevented, and the soil drained; but in most
treacherous earths, although a slip may be arrested, it will generally
be a place requiring constant watching, and be one of doubtful
stability. Earthwork slips require to be remedied as soon as possible
after they occur, not only to repair them and obviate an interruption
of traffic, but in order that the unslipped portions may not be
deleteriously affected and movement be induced.
When the earth is very soft, silty, and difficult to drain, the only
course may be to remove the slipped material, although it may not
be necessary to excavate all of it, as it may form a reservoir for the
accumulation of water, and is certain to be liable to disturbance from
the effects of weather; but in firmer soil a portion of the slipped
earth may be excavated, and be rammed in layers inclining at right
angles, or nearly so, to the surface of the slope, and a drain can be
inserted at about the bottom of the line of the slip to prevent any
water that may percolate from the unslipped mass flowing into the
rammed earth or any counterfort so constructed; but counterforts
may afford insufficient support in very treacherous soil, and it may
be necessary to remove either the whole or a considerable part of a
slope and replace it with the best available material watered and
rammed: however, the simple ramming of the earth and depositing it
in inclined layers may not be sufficient to ensure stability, and should
it be found that the slipped material is very soft and cannot be
readily drained, it must be excavated, and solid and firm earth put in
its place.
When the base of a slip is level with the bottom of any side ditch
that may have existed before movement occurred, the drain should
be below the level of the ditch, or a flow of water may be induced at
the seat which will probably cause further unsettlement; and if a slip
extends below the bottom of a cutting it is necessary to remove the
slipped earth as far as the solid ground, and to fill the void with dry
material of sufficient weight to prevent the surface being uplifted,
and to cause solidity in order to avoid any movement of the toe of a
slope.
When the slipped soil is clay or shale it can be burnt in situ down to
the solid ground, or upon an incombustible bed, and be converted
into a kind of brick rubbish and then be restored to its original place;
but this may be an expensive method, and it may be cheaper to
procure firm earth, nevertheless, should no other material be
available it may be the only economical means of repairing a slip.
Before deciding whether clay or shale shall be burned in situ it may
be advisable to test the amount of ballast that can be made by, say,
1 ton or more of coal, and the cost including every item of
expenditure: 10 or 12 cubic yards of ballast may be obtained for
every ton of coal burnt, but this quantity may be so reduced that the
cost of burning may prohibit the use of such a method for replacing
the slipped earth when made into firm soil. It much depends upon
the quantity of water in the material, and also upon the nature of
the earth; for instance, burning becomes more difficult as the
amount of silica in the clay becomes greater, and the ballast is not
so good as the quantity of lime increases in the clay; therefore pure
clay makes the best burnt ballast. Should it be decided to burn the
slipped earth, it is necessary that it be placed upon firm ground, and
that it rests upon an open layer of stone or material that will not
kindle in order to obtain the necessary draught. The thickness of the
layers must be regulated by the degree of wetness of the soil, from
1 to 2 feet being required for thorough burning, and should layers of
a less thickness than 1 foot be required, the process of making the
slipped earth into burnt ballast will usually be too expensive, but of
course much depends upon the price of the coal upon the site. The
burnt ballast may cost anything from 1s. to 2s. 6d. a cubic yard;
when the latter price is reached, it may be cheaper to procure sound
earth. If the slipped earth approaches the condition of carbonaceous
shale, black or dark brown in colour, it may kindle easily; the more
argillaceous shales will require a little coal to convert them to burnt
ballast, the quantity increasing as they gradually become of a clayey
character. Blue clay, when thoroughly burnt, generally makes better
ballast than most other clays, but as a drain the ballast is not equal
to clean gravel.
In considering whether it is only necessary to simply replace the
dried earth in its original position, it should be determined whether
the undisturbed portion of an embankment will support the weight
when unaided by counterforts with a foundation in solid ground at
the toe of the slope, trenches and drains upon the slopes, and
perhaps a rough stone bed below the seat of the slip acting as an
open drain over part or the whole of it. In any case provision must
be made that there is no localization of water between the original
embankment and the filling or the counterfort. In some soils,
particularly those having seams of sand or silt, the slipped earth
frequently becomes displaced in layers, and if allowed to remain,
each bed will form a water seam upon which any stratum can slide,
and then the earth may not be at rest until the slope is very flat. The
removal of the whole mass is the cheapest remedy. The surface left
bare by the slipped earth should be trimmed, and all fissures in it be
filled so as to prevent any accumulation or lodgment of water, but
the slipped earth should only be excavated in short lengths, as it
may render support and keep part of the face covered, and it should
be remembered that although the upper portion of the fallen earth
may be the drier it may not be the most stable.
The system of removing the slipped earth, erecting rough rubble
walls at intervals of 20 to 30 feet projecting as far as the face of the
original slope, and then filling the intervening space with the
material that has slipped, when turned over and punned, has been
successfully adopted. It is advisable to cover with turf the replaced
earth in the slope, unless some other protection is supplied. When
any signs of movement afterwards take place a few additional
counterforts, which, may also be made to act as drains, will
generally restore the equilibrium. This system relies upon preventing
movement in earth by separating the masses of the slipped soil, and
draining and supporting them in detail. The foundations of the
counterforts must be in the solid ground and not merely below the
seat of the slip. It may be impossible to drain the site of a slip or the
soil that has moved without dividing it into portions, the chief object
being to thoroughly drain the site and the slipped earth, so that it is
practically encircled with drains and any water prevented from
collecting in or upon it.
When the land is of little value and a cutting is in a mountain or hill-
side, it may be advisable to assist an extensive slip, provided it
happens before any public works are opened for traffic; and to
remove the earth by loosening it by the action of a stream of water
until it slides away, as draining or supporting it may be insufficient.
Under such circumstances it is the best course to adopt, especially if
a stream of water can be readily diverted to it as the unstable soil is
finally disengaged.
 CHAPTER IV.

Notes on the Percolation of Water.—Systems of Drainage of Cuttings and

Embankments in Different Kinds of Earth and under Diverse Conditions.—The
Construction of Culverts, Pipe-drains, Trenches, Ditches, and Catchwater Drains.

With respect to the percolation and drainage of water in cuttings and

embankments, in cuttings the chief consideration is to gently extract
and conduct the water so as to avoid any accumulation or localised
flow beneath the original surface of the ground in order to prevent
the surface water eroding the slopes or collecting or forming a
course, saturating the ground outside them, and to ensure that the
earth is not more charged with water than when in its normal
condition; for, as soon as the state of absorption has reached that of
dissolving or separating the particles, however fine, aqueous action
is likely to produce slips, and a flow of water or vibration will supply
the disturbing force necessary to commence a movement. In
embankments one of the chief precautions is to obviate any flow of
water upon or at a few feet beneath the land upon which an
embankment has to be deposited, as it will disturb the feet of the
slopes and the base, reduce the adhesion to and the friction of the
tipped earth upon the ground and form a sliding surface.
An accumulation of water upon the formation must be prevented,
and, as in the majority of cases a railway or road is not level, any
collection of water at the commencement of an incline or at a
change of gradient should be provided against, and especially any
localisation of flow down the slopes from the formation; the main
point being to keep a cutting or embankment in a uniform state so
that settlement is equable. By carefully watching the effect of heavy
rain upon the slopes and the formation, the places where water
amasses can be traced, and means used to restore the surface to
the same condition as the other portions of a cutting or
embankment. As water is the chief cause of slips, the friction and
cohesion of earth being impaired and, perhaps, destroyed by it, it is
obvious that at the time percolation, which varies greatly with the
seasons, is at its maximum, i.e. when the earth becomes in a damp
or wet state, slips are to be most expected, and particularly soon
after the commencement of the wet season. It is known that upon
the thawing of a heavy fall of snow, and of quickly succeeding and
separate falls of snow, percolation is great; also after heavy and
continuous rains, especially if the strata dip towards a river, and in
the case of springs whose yield depends more upon percolation than
the amount of rainfall, a wet winter will cause an increased flow
some time after, when the earth may become saturated.
If it could be determined at what depth in any earth in any state
percolation, evaporation, and meteorological influences would cease,
and also their effects, rules could be deduced for guidance in
draining cuttings and embankments. The manner of the execution of
ordinary cuttings and embankments is so dissimilar to that of filter-
beds of waterworks, that the experiments made for such purposes
are only of comparative value for the former works, for the condition
as well as the character of the soil affects its permeability by water.
For instance, in cuttings, with the exception of some surface
disturbance during the process of excavation, the removal of
vegetation or a covering, and the exposure of the ground to the
atmosphere, &c., the normal state of the earth is not much altered;
but in embankments different soils may be intermingled in a manner
almost unknown in nature, the varieties of mixtures of earth being
most numerous, and they may be in every condition of compactness,
dryness, and dampness amounting almost to saturation, and in any
case, therefore, percolation is temporarily or permanently increased
consequent upon the earth having been disturbed and loosened.
The general principles of the percolation of water are here only
briefly referred to, as they particularly concern slips in earthwork:
but obviously the quantity of percolated water greatly affects the
stability of a slope, for the surface water should not be guidelessly
allowed to soak into or be absorbed by the ground at the top, and so
proceed through and down the slopes, as then the pent-up water
tends to press out the face which may be temporarily sun-dried. As
in excavating cuttings the surface is bared and vegetation removed
from the soil, water has easier access, and unless the ground when
excavated is immediately covered as before, its normal state is not
preserved. One point of considerable importance is to ascertain
whether in any cutting or embankment percolation is uniform and
regular; some infiltration will necessarily take place, as water will
gravitate from the top to the bottom and will find the easiest course
or line of least resistance, which may not be at the lowest level.
As the amount of the annual rainfall varies greatly according to the
country, and, even in England, considerably in a small area, the
earth will be more affected in one place than another; for instance,
48 to 50 inches is approximately the annual average rainfall upon
the extreme S.S.W. coast of England, being greatest at the highest
level nearest the sea and to leeward; it diminishes gradually from W.
to E. to from 26 to 24 inches, the minimum of about 20 inches being
in Essex. The differences of quantity must therefore be regarded;
but such rainfall is as nothing compared with that of tropical lands,
for the fall often continues many hours, and yet equals and perhaps
exceeds an inch per hour. The heaviest fall and its usual time of
appearance should be ascertained, as earthworks may have to be
constructed in a peculiar district where the rainfall may be more than
double that of the average wettest district, and it will often be much
greater at the foot or the top of neighbouring hills than on a flat
coast. Local information from reliable sources is the best guide when
confirmed by general knowledge. In the tropics 100 to 200 inches in
depth of rain instead of 20 to 30 inches has to be treated, and
frequently half the total annual rainfall in England comes down in
twenty-four hours. It is almost superfluous to name that the
protective works which would be amply sufficient in one country may
be useless in another, simply because of the variation in the amount
of the rainfall and the capacity of different earths to resist or invite
the percolation of water.
Obviously percolation will vary considerably with the seasons, and a
succession of wet periods or a continuous downpour will increase
the quantity of infiltrating water; but the effect of a fall may not be
experienced until some time after it occurs, as in districts or rivers
that are fed with water from the thawing of snow upon surrounding
or distant hills water reaches the lower tracts of country in hot and
sunny, and therefore generally dry weather, when evaporation is the
greatest, and not in winter. Again, there is generally very little
rainfall over flat deserts, but an excess upon mountain ranges which
may surround a desert, and especially in tropical countries
experience has proved that storms and rainfall are often local and
extend over a small area, one district being more liable to such a
visitation than another; they are also, as usual, of irregular duration
and severity.
The position of a river may also affect the percolation of water more
upon one side of a valley than another, for a river seldom has its
course in the centre of a vale, but is generally nearest to the steeper
and higher side of a hill. The configuration of a country governs to a
great extent the flow and quantity of the rainfall that sinks into the
earth, as in a hilly country and in impervious soil the water is quickly
discharged into an adjacent river, taking the easiest course. In a flat
country and pervious soil rain percolates the earth and saturates the
ground, or reappears in springs.
As by drainage the retentive power of the soil is not allowed free
operation, water rapidly flows into the drains instead of being chiefly
held by the earth and watercourses, and channels are sometimes
created; and where the rainfall is heavy or occurs in a comparatively
short time floods may be caused, although the soil when drained,
and therefore in a drier state, absorbs more water than when
undrained and in a damp condition, water will pass through it
quicker, and the discharge is thus increased in volume and velocity.
Earth may be in a damp state, either from mere surface percolation
and accumulation of water, or from springs which may never cease
to flow; on the contrary, in rainless districts, from the almost
perpetual daily drying power of the sun, the earth is sometimes
found to be firmest and hardest upon the top, and for a few feet
below it, than at greater depths. Separate masses of vegetation
usually indicate damp places in a bare country.
As rain flows more quickly from non-absorbent soil, such as rock,
and slowly permeable earth, as the clays, than from porous soil, the
surface discharge is greater; and unless the water is guided, pools
are likely to be formed and weak places created, especially if the
ground dips towards a cutting. It is well to remember that a cutting
being excavated upon the side of a hill or upon table-land may
change the direction of the flow of the drainage waters, and an
embankment may obstruct and interfere with them, and should the
strata incline towards the excavation, it obviously favours a
discharge of water into it.
If water permeates the soil or trickles down through fissures or
veins, it will continue to do so until an impervious layer is reached,
when it will be deflected and may become a current; therefore,
whenever a permeable stratum overlies an impermeable, and the
impermeable earth inclines, an increased flow may be expected, as
also near the junction of tributary waters with streams or rivers.
In a drained district, water will not usually be encountered in large
quantities until a depth is reached below the level of general
drainage, i.e., about the invert of the nearest drains or sewers,
especially in porous soils, but in the case of a pervious subsoil, such
as sand or gravel, or if the tides rise in an adjacent river or the sea
to the level of any foundations or above it, more water may
percolate over the site or drainage area than has time to flow away
between tides, the water will then rise, and systematic pumping
becomes a necessity, unless the volume of the ingressing waters can
be sufficiently reduced by the deposition of an impervious layer upon
or in the river-bed or sea-shore, or by sheet-piling or other means,
or the flow confined, which may be a risky operation in loose soil,
depending upon its resistance to scour.
In clay soils, so far as slips are concerned, the action especially to be
feared is the trickling of water down fissures which may extend to
depths below the bottom in cuttings and create slimy surfaces,
disconnecting masses of earth, and finally offering a ready means of
movement, which swelling of the clay or vibration may complete.
The experiments of Mr. Baldwin Latham, M. Inst. C.E., on the
absorption and retention of water by clay soils, gave the following
results:—The stiffest clays retained the greatest quantity of water.
Clay soils can absorb and retain from 40 to 60 per cent. of water by
weight. Marly clays hold less water than the pure clays. In the case
of loamy soils, the percentage of water retained varied from 35 to 60
per cent. by weight, the mixture of sand and clay, therefore, limited
the amount of water which it would naturally hold.
As in chalk soils fissures occur, the percolation of water and the
effects of the atmosphere through the pores causes movement, and
even crevices and breaks in rocks are not to be disregarded with
impunity, as they are channels of disintegration.
Most earths when dry attract water, but if they are regularly
irrigated, they require less moisture, depending upon the nature of
the earth, and slope and relative level of the land. All soils when
broken, as in embankments, absorb more water than when in an
unbroken state, as in cuttings; for instance, it has been found by
experiment that clayey and retentive earths will absorb about 7 per
cent. more water, and light porous soils about 6 per centum. Of
course, the increment varies. Even wet retentive soil, if handled,
becomes considerably less impervious to moisture.
Mr. Evans, F.R.S., has proved by experiment that percolation through
pure chalk is much greater than through ordinary top soil consisting
of gravel, loam, and mould, both being covered with turf, and that in
winter the average proportions of percolation are as about 1 for soil
to 1·5 for chalk; in summer 1 for soil to 2·6 for chalk. The depth also
to which chalk will allow a passage of water is some 60 per cent.
more than ordinary top soil.
Rain will percolate through chalk or any open soil until it meets an
impervious stratum, or to that place which is in a state of saturation,
when the water must either flow away or the level of saturation
must gradually rise. This causes rivulets to burst out in places after
heavy rain, when the water has had time to percolate, and the
rainfall has exceeded the average, but such springs will cease when
the local excess has terminated. However, in cuttings it is the flow
from fissures that is to be feared, and their size may indicate the
quantity of water that may be expected to issue from them. It seems
to be generally agreed that the supply of water from chalk is derived
from rain, which percolates through innumerable fissures, and that
in all rocks, whether limestone, sandstone, granite, sand, or clay, it
is by means of the fissures, seams, and veins that the supply of
water is obtained from rain, and springs created.
With regard to the percolation of water through sand, it may always
be expected to be very considerable, and the soil may under certain
conditions become water-charged. Mr. Greaves, M. Inst. C.E., has
shown by experiments that the average percolation through ordinary
top soil is only about one-third of that of sand, but the evaporation
from a surface of ordinary soil was about four times more than from
a similar surface of sand, and also the amount of percolation in
ordinary top earth was small on the whole, and, perhaps, the
percolation through ordinary ground would be about 25 per cent. of
the rainfall, but 80 per cent. in average sand.
Experiments have also shown that the absorbent capacity of sand
decreases regularly according to the fineness of the grain, and that
“some sandy soils will not absorb more than 20 per cent., but sandy
soil containing peat, as moorland, as much as 80 per cent., both
computed by weight.”
The quantity of water absorbed by loamy soil will vary considerably
according as clay or sand preponderates in the mass. Earth may
become so mixed with coarse or fine sand that, when saturated, it
approaches the condition of a quicksand.
The general effect of percolation has been briefly described as
follows. Upon water entering the pores of an earth it displaces the
air or liquid previously present, forcing the former upwards into the
atmosphere, and the latter downwards.
Having briefly referred to the percolation of water in cuttings and
embankments, the drainage is now considered. It must be either
precautionary, i.e., to prevent a slip, or remedial, i.e., to drain a slip.
The aim of any draining operations to prevent slips in earthwork is to
search for the source of water discharge, to tap and gently conduct
it away and prevent it reaching, accumulating, percolating, or being
confined within the slope of a cutting, which it may then reduce to a
pulpy condition; its free effluxion being most important, as also the
lessening of the percolation of rain and surface-waters. The drainage
of cuttings or embankments may consist of wells, culverts, closed or
open channels, pipes, and tile drains of every reasonable and
economical form, and may be placed in various positions. To
describe them and the different systems of draining is to open up a
subject requiring several volumes; here the endeavour is made to
indicate whether elaborate or ordinary drainage is required, or mere
water-tables and surface drains, and care in the process of
excavation and deposition, protection of the slopes, and in giving
them sufficient inclination to prevent movement. If possible and time
allows, the drainage in treacherous soils should always be
commenced before the main excavation, and, in any case,
simultaneously.
Rock and solid impermeable earth may merely require to be surface
drained, but all treacherous and porous soil, deep draining; and
granular soils, which usually exude water from the whole mass,
demand different treatment to those earths which discharge water at
particular places; but it may be most difficult to drain a mixed soil,
such as sandy loam and silt. With the exception of a counterfort and
drain at the foot of a slope, and an impermeable catchwater drain
upon the slopes and top drains, to prevent and lessen surface
percolation, the best method to adopt in earth of this description
may be to sink wells at intervals to intercept the flow or percolation
of any ground waters; to attempt to drain or draw out the water in
the soil will end in comparative failure. To reduce the volume of the
percolating waters is the object to be attained, and then
evaporation, vibration, which tends to shake down water, and time
may gradually convert the earth to the desired drier condition. The
wells can be filled with broken stone or coarse gravel to support
them, and prevent their closing.
It is an advantage to prevent the percolation of water into soil that
will not readily part with it, such as the clay earths, as it may be
economically impossible to drain or restore the earth to its normal
condition, and should the strata be upheaved, intermixed, and of a
permeable and impermeable character, a scientific application of
drainage can alone succeed. When the source of the water is
ascertained, it can be seen whether a complete system of drainage
is necessary over the whole of a cutting or only a portion of the
slopes. Dampness and the egression of water may be merely local; if
so, by boring a hole and inserting a drain into a slope to tap the flow
it may be cured, the surface being made dry by a layer of ashes or
other absorbent material. Pipes or tile drains may be sufficient when
springs exist, or the flow of water is local, and in loose soils it is
especially advisable to provide openings for cleaning any covered
drains. Brickwork, masonry, concrete, pipes, or other rigid drains,
may not be suitable for ground likely to unequally subside, as they
will probably crack or leak, and loose-jointed pipes or over-lapping
tile drains may be required. In treacherous clay soils surface
longitudinal and transverse drains will most probably be insufficient,
and deep draining of the mass be necessary, also the ground upon
which earth is deposited will require to be drained and a layer of
rubble stone placed upon it, a cutting or embankment being divided
into small drainage areas by deep open dry stone trenches.
Water may not sufficiently percolate into a hill, either because of its
surface being covered with vegetation, or the soil being of an
impervious nature. It may then flow down the slope of a cutting
which will probably be bare and unprotected. To prevent slips the
discharge must be carefully controlled and led away, particularly
when the formation is drift soil upon rock, or the earth will be liable
to saturation and degradation; also to prevent a flow of water under
its seat, and upon the natural ground, should an embankment be
deposited upon it.
When a slope upon the hill-side of a cutting is of considerable length
and steepness, it is advisable to bench it and divide it into a series of
terraces and short slopes, and to provide catchwater drains, with
impermeable surfaces so as to prevent any surface water attaining a
high velocity, and scouring power. All surface water upon the side of
a hill should be controlled, and catchwater drains may suffice to do
this.
Should an impervious stratum be upheaved so as to make a
reservoir wall for water under the seat of an embankment, it is
useless to surface-drain the valley side of it in sidelong ground, as it
will not affect the waters that trickle down the hill, which will be
dammed up to the top level of the impervious stratum, and may
saturate the seat of an embankment and cause a slip. In such a case
through drainage must be created from the hill to the valley, and the
impervious upheaved cap must be pierced so as not to interfere with
the passage of water.
In countries where there is a certain dry and rainy season, the
necessary provision required for drainage must not be computed
from the visible effects of the rainfall soon after the wet season has
commenced, but the maximum flood may be discerned when the
earth has absorbed or retains the moisture evaporated during the
dry season, and becomes water-charged. In the tropics or
exceptionally wet districts the only effectual method of draining may
be to divide the area into small portions, as the rainfall may be so
great, sudden, and continuous that unless it naturally flows into a
channel, which should not be diverted or its course be materially
altered, it will be impossible to control the waters. In an exceptional
situation where a railway must be located in a ravine and close to a
river, and the material of which an embankment is made is compact
earth or the ground firm, it may be advisable to allow the overflow
waters of a river, or the flow of surface water towards it, when the
extreme flood level is known, to gently pass over a line of railway, it
being kept at such a level as not to impede free working, and to
ensure that any back water is not prevented from escaping. If not,
an embankment may slip and require extensive and frequent
bridges, culverts, or drainage channels in order to provide sufficient
waterway, and to attain permanent stability of the embankment.
In all cases it is necessary to determine the depth to which the
drains must be placed to be effectual, and their position, extent and
number, and it should be remembered that the fewer there are the
greater will be the velocity and discharge; also if many small drains
are inserted the soil may stand, but if only one or two are made the
surface may succumb to the erosive action of the flowing waters.
The provision of a water-table or the mere surface drainage of a
cutting, or the seat of an embankment may be of little use, as the
superimposed soil may slide upon a stratum, and unless this bed is
thoroughly drained rain may quickly destroy the equilibrium. Of
course, in the case of a slip, the drains to be effectual must be
placed below its level and down to the layer upon which movement
has occurred, especially in clay and retentive and impervious earths,
for instance, surface drainage in yellow clay is almost useless.
Should the source be known from which the water issues the
drainage may be local, and if a spring be unsealed it may be
necessary to insert pipes in the slope, for until the spring is tapped
and guided no system of drains may be effectual.
By inserting a stand-pipe over a spring, the height to which the
water will rise will approximately show the head-level of the supply.
If possible, this should be ascertained, as it may happen that the
water can be drained by gravitation in pipes without much
excavation being required in the slopes or formation; but care should
be taken that no water is allowed to settle or accumulate for the
purpose of its being conducted away unless upon a protected
surface.
With regard to catchwater drains upon the cess at the top of the
slopes, they should be cut before the excavation is commenced; and
it is important to remember that instead of their affording protection
by guiding the surface waters, which would otherwise proceed
towards the slopes, they may increase the percolation by localizing
the water and allowing it to accumulate and find its way to the
slope; and in sidelong ground it may, therefore, be necessary to
protect their valley more than their uphill side, as the surface water
will impinge against it; but when they are practically impervious and
gently direct the surface water they are advantageous, and in
permeable soil, unless they are so constructed as to be impervious,
perhaps it is better to have none. They should be as reasonably
distant from the top of the slope as is convenient without weakening
the foundations of the posts supporting any fencing, and in order to
quickly discharge the water and lessen the chance of their becoming
choked by detritus or ice, they should have considerable inclination.
As the adoption of even a moderate fall in the drains may erode the
side ditches and cause water to percolate to the slopes and make a
water-seam, it may be necessary to protect the bottom, and as the
depth of the side drains in order to be effectual may be
considerable, according to the character of the soil, the sides may
also require to be covered and supported. In cuttings in many soils
sufficient stones can be picked out to cover the surfaces of the side
drains, and they can be roughly packed, the smaller stones being
rammed into the interstices between the larger, which will gradually
become filled; also a covering of brushwood, rammed earth, or
puddled clay can be used, or other expedient which occasion may
suggest. The inclination must not be steeper than the natural or
protected bed can bear without the water scouring it, and yet should
be sufficient to prevent any deposit or choking, and the drains
should be cleared regularly, and especially in the autumn in England
or before the wet season commences, and all depressions in which
water can accumulate should be levelled in order to assist easy
discharge. Small open drains become choked somewhat easily, and it
is therefore advisable to make them according to the nature of the
soil, situation, and requirements not less than 1 foot 6 inches to 3
feet in width at the top and 1 foot at bottom; they may be from 1
foot to 3 feet in depth. Care should be taken that the bends are not
too abrupt or the water may make its own course. A gentle curve
considerably increases the flow. The angle of a bend should be as
easy as possible, and not exceed 26° or 2 to 1.
In sandy and loose soils, if unprotected, open drains may be difficult
to maintain even when filled with broken stone, and covered or pipe
drains be necessary, and those loosely filled with stones or faggots
may not succeed; in any case no run of the sand must be allowed,
and it is advisable to rapidly construct them. In peaty soils, from
subsidence of the ground consequent upon draining, the drains
often become choked. The depth of a drain in the formation may
require to be deeper than elsewhere, as at the toe of the slope, the
weakest part, the water will generally be most abundant.
Upon railways, the advantage of thorough drainage of the formation
as regards the stability of the permanent way and reduction of the
cost of repairs is proverbial, but here is only named in its relation to
the prevention and the reparation of slips.
When field drains are intercepted in the slopes, drain pipes or timber
ducts should be joined to them and be connected with the general
drainage of a cutting. Draining the slopes, providing outlets for the
water, and also support to the earth can be effected by means of a
counterfort of permeable material at the toe of the slope, with its
foundation a few feet below formation level, with open drains at
right angles or obliquely to it extending from the foe to the top of
the slope.[1] These open drains and trenches can be filled with
stones, gravel, hard chalk, ashes, brushwood and gravel, broken
bricks, burnt clay or other suitable material; and a simple covering of
picked ashes, &c., over a moist place in a clay cutting of little depth
may be sufficient. The distance apart of such trenches in clay
cuttings generally ranges between 10 and 33 feet; their location
must be governed by the consideration that they exist in order to
prevent a localization of water in the slopes: their width is usually
from 2 feet to 8 feet, and most frequently 4 to 6 feet, and the depth
from 1 foot 6 inches to 3 feet and upwards, below the surface of the
slope, but in very wet embankments a width from 6 to 10 feet and
of such a depth as the soil will allow without extensive support. If
the earth has not slipped, and it should be found that the ground is
wet for from 6 to 8 feet or so beneath the surface, and the depth of
the trench is made about half that of the wetted soil, it is sufficient
to collect the water, but if it has slipped most probably such drains
will not be effectual until carried down below the seat of movement.
At the foot of a slope these drains should be connected with
longitudinal channels parallel to the formation to gently convey the
water to the nearest outlet. The location, distance apart, depth,
width, and direction of the trenches must be governed by the nature
of the soil, the depth of a cutting or height of an embankment, the
area of the surface to be drained, the quantity of water in it, the
presence of water-seams and weak places, and by other minor
considerations.

1. Vide Chap. VI., pp. 111, 112.

With respect to the material with which the trenches should be filled,
a uniform substance having considerable power of absorption, and
but few particles between the interstices, is to be preferred, as the
trickling of water and vibration causes the smaller material to fall
towards the bottom of the trench, which, therefore, may become
partly choked, and free drainage be interrupted at the toe of the
slope, the most vulnerable place. As sand is always present in
unwashed gravel, it will gradually flow or fall to the base of the
trench and will prevent equal drainage, but properly burnt clay,
being a more uniform and fragmentary substance, is better than
sandy gravel, as it is dry and porous; but much depends upon it
being well burnt or it may weather. Ashes and chalk are excellent
collectors of water and are usually of an even character, but ashes
are better than chalk, as the latter material, unless very hard, is
liable to become disintegrated by the action of the atmosphere, rain,
and frost. The difficulty with respect to ashes is to obtain them in
sufficient quantity, free from dust, and of the requisite size. When
weight is required as well as drainage, burnt clay, gravel, or chalk is
to be preferred to ashes. Burnt clay, although burned upon the site,
is generally a more expensive material than gravel, but the amount
of moisture in the clay will principally determine the quantity of fuel
necessary to burn it, and therefore the cost. If shale is present, by
thoroughly igniting it the expense of burning may be nearly reduced
to that of lighting and turning over, as it will usually burn unaided.
All trenches should drain into pipes placed below the formation or
into open drains at a sufficient distance from the toe of a slope as
not to deleteriously affect it, in order that the water may be
controlled and gently conveyed to an outlet.
The chief objection to open drains is that all excavated trenches or
inserted drains in the slopes destroy the cohesion of the earth and
aid in detaching portions of the surface. If the cohesion and
adhesion of the soil were the same under every condition, this would
be a cogent reason against the system, but, as in earthwork, every
degree of moisture from dampness to saturation may be attained,
the cohesive power is a very variable quantity, apart from the effects
of vibration; and also open drains undoubtedly do cause a slope to
be drier, and moderate local humidity, and therefore increase the
cohesion and general stability of the part drained; the only fear
being that from inattention they may become choked; then they are
dangerous, as they will permanently collect and retain water instead
of temporarily retaining and gently guiding it. A careful consideration
of the circumstances may much reduce this objection by indicating
whether it is advisable to have only a few deep, or several small
surface drains. Provided proper precautions are taken, experience
indicates that filled-in trenches in the slopes are generally successful,
and certainly are simpler and cheaper than a retaining wall at the
toe of a slope. In pervious soil it may be economically impossible to
drain the slopes unless they are divided into sections, and should the
material in the trenches be well-packed and pressed down, it may
even increase the friction between the separated portions.
In connection with the drainage of cuttings may be named that
excavation should not be allowed to be cast upon the cess unless
some distance from the edge of a slope, and only temporarily for
purposes of ballasting and metalling; as such spoil-banks increase
the load and localize the water to be drained.
A more complete system of drainage may be necessary than those
previously named, consisting of a combination of wells, open, or
holding filtering material; pipe-drains or filled-in trenches, wells with
a pipe leading to a catchwater drain, &c., or other usual methods of
land drainage. For instance, it may be discovered that water issues
from a spring outside the fence or cutting; if so, in order to drain the
slopes it may be necessary to sink a well to a stratum below the
formation level so as to tap the spring, thereby preventing an
exudation of water upon the slope; this is a better plan than drawing
the water into the slope and then draining it.
When pervious earth overlies an impervious stratum, i.e., gravel or
sand upon clay, rough-filled wells at intervals inside the fence
extending 3 or 4 feet into the clay, with an outlet drain, may be
required to prevent a flow of water upon the clay and a wetted
surface upon which the gravel can slide; and it may be necessary to
have a cess on the slope between the top of the clay and the bottom
of the gravel or sand, with a catchwater drain upon it, particularly in
a cutting in sidelong ground.
Should the soil be silty sand, or be charged with water, consequent
upon the formation of the country, it may be impossible to drain a
cutting without a complete system of wells, catchwater drains and
pipes, and even then it may be difficult to separate the water from
the earth. In building a drain-shaft it should be remembered that it
may not only be subject to a compressive strain, but also to
transverse strain and flexure from different pressures of the earth at
various depths, especially when the soil is not the same throughout,
and unequally damp.
When “boils” occur in sand-cuttings, perhaps the cheapest expedient
is to place a shaft over the boil, weight the bottom sufficiently to
prevent a movement of the sand, but to allow the water to escape,
and make a discharge outlet after having ascertained its head level:
vide Chapter XII. On no account should a spring be stopped, as such
action will result in its diversion to some other place; but the water
flowing from it should be guided and discharged. Weighting may
arrest a slip in any sandy soil, also clay or any impervious material
placed upon the sand, or sinking a well outside a cutting to a depth
of some 5 feet below the bottom may effect a remedy by abstracting
the surplus water, but care must be taken not to disturb the sand.
Slips in embankments frequently occur from the percolation of water
through the formation to the slopes, and so to the toe, the lower
portions become disintegrated by moisture and the effects of
weather, and cause the upper parts to slide or move. To lessen
percolation and to prevent an accumulation of water upon the
formation, it is usual for its centre to be raised a few inches above
the level of the top of the slope. This is undoubtedly a good practice,
as it also tends to drain the ballast, but it may be nullified in time if
the entire width of the formation be not covered with an
impermeable layer or with ballast; for when an unprotected space
remains between the toe of the slope of the ballast and the top of
the slope of an embankment, water is liable to percolate through the
cess and cause a slope to become wet and unstable; particularly so
if the ballast is broken rock and has side walls instead of slopes, as
then a depression will probably be made by the platelayers or
signalmen walking upon the cess. In all cases where the material is
treacherous or likely to slip, it is advisable to cover the top of
embankments of considerable height throughout their width with
ballast or some impervious soil, provided the permanent way is also
properly drained. This is the simplest precaution to take respecting
the preservation of the formation level or summit of an
embankment. All grass, dirt, and refuse should be regularly removed
from it and anything that obstructs free drainage. The nature of the
ballast also affects the evenness of the surface of the formation, as
if it consists of broken rock, the equal and regular packing of the
sleepers is not so easily effected as with gravel ballast; the sleepers
are frequently not uniformly supported throughout their length, the
pressure upon the formation is localized, depressions are formed and
water collected, and slips and subsidences in soils of a treacherous
nature may be induced from this cause, as the equilibrium is soon
disturbed. The formation should be so drained and constructed that
water cannot percolate to or cause the surface to become soft and
work up into or through the ballast, or a state of unsettlement will
be produced by water soaking through the ballast to an
embankment, and so saturating part of it and forcing out the upper
portion of a slope. In all close granular ballast cross channels should
be made to lead away the surface water. Transverse open tile-drains
may be required leading to an impervious channel. Water has been
known to percolate through a considerable depth of ballast when
added to restore a sunken embankment, even through as much as 7
to 10 feet when two falling gradients induced a flow of the surface
waters to one place. In certain situations it may be necessary should
an embankment be of clay or treacherous soil when wet, to cover
the formation with an impervious stratum to prevent percolation to
the embankment, and to thoroughly and separately drain the ballast
placed upon it.
At the base of an embankment a ditch should be cut upon the
higher side, or both sides, as near as convenient to the fence. When
in addition to the interception of any surface waters by an
embankment the ground is very retentive of moisture, it may be
necessary to drain the seat; with this object trenches can be
excavated at intervals at right angles or obliquely to the centre line
of the embankment, and be filled with some hard filtering substance,
such as stone or gravel, so as to effect and control the discharge of
the waters. Should this be too expensive a method to adopt, and
always provided the surface waters are prevented from flowing or
trickling into the base of an embankment, the ground might be
excavated so as to equally incline downwards towards the centre,
the level at that point being 1 foot to 2 feet below the toe of the
slope on each side, according to the width of the base of the
embankment; a small trench being cut in the centre and filled with
stones, and covered at the top with brushwood or hurdles or other
provision necessary to ensure it being permanently an effectual
water channel, with occasional or other drains to lead the water to
the nearest culvert or side ditch. When it is found that water passes
over the surface of firm soil upon which an embankment is
deposited, the water must be intercepted and led away; and should
an embankment be of retentive earth, in order to tap the water that
has flowed and percolated into it, and to restore the earth to its
normal condition and prevent slips and subsidences, it may be
necessary to sink shafts to a depth of a few feet below the seat of
an embankment until the mass is drained.
With regard to culverts, a settlement or slip of an embankment over
a culvert may unequally strain, fracture, and displace portions of it,
and therefore interrupt the flow of the drainage waters, which may
then reach the seat of an embankment and cause it to be in a
dangerous condition. They are usually necessarily placed at the
deepest point of an embankment, and consequently the most
difficult to make repairs. In such a situation they should be built
sufficiently large to allow of the easy passage of a man, in order that
due inspection may be made, and be constructed of materials of a
durable character. Should a naturally firm bank exist on one or both
sides of a stream, it should be stripped of all plant growth and
decaying matter, and be preserved in order to form a natural wall to
relieve a culvert from side pressure, but firm or hard material must
be inserted between the back of the wall and the face of the stream
bank so as to support the wall against the pressure it receives from
the arch. This leads to a consideration of the best form of culvert. In
clay soils, and those which exert pressure from expansion, especially
if the culvert is surrounded by clay earth, the circular is generally
considered to be the best form, and this has been proved to be so in
tunnels in similar soil, with splayed wing-walls to assist and guide
the flow and help to keep a clear entrance. In granular soils, such as
dry sand or gravel, the earth acts differently and more in accordance
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookball.com