SALALE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

PRE-UNIVERSITY REMEDIAL PROGRAM FOR THE 2014 E.C. ESSLCE EXAMINEES

ENGLISH MODULE

PREPARED BY:
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STAFFS

MARCH, 2023
FITCHE, ETHIOPIA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents page
Unit One: Hobbies and Crafts
1.1. Speaking: Greeting and Introduction………………………………………………….…………..1
1.1.1. Greeting………………………………………………………………………………….....1
1.1.2. Introduction Oneself…………………………………………….……………………….....2
1.1.3. Introducing Others ………………………………………………..………….……….........5
1.2. Grammar…………………………………………………………………………..………………………..8
1.2.1. Simple present tense…………………………………………………..……………….…...10
Simple Present Passive………………………………………………..…………………....12
1.2.2. Present continuous tense………………………………………………...………………...13
Present Continuous Passive……………………………………………………...…….…………..21
1.2.3. Present perfect tense…………………………………………………………………...…………..22
Present Perfect Passive……………………………………………………………………..26
1.2.4. Present Perfect Continuous………………………………………………………………..27
Present Perfect Continuous Passive…………………………………………………….…28
1.3. Verb forms…………………………………………………………………………………….…..29
1.3.1. Regular verbs…………………………………………………………………………...…29
1.3.2. Irregular verbs…………………………………………………………………………...…31
1.4. Asking questions………………………………………………………………………………......32
1.4.1. Wh- questions……………………………………………………………………………....32
1.4.2. Yes/No questions………………………………………………………………………….34
1.4.3. Tag questions……………………………………………………………………………...39
1.4.4. Indirect questions…………………………………………..……………………………....45
1.5. Reading Comprehension……………………………………………………………………….....46
1.6. Vocabulary in context……………………………………………………………………………..50
1.7. Descriptive Writing………………………………………………………………………..…….51
Unit Two: Moral Education and Personal Responsibility
2.1. Grammar…………………………………………………………………………….…...…….…52
2.1.1. Simple past tense……………………………………………………….……………..…….52
Simple Past Passive…………………………………………………………..………..……55
 2.1.2. Past Continuous tense…………………………………………………………………..…..56
Past Continuous passive……………………………………………………………….......58
2.1.3. Past Perfect Tense………………………………………………………………...…….….58
Past Perfect Tense Passive…………………………………………………………...….…60
2.1.4. Past Perfect Continuous………………………………………………………………….....61
Past Perfect Continuous Passive……………………………………………………………62
2.1.5. Simple Future ..............................................................................................................….....63
Simple Future Passive………………………………………………………………….....…67
2.1.6. Future Continuous…………………………………………………………………..….…..68
Future Continuous Passive……………………………………………………………….…69
2.1.7. Future Perfect…………………………………………………….……………………..…..69
Future Perfect Passive…………………………………………………………………..…..70
2.1.8. Future Prefect Continuous……………………………………………...………….……..…71
Future Prefect Continuous Passive…………………………………………………..……....72
2.2. Conditional sentences…………………………………………….…………………………..…….74
2.2.1. Type I: Likely/ Probable condition……………………………………………………...…...75
2.2.2. Type II: Unlikely and imaginary condition……………………………………………...…...76
2.2.3. Type III : Impossible condition……………………………………………………………….77
2.2.4. Type IV: Zero-condition………………………………………………………………….......78
2.3. Modal auxiliaries…………………….………………………………………………………......…81
2.4. Speaking………………………………………………………….………………………………...85
Using so and neither…………………………………………………………...……………..…….85
2.5. Reading Comprehension………………………………………………………………………..….89
Unit Three: Education
3.1. Grammar………………………………………………………………………………………...….92
3.1.1. Degrees of Comparison………………………………………………………………… ...…..92
3.1.2. Relative clauses……………………………………………………………………………...….97
3.1.3. Adverbs………………………………………………………………………………….…….100
3.1.3.1. Adverbs of Manner……………………………………………………….……………..101
3.1.3.2. Adverbs of place………………………………………………….……….………….…102
3.1.3.3. Adverbs of Frequency………………………………………………………………..….103
3.1.3.4. Adverbs of Time……………………………………………………………………..…..103
 3.1.3.5. Adverbs of Purpose…………………………………………………………………….103
3.1.3.6. Positions of Adverbs……………………………………………………………………104
3.1.4. Adjectives and prepositions……………………………………………………...……………108
Types of Prepositions…………………………………………………………………………..112
Common Adjective & Preposition Combinations…………………………………..…………116
3.1.5. Reported Speech……………………………………………………………………………….117
3.2. Reading Comprehension……………………………………………………………………..……....129
3.3. Letter Writing…………………………..…………………………………………………………….132
Unit Four: Water
4.1. Grammar…………………………………………………………………………………………....134
4.1.1. Like and as…………………………………………………………………………………….134
4.1.2. Quantifiers…………………………………………………………………………...……...…137
4.1.3. Articles…………………………………………………………………………...…………….140
4.1.4. Linking words……………………………………………………………………………..…...144
Coordinating Conjunctions…………………………………………………………………….144
Correlatives conjunctions…………………………………………………………………...….144
Subordinating Conjunctions………………………………………………………………...…145
4.2. Reading Comprehension………………………………………………………………………..…….149

Unit Five: Family Life

5.1. Grammar……………………………………………………………………………………..…….…152
5.1.1. Talking about Future Tense……………………………………………………………..…...….152
5.1.2. Sentence Types………………………………………………………………………………….155
5.1.3. Verb Pattern…………………………………………………………………..……………..…..160
5.1.4. Capitalization…………………………………………………………………………………....162
5.2. Vocabulary in Context………………………………………………………………..……………...…163
Unit Six: United Nations
6.1. Expressing Purpose in English………………………………………………………………………170
6.2. Expressing Probability and Certainty………………………………………………………………..172
6.3. Public Speaking…………………………………………………………………………………...….174
6.4. Punctuations Mark in English………………………………………………………………………...176
Collocations in English
Irregular Verb
 Unit One: Hobbies and Crafts
1.1. Speaking: Greeting and Introduction

1.1.1. Greeting
Greeting is ways of salutations that one asks the good will of another and it is the first and for most kind
of communication when people meet one to each other. Moreover, it is measurement of stating a
person‘s quality by the society. There are two types of greeting. These are formal and informal
greetings. Formal greeting is a polite way of speaking to other using words that explain respect. Most of
the time, formal greeting is treated to elderly people, authorities and respected ones. On the other hand,
informal greeting is way of approaching another person to show affection or closeness to him/her. This
way of approaching is used to friends, intimates, lover and close relatives etc.

A. Formal Greeting
The commonly used phrases are:
 How are you?  Good morning
 How are you doing?  Good afternoon
 How do you do?  Good evening
The usual titles used before names are: Mr., Miss, Mrs., Ms., Sir, Madam, Dr., Prof. Academic titles

Example
Begin with the formal greeting and use the appropriate titles and formal phrases.

Greeting expressions Titles Responses

Sir Good morning
Good morning Madam Good afternoon
Good afternoon Mr. Thomas Good evening
(Hello) Good evening Mrs. Rahel How do you do?
How do you do Miss Rahel I‘m fine/good/well thank you and you?
How are you Dr. Alemu I‘m fine/good/well thank you and you?
How are you doing Professor Alemu Good morning Mr. Mathew/Ms.
Ladies and gentle men Helen/Miss. Hanna.

Notice that in greeting we use ―sir‖ for male we do not know his name and ―madam‖ for female we do
not know her name.
Model examples
Dialogue 1
Mahlet: Hello, good morning Tarikie. How are you?
Tarikie: I am fine thank you and you?
Mahlet: Very fine, thanks. By the way, what has brought you here?
Tarikie: I have come here to visit my relatives. I should make a move. The bus is coming. See you. Bye.
Mahlet: Ok, we will get together again soon. Bye-bye.

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 Dialogue 2
Demelash: Good evening, Dr. Tessema. How are you?
Dr. Tessema: I am fine, thank you. How are you, Ato Demelash?
Demelash: Very well, thank you. Where‘re you going?
Dr. Tessema: I am going for a walk, as usual. Have you settled a job?
Demelash: Not yet. Ok, I should not detain you for long. It was nice to meet you. Good evening, Dr.
Tessema.
Dr. Tessema: See you later, Ato Demelash.

B. Informal Greeting
Informal phrases such as Hi, Hello, Hey, Hi/Hello there, what‘s up are used.

Examples
Greeting Responses
1. Hi.
2. Hi Girma.------------------------------------------------Hi
3. Hello guys.----------------------------------------------Hello
4. Alemu, what‘s up!-------------------------------------Hi/Hello
5. Hello/Hi there.-----------------------------------------Hi/Hello
6. Hello/Hi Sir/Madam-----------------------------------Hi/Hello

Model examples
Dialogue 1
Dejene: Hi! How are you?
Helen: Fine, thanks-and you?
Dejene: Just fine. Where are you going?
Helen: To the library.
Dejene: see you later.
Helen: See you

1.1.2. Introduction Oneself

II. Formal Introducing Oneself
Expressions for self-introduction

One introduces himself/ herself to someone who is stranger (unfamiliarized) with him/her. In self-
introduction, there is no mediator or introducer who let him/her acquaint to a new person with good
means of approaching and greeting. Formal Introducing is dealt with high attention for people who are
elder, respected and authorized.

 Let me introduce you myself,  I am Abera

 May I introduce you myself,  My name is Abera.
 I would like to introduce you myself,  I am called Abera
 I do not think we have met each other,

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 Model examples
Dialogue 1
Abebe: Good morning, I would like to introduce myself. My name is Abebe.
Berhanu: Good morning, I guess you do not know who I am, do you? I am Berhanu.
Abebe: Where are you from Berhanu?
Berhanu: I am from Hawasa and you?
Abebe: I am from Addis Ababa. What are you going to do here in Addis Ababa?
Berhanu: As I am merchant, I am going to buy shop goods for my trade. What about you?
Abebe: I am to visit my relatives
Dialogue 2
Sani: May I introduce myself? I am Sani Ahmed.
Kaleab: My name is Kaleab Musa. How are you?
Sani: I am fine, thank you. What time does the class start?
Kaleab: I really don‘t know. Let‘s ask other students if they know about it.
Sani: That is a good idea.

The following expressions are used by the two individuals who have introduced formally
Introducer Responses
 I am glad to meet you.  I am glad to meet you, too.
 I am pleased to meet you, too.
 I am pleased to meet you.
 It is nice to meet you, too.
 It is nice to meet you.  It is a pleasure to meet you, too.
 How do you do?
 It is a pleasure to meet you.  Me, too.
 Nice meeting you, too.
 How do you do?
 Glad to meet you, too.
 Nice to meet you.  Me, too

 Pleased to meet you.

 Glad to meet you

 I‘m happy to meet you.

Model example
Nadia: Hello dear, my name is Nadia. Welcome to our university.
Alicia: Hello dear, I am Alicia.
Nadia: Nice to meet you.
Alicia: Nice to meet you too.
Nadia: Where are you from Alicia?
Alicia: I am from Nicaragua, how about you?
Nadia: I am from France.
Alicia: Is this your first time in London?

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Nadia: No, I have been living in London for about three years now.
Alicia: I see… Have you been studying here for all that time?
Nadia: Yes, this is my third year here. I have got one more year to go.
Alicia: What are you studying?
Nadia: I'm studying English Linguistic. I want to be a linguist. How about you?
Alicia: I want to be a school teacher.
Nadia: That's great!
III. Informal introducing oneself
Informal introduction do not use titles and preliminary phrases.
Example,
The followings are some of the phrases used in introducing other people informally:
 Hi, I am …………
 Hi, my name is………….
 Hello, my name is………..
 Hi/hello, this is…………..
 I would like to meet you
 Do you know me before?
 Have you met me before?
Model Example 1
Aster: Hey! Do you know me? I am called Aster.
Bezawit: Hay! My name is Bezawit.
Aster: Where is the commercial bank?
Bezawit: Go straight line for about ten minutes
Aster: thanks

Model Example 2
David: Hi my name is David.
Jackson: Hi my name is Jackson

Model Example 3
Gammechu: Hi! I am Gammachu, an artist and live in Dambidollo.
Tesfaye: Nice to meet you. I am Tesfaye and live in Gondar.
Gammachu: Nice to meet you, too. I think you are a teacher.
Tesfaye: Yes, I teach at Fasil School.
Gammachu: Ok, a nice meeting. See you later.
Tesfaye: Bye-bye, see you again.

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 1.1.3. Introducing Others
A. Formal introduction to others
One introduces his/her friends, relatives and acquainted person with another person that he/she has
familiarized before. When introducing others, there is mediator or introducer who let him/her acquaint to
a new person with good means of approaching and greeting. Formal Introducing is dealt with high
attention for people who are elder, respected and authorized. Begin with the formal greeting and use the
appropriate titles and formal phrases.
Example
Good morning Ato Kebede I would like to introduce you
Good afternoon Mr. Thomas May I introduce you Mr. Zeleke
Good evening Mrs. Selamawit Let me introduce you to Ato Mulalem
How do you do Miss Rahel Allow me to introduce you Mrs. Helen
How are you Dr. Alemu May I have the opportunity to Miss Rahel
Hello introduce you

Dialogue 1
Abebe: Hello Berhanu, I would like to introduce you to my best friend, Tola.
Berhanu: I guess you do not know who I am, do you? I am Berhanu.
Tola: This is Tola. It is nice meeting you.
Berhanu: nice to meet you too. Where are you from Tola?
Tola: I am from Adama. What about you?
Abebe: I am from Semera.

Dialogue 2
Sani: Kaleab, May I introduce you to my best friend? He is Ahmed.
Kaleab: My name is Kaleab Musa. How are you dear Ahmed?
Ahmed: I am fine, thank you. I am pleased meeting you right now.
Kaleab: I am pleased too. What time does the class begin?
Tola: I really do not know. Let‘s ask other students if they know about it.
Sani: That is a good idea.

B. Informal Introduction to Others

Informal introduction do not use titles and preliminary phrases.

The followings are some of the phrases used in introducing other people informally:
 I like you to meet Melaku/ my friend/classmate
 Do you know Melaku before?
 Have you met Melaku before?
Model examples
Tolosa: I want you to meet Solomon, my best friend.
Serawit: Hi, Solomon? Glad to meet you.
Solomon: Hi, glad to meet you, too.

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 Activities
Task 1. Look at the following dialogues very carefully and classify each of the dialogue into formal
greeting, informal greeting, formal self-introduction, informal self-introduction and introducing others.
1. -----------------------------------------
Rediet: Ato Getachew, I would like to introduce you to Ato Chala. He is the chairman of the Board
of Directors.
Ato Getachew: How do you do, Ato Chala?
Ato Chala: How do you do, Ato Getachew?
Ato Getachew: It is a pleasure to meet you. I‘ve heard a lot about you.
Ato Chala: It‗s a pleasure to meet you, too.
2. -----------------------------------------------------------
John: Good morning Ato Alan.
Alan: Good morning. How are you?
John: I am very well thank you and you?
Alan: I am fine. Thank you for asking.
John: Do you have a meeting this morning?
Alan: Yes, I do. Do you have a meeting as well?
John: Yes. Well. It was a pleasure seeing you.
Alan: Goodbye.
3. --------------------------------------------------------
Person A: Hi, my name is Steve. It is nice to meet you.
Person B: I am Jack. It's a pleasure to meet you, Steve.
Person A: What do you do for a living Jack?
Person B: I work at the bank.
4. -----------------------------------------------------------
Father: Have you ever met Ato Worku? He is my my uncle.
Hileni: Pleased to meet you, Ato Worku. I have heard so many nice things about you.
Ato Worku: Thank you. I am glad to meet you, too.
5. -----------------------------------------------------------
A. Hi Dani
B. Hi mili. How are you?
A. Fine and you
B. not so well
A. Has anything gone wrong?
B. Well. Last week I was sick.
A. Too bad what happened?
B. I had a bad headache.
A. How is it at the moment?
B. I think I am getting very well.
A. Nice to hear that.
B. Thanks.

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6. ---------------------------------------------------------
Gammechu: Hi! I am Gammachu, an artist and live in Dambidollo.
Tesfaye: Nice to meet you. I am Tesfaye and live in Gondar.
Gammachu: Nice to meet you, too. I think you are a teacher.
Tesfaye: Yes, I teach at Fasil School.
Gammachu: Ok, a nice meeting. See you later.
Tesfaye: Bye-bye, see you again.
7. -----------------------------------------------------------
Dejene: Hi! How are you?
Helen: Fine, thanks and you?
Dejene: Just fine. Where are you going?
Helen: To the library.
Dejene: see you later.
Helen: See you
8. -----------------------------------------------------------
A. Good morning Ato Sentayihu. How are you?
B. Very well thank you. How are you?
A. I am fine thank you very much. How is Elleni?
B. She is very well. Thank you.
A. How is Abraham?
B. He is fine. Thank you.
A. Please give my best regards to all your relatives.
B. Ok I will. Thank you.
9. -----------------------------------------------------------
Genet: Betty, I do not think you have met Fekadu before. He is my boss.
Betty: Pleased to meet you.
Fekadu: Pleased to meet you too.
10. -----------------------------------------------------------
Solomon: Zelalem I would like to introduce you to fasil. He is my friend.
Zelalem: How do you do?
Fasil: how do you do?
11. -----------------------------------------------------------
Mr. Jackson: Oh! Excuse me. Let me introduce myself. My name is John Jackson.
Mr. Stone: How do you do Mr. Jackson? My name is George Stone.
Mr. Jackson: Please call me Joe.
Mr. Stone: …and call me George.
12. -----------------------------------------------------------
Jon: Who is the tall girl next to Bezawit?
Melaku: That is Hermela. Did not you meet her at Sunday's pare?
Jon: No, I was at Sunday's party.
Melaku: Oh!! Let me introduce you to her now...........Hermela this is my best friend Jone.
Hermela: Hello dear Jon. I am glad to meet you.
Jon: I am glad to meet you too. Cannot we sit down somewhere and talk?
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 Hermela. Sure, let us sit over there.

Task 2. Scenarios For practice

1. Imagine that you are a fresh student in Selale University. You are sitting next to young boy who you
do not know in a cafeteria. You want him to tell you the rules and regulations of the university.
Consequently, you need to introduce yourself to him. Therefore, how can you do this in English?

2. While you are going to the lounge with one of your friends, you come across another friend of yours.
But the two do not know each other, and hence, you want to introduce them. How can you introduce
them in English? Write down some of the expressions you may use in introducing other people in
English.

1.2. Grammar
INTRODUCTION TO TENSES, ASPECTS, VOICES
TENSE is the relationship between the form of verb and time of the action or state in the past,
present, or future time. For example, "I study" is in the present tense, "I studied" is in the past
tense, and "I will study" is in the future tense. We often use auxiliary verb BE and HAVE with
other verbs when we form
different tenses.
Present

Tenses
Past
TENSES

Future

ASPECT is the form of a verb which shows how the meaning of a verb is considered in
relation to time, typically expressing whether an action is complete, repeated or continuous.
For example, ―he dances‖ is different from ―he is dancing‖ in aspect.

Simple

Continuous
ASPECTS
Perfect Simple

Perfect Continuous
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 VOICE refers to characteristics of verbs that differentiates between the subject as performer of
the action of the verb (active voice) and the subject as receiver of the action of the verb (passive
voice). The passive voice is formed with the auxiliary (to be + a past participle) of either a
regular or an irregular verb. However, the participle can only be formed from a transitive verb
(verbs need objects.)

Active

VOICE

Passive

Present Tenses:

Active Voice Passive Voice

 Present Simple  Present Simple Passive

 Present continuous  Present continuous Passive
 Present Perfect Simple  Present Perfect Simple Passive
 Present Perfect Continuous  Present Perfect Continuous Passive

Past Tenses:

Active Voice Passive Voice

 Past Simple  Past Simple Passive

 Past continuous  Past continuous Passive
 Past Perfect Simple  Past Perfect Simple Passive
 Past Perfect Continuous  Past Continuous Passive

Future Tenses:

Active Voice Passive Voice

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  Future Simple  Future Simple Passive
 Future continuous  Future continuous Passive
 Future Perfect Simple  Future Perfect Simple Passive
 Future Perfect Continuous  Future Continuous Passive

1.2.1. Simple present tense

The present simple is one of the most common tenses in English because general sentences that people
speak every day is in this tense. It refers to the present (now), but also it can refer to all time and regular
time of events that happen. (Permanent situations and habits).

In positive sentence, all the verbs need to be changed their form by adding ―S, ES, IES‖ when we use
with third person singular. Negative and Question are used with Auxiliary verb "Do"; with the third
person singular Do becomes Does.

I. Form
Positive Subject+ verb /verb + s /es/ies +...............................
Negative Subject+ do/ does+not+ verb1+.........................................
Question ( Wh-word) + do/does+ subject+ verb1+. ?

Note:
Full form Short form
Do not don‘t
Does not doesn‘t

Examples:
A. Positive
 I go to school every day.
 He always takes exercises in the morning.
 We rarely meet foreigner.
 A lot of foreigners normally complain about weather in Cambodia.
 Dara has a few days off before his wedding.
B. Negative
 I don‘t go to school every day.
 She doesn‘t always read newspaper in the morning.
 They don‘t work in the evening.
 A manager doesn‘t pay attention to what we say.
 He doesn‘t study English or management in University.

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 C. Question
 Do I work as a newsreader?
 Does she always buy daily magazine?
 What do you always read?
 When does he often go to work?
 Why do they come late?
 Who does she speak English with?

II. Use: Present Simple is used to express:

[A] Present Habit (things happen repeatedly)
An action that happens again and again or happens regularly in the present.
These actions can be a habit, a hobby, a daily activity .In this case, we always use (Adverbs of
frequency: sometimes, often. always, never …….) and time expressions ―every day/week/month/year;
once /twice a week/month…‖with the present simple:

 I always drink water before going to bed.

 She never talks with strangers.
 We rarely go out at night with our friends.
 He does not study at weekend.
 They don’t play badminton on Sundays.
[B] Fact which is always true (natural phenomena)
 Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
 The earth goes around the sun.
 Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.
 The sun rises at the east and sets at the west.
[C] Fact which is true for a long time
 He is a lawmaker for CPP.
 He works as a spokesman for the ruling party.
 They teach at Cambridge University.
 Burma is in Southeast Asia.
[D] State
State verbs describe a continuing state, so do not usually have a continuous form. Typical examples are:
believe, belong, consist, contain, doubt, fit, have, know, like, love, matter, mean, need, own, prefer,
seem, suppose, suspect, understand, want, wish....

 We prefer coffee to tea.

 I think of my family.
 They don’t like the blue movies.
 We want to get what we demanded last month.
 She loves learning although she doesn‘t have money.
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 [H] Simple Present for future
To express a future event based on schedule, calendar, timetable, and usually it is used for schools,
airports, stations, TV programs......
 Our school begins on 10 October 2022.
 The train to London leaves tomorrow at 7:45 am.
 The Concert starts tonight at 6:30 pm.
The future is also expressed with Present Simple in subordinate clause: When, after, before, as soon as,
if + present simple+….. , future form……..
 When I get the news, I‗ll inform you.
 Before I leave here, I‘m going to finish my job.
In clauses following what, which, who, whatever, whichever, etc., present simple is used:
 I don‘t care what happens next year.( will happen )
 Don‘t forget to email me wherever you are.(will be)

Simple Present Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ am/ is /are + v3+ ( by agent) +..........................
Negative Subject+ am/ is /are + not+ v3+ ( by agent) +......................
Question ( Wh-word) + am/ is /are + subject+ v3+ ( by agent) +. .......... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 She is forced to marry a man who she doesn‘t love.
 This room is cleaned everyday by my boyfriend.
 People are allowed to visit Angkor Wat temple.
 I am given two hours to do the second semester exam.
 His breakfast is cooked by his beloved wife.
B). Negative
 She isn‘t forced to marry a man who she doesn‘t love.
 This room is not cleaned everyday by my boyfriend.
 People aren‘t allowed to visit Angkor Wat temple.
 Dara is not encouraged to do silly things.
 Usually, they aren‘t helped by their teacher.
C). Question
 Is she forced to marry a man who she doesn‘t love?
 Is this room cleaned everyday by my boyfriend?
 What are they permitted to do today?
 Why is Sengheng given $ 9,990 by the government every month?
 When is the concert broadcasted on TV?

12
Note: Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of the active sentences.
Active Voice: My sister, Nary usually washes my clothes.
Passive Voice: My clothes are usually washed by my sister, Nary.
Active Voice: I wash my new car in the evening.
Passive Voice: My car is washed by me in the evening.
By agents are often omitted in passive sentences it the agent is unknown or not important.
 The concert is broadcasted on TV on Sundays.
 This room is cleaned every day.
 English is spoken all over the world.
 Many people are killed cruelly in Iraq every day.
II. Use:
We use present simple passive the same as the present simple active.

1.2.2. Present continuous tense

I. Form
Positive Subject+ am/is/are + v-ing+........................................
Negative Subject+ am/is/are + not + v-ing +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + am/is/are + subject+ v-ing +. ................ ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 A lot of Soldiers are living along the border.
 The US president is announcing a new plan to reform the law.
 Many villagers are playing cards under the trees.
 I think he is having a cold or flu because he is coughing and sneezing all day.
 She‘s staying at home today because she has got a cold.
B). Negative
 I am not walking to school right now
 We aren‘t speaking English with foreigners because they are not here anymore.
 Dara isn‘t living in the countryside, nowadays, but he grew up there.
 He isn‘t watching TV at the moment.
 They aren‘t drinking beer and smoking cigarettes at the moment.
C). Question
 Am I staying at hospital right now?
 Are you telling a lie?
 Is he watching TV at the moment?
 What are you doing right now?
 Where is she walking to at the moment?
 Why is she crying?
 Why are you working very hard? Because I want to achieve my goal.

13
II. Use: Present Continuous is used to express:
[A] Activity is happening now (at the time of speaking)
 Some students are writing and some are listening this time.
 That boy is eating noodle with his friends.
 Jack is singing in his room now.
 Tina and his girl friends are walking to school at the moment.
 I am watching a ghost film right now.
[B] Activity is happening around now
We can also use the present continuous for actions that are happening around now, or talk about
something that is not finished, even if you are not doing it when you are speaking.
 I am studying English Literature at American University of Phnom Penh (AUPP).
 These days, I am teaching for Apple Tree Centre.
 I don‘t have free time in this week because I‘m studying a short course.
 My family members are watching Chinese Series.
 Nowadays, John is so busy because he is working on a project.
 Sally is studying hard for her exams this week.
 I am reading a really interesting book now.

[C] Temporary activity

 She is working as babysitter on vacation.
 I am staying with my uncle until I find a flat.
 They are living there until they are called to evacuate.
 They are using an old car for their holiday.

[D] Future arrangements

The present Continuous is used to express personal arrangements and fixed plans, especially when
the time and place have been decided. This tense is used because there is some reality in the
present. The event is planned or decided, and we can see it coming. The event is usually in the
near future.
To express a future planned arrangement between people usually the place and time of the
event understood.
 I‘m seeing the dentist at 8:30.
 Manager is having dinner with a customer at the Cambodiana Hotel.
 We are meeting Mary tonight in the restaurant.
 He is coming here tomorrow.
[E] Anger, Complaint, Annoyance (when the tone is high) with always /
constantly/ continuously / forever
 You are always making a mess.
 You are always asking me for money.
 You are always watching TV every time.
 You are always playing computer games all the times.
III. Spelling ( ing-form of verbs)
14
Here are some spelling rules for forming the present participle (verb+ing).
1. Most verbs are added ing to make ing-form
Base Form Present Participle Form
speak speaking
kiss kissing
read reading
sing singing

2. Verbs ending in a consonant plus e, drop the e and then add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
Live Living
Refuse Refusing
Strive Striving
Make Making

3. Verbs ending in ee, just add ing.

Base Form Present Participle Form
agree agreeing
flee fleeing
see seeing
4. One-syllable verbs ending in a vowel plus a consonant, double the last consonant and
then add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
hop hopping
pat patting
swim swimming
run running
Note: verbs ending in a vowel plus w, x or y, just add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
flow flowing
relax relaxing
stay staying
5. Two syllables verb, If it stresses on the 2nd syllable, double the final consonant and then add
ING.
Base Form Present Participle Form Base Form Present Participle Form
refer referring begin beginning
commit committing permit permitting
transfer transferring occur occurring
regret regretting omit omitting
6. But if the two syllables verbs that end with a vowel + consonant, we do not double
the final consonant when the stress is on the first syllable.

15
 Base Form Present Participle Form Base Form Present Participle Form
answer ing listen ing
offer ing visit ing
order ing develop ing
whisper enter ing
happen ing
7. In British English ( Bri E), If the verbs that end in a vowel + L, we normally double the
final L and then add ING. But in the American English ( Am E) , we do not double the L when
the stress is on the first syllable.
Base form British English ( Bri E) American English (Am E)
travel travelling traveling
cancel cancelling Canceling
marvel marvelling marveling
quarrel quarrelling quarreling
signal signalling signaling

Note: If the verbs that end in a vowel + L, but they stress on the second syllable.
We have to double L and before add ING.
 control controlling , patrol patrolling.,……
8. Verbs ending in a consonant plus y, add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
fry frying
pity pitying
try trying
fly flying
9. Verbs ending in ie, change the ie to y and add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
die dying
lie lying
tie tying
10. Verbs ending in oe or ye, add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
shoe shoeing
toe toeing
dye dyeing
11. Verbs ending in c, change the c to ck and add ing.
Base Form Present Participle Form
frolic frolicking
mimic mimicking
panic panicking
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 picnic picnicking
traffic trafficking
Note: Stative Verbs
Stative, or non-action verbs do not express action. They express a state or condition, and usually
only occur in the Present Simple. When they do occur in the Present Progressive, there is often a
difference in meaning.
Some common stative verbs are:
 Attitudes and Emotions
 love, like, hate, dislike, fear
 want, need, prefer, …
 doubt, care, mind, promise, deny, concern
 Belief and Knowledge
 believe, know, think, feel (= opinion), hope, doubt, imagine
 mean, understand, realize, suppose, guess
 remember, forget, agree, disagree
 Descriptions and measurements
 be, appear, look , look like, seem, resemble
 sound, sound like
 weigh (have weight), cost
 Possession and Relationships
 have, own, possess
 owe, belong, depend on
 include, contain, consist of
 Senses
 see, hear, smell, taste, feel
 ache, hurt, burn, itch, sting
✔He owes me money. ✘He‘s owing me money.
✔They seem happy. ✘They are seeming happy.
✔I forget his name. ✘I‘m forgetting his name.
✔She knows the answer. ✘She is knowing the answer.
Some verbs can be both stative and active, with a difference in meaning.

Present Simple (stative) Present Progressive (active)

I think this is delicious (belief) We‘re thinking about moving (mental
activity) It weighs a ton. (Measurement) I‘m weighing it on the scale (physical
activity) She has six cats (possession) She‘s having a bad time (experience)
He has a nice house (possession) He‘s having lunch with Jennifer
(eating) The soup tastes great (it has a certain flavor) The chef is tasting the
soup (action)
I smell something bad. (it has a certain smell) I‘m smelling each flower (action)
I see him (he‘s over there) I‘m seeing him (I‘m dating / meeting him)

17
 The verb ― to be‖ is usually stative, but when it‘s used in the continuous it suggests temporary or
atypical behavior.
Present Simple (stative) Present Progressive (active)
My kids are happy. My kids are being happy! (Usually they are
sad) You are stupid (It‘s a part of your personality) you are being stupid (only now)
He wears nice clothes (all the time) He‘s wearing nice clothes now (only now)

[I] Making declarations

Verbs describing opinions and feelings tend to be state verbs ( think , hope, expect, believe,…..)
 I hope you'll come to my party.
 I think that he will call me back soon.
 There‘s the doorbell – I expect it‘ll be my mother.
[J] Headlines
These are written in a 'telegram' style, and references to the past are usually simplified to present simple.
 Ship sinks in midnight collision
 Kerry presses Vietnamese Leaders to protect Human Rights
 CNRP marches on first day of “non-stop “protest
III. Spelling rules of Verbs in the Present Simple Tense
Almost of the verbs that are used with third person singular in present simple tense. The spelling for the
verb in the third person differs depending on the ending of that verb:
A). Add - S to the base form
The - S form is very commonly used for main verbs and auxiliary verbs in the simple present tense
when the subject is he, she, it or Singular noun.
This is the most common spelling for the -S form and is the spelling used for most verbs.
 Notice, especially, that - s is added when the base form ends in one or more consonants + e:
aches, bakes, breathes, cares, caches, dives, edges, fiddles, files, glares, hates, hopes, jokes, lives, makes,
notes, pastes, races, spares, surprises, tastes, types, writes, .......
 Notice that - s is also added when the base form ends in one or more consonants (but without e):
adds, bets, beats, calls, claps, cheats, cleans, digs, drops, eats, fills, finds, fits, gets, grabs, hops, kills,
knits, links, lists, means, needs, opens, puts, quits, robs, rings, rips, sends, stops, tells, trusts, voids,
wants, works, zips....

 In addition, notice this spelling is used with the small number of verbs ending in two vowels
(including - ie):
agrees, argues, boos, coos, flees, glues, moos, sees, shoos, shoes, tees, woos, dies, lies, ties, vies...

kiss kisses, miss misses, assess assesses,

wash washes, watch watches, bless blesses,
teach teaches, catch catches, caress caresses,
go goes, do does, fix fixes,
fuss fusses, wax waxes, vex vexes,

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 pass passes, toss tosses, blush blushes,
dash dashes, flash flashes, gnash gnashes,
hush hushes, lash lashes, mash mashes,
push pushes, rush rushes, splash plashes,

B). Add ―ES‖ to verbs that end in s, ss, sh, ch, o and x Example:
C). Change ―C). Y‖ to ―IES‖ to verbs that end in ―consonant + y‖

stash stashes, wish wishes; ditch ditches,

etch etches, flinch flinches, hitch hitches,
itch itches, march marches, mooch marches,
patch patches, reach reaches, search searches,
scratch scratches, touch touches, buzz buzzes,
fizz fizzes, box boxes, coax coaxes,
fax faxes, relax relaxes...

All verbs that end y preceded by a consonant, drop the y, replace it with i and add es. However, if the y
is preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o and u), we just add -s.
Example:
marry marries; study studies; cry cries;
carry carries, worry worries, dry dries;
apply applies; bury buries; carry carries;
copy copies; fly flies; fry fries;
hurry hurries; marry marries; pity pities;
ply plies; pry pries; tidy tidies;
`try tries; worry worries; etc.

NOTE: For verbs that end in a vowel + Y, we just add -S.

play plays; buy buys; pray prays;
enjoy enjoys; employ employs; pay pays;
flay flays; lay lays; slay slays;
spray sprays; stay stays; say says....

IV. Adverbs of Frequency

We use some adverbs to describe how frequently we do an activity.

Frequency Adverb of Frequency Examples

100% always I always go to bed before 11pm.
70% usually normally We usually eat noodle for breakfast.
He normally has a meeting on Friday.
60% often / frequently She often collects her documents.
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 40% sometimes He sometimes goes to work by bus.
10% occasionally They occasionally visit their parents.
5% seldom / rarely / I rarely watch news programs on TV.
hardly ever /almost never We hardly ever eat pizzas.
0% never I never travel across the sea or ocean.

 The present simple with adverbs of frequency:

We often use the present simple tense with adverbs of frequency to make clear how often an action
happens. Because they indicate repeated or routine activities. Adverbs of frequency include: always,
usually, normally, generally, frequently, often, regularly sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom,
never,……
 The Position of the Adverbs of frequency in a Sentence:
1) Adverbs of frequency usually stand before a main verb.

Subject + adverb of frequency + main verb+…………..

I always get up at five in the morning. We often work nine hours a day.
He normally goes to school late. She usually visits her parents at weekend
They never say 'thank you'. You rarely drink beer in the party.

2) Adverbs of frequency stand after the verb To Be.

Subject + am/is/are + adverb of frequency +…………..
My parents are always proud of me. We‘re normally disappointed with our result
She is usually bad tempered. He is sometimes angry with his staff.
He is never late for studying part time. They are often angry with their boss.

3) When we use auxiliary verbs (must, should, can, don‘t, doesn‘t …), the adverbs of
frequency usually go between the auxiliary verb and main verb.

Subject + auxiliary + adverb of frequency + main verb +………

Dara can sometimes do it very well. They can occasionally come late.
They might never meet each other. She should usually come here on time.
We don‘t always stay at home at night. He doesn‘t often teach his students on Sunday.

Note: We can also use adverbs of frequency at the beginning of a sentence. They are ―usually,
normally, frequently, sometimes, and occasionally.‖
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 Occasionally, we eat seafood. Usually, she smokes cigarettes in the office
Usually, she comes here late. Frequently, he goes swimming at Koh Pen.
Normally, I arrive at the station at 7 o'clock Sometimes, they play card in NAGA WORLD.

BUT: In grammar rules, we can‘t use ― always, seldom, rarely, often, never ‖ at the beginning of a
sentence.

Always, I go to school every day Rarely, she drives her car to market.
Often, Linda walks to school. Never, they drive beer in the party.
Seldom, we eat dinner in restaurant. Rarely, he watches sports news.

Note: Time expressions which is used in present simple:

 all the time,
 every day /week /month,……..
 once / twice/ three time(s) a day/a week,…..
 at night / at the weekend,……..

Present Continuous Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ am/is/are + being +past participle +........................................
Negative Subject+ am/is/are + not + being +past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + am/is/are + subject+ being +past participle+ ................... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I am being accused of destroying his reputation.
 The room is being cleaned at the moment.
 Our house is being decorated right now.
 The political crisis in Cambodia is being solved by the ruling party.
 Many people are being employed in that factory.
B). Negative
 I am not being accused of destroying his reputation.
 The room isn‘t being cleaned at the moment.
 The criminals are not being punished right now.
 These problems aren‘t being investigated.
 The flowers aren‘t being watered right now.
C). Question
 Is the room being cleaned at the moment?
 Are they being forced to do their homework?

21
  Is the cottage being built by your uncle?
 Why is she being encouraged to study at night?
 What are you being forced to do?
 Where are they being detained?
 Change from Present Continuous Active to Present Continuous
Passive Active Voice: The police are investigating four suspects now.
Passive Voice: Four suspects are being investigated by police now.
Active Voice: Linda is writing a grammar book at the moment.
Passive Voice: A grammar book is being written by Linda at the moment.
Active Voice: A mechanic is repairing my car.
Passive Voice: My car is being repaired by a mechanic.

II. Use
We use the Present Continuous Passive the same as the Present Continuous.

1.2.3. Present perfect tense

I. Form
Positive Subject+ has/have + past participle +........................................
Negative Subject+ has/have + not + past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + has/ have + subject+ past participle + ................ ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I have studied English for four years.
 He has lived in Phnom Penh since 1999.
 She has worked in US embassy for ten years.
 They have written twenty novels up to now.
 We have met him recently.
B). Negative
 You haven‘t seen that movie many times.
 She hasn‘t lived in Phnom Penh since 1999.
 They have not studied Korean.
 He has not lived in London since he was sixteen.
 We haven‘t had arguments with our neighbor.
C). Question
 Have you seen that movie many times?
 Has she lived in Kampot for ten months?
 Have they stayed in the hotel?
 Have you ever visited India?
 How long have you studied English?
 Who has won the most Oscars? Walt Disney has won the most Oscars.
22
  What have you eaten? I have eaten burger and pizza.

II. USE
We use the Present Perfect to talk about past and present together. The past action or situation is
connected to the present in various way. It is used to express:

[ 1 ] Unfinished Action
We use this tense when we want to talk about unfinished actions that started in the past and continue
to the present.
 Type of Adverbs
 Since + phrase/ clause : a point in time
 For + phrase : a period of time
 How long, all my life, up to now, so far, until now...
 Type of Verbs
 State Verbs
 Verbs which express a permanent state
Examples:
 I have had a cold for two weeks.
 You have had the same bicycle since I finished high school.
 My father has liked burgers all his life.
 I have known Sothea for many years. (= I still know her now.)
 I‘m very hungry. I haven‘t eaten anything since breakfast. (= from breakfast until now)
Note: We can also use this tense with time words such as (this morning, today, this week, this
month, this year, so far, up to now, .... ) when these time periods are not over or are not finished at
the
time of speaking.
 They have been here this week.
 I have been ill this week. ( this week isn‘t finished)
 She's drunk three cups of coffee today.
 This week they've been to pagoda four times.
 They have had three tests this month
 My car has broken down three times this week.
 Everything is going well. We haven‘t had any problems so far.
 She graduated from university more than three years ago. She has worked for three
different companies so far.

[2] Finished Actions A: Life experience.

In this case we don't say when the action happened, just sometime in the past and usually with
adverbs: never, ever, before etc.

Examples:
 I have been to Tokyo.
 She has lived in Germany.
23
  They have visited Paris three times.
 We have never seen that film.
 Have you ever read 'War and Peace'?
 Have you ever travelled by plane before?
 Chhayly has lived in Asia, Europe and Africa.
 We have never seen it before.
 I have never studied Korean and Japanese.
 I have done a lot of different jobs.

B: A finished action with a result in the present (focus on result)

 They've missed the bus so they will be late.
 I've lost my keys, so I can't get into my house.
 She has hurt her leg, so she can't play volleyball today.
 They've missed the bus, so they will be late.
 I have cooked dinner already, so you can come and eat.
 We have just finished our housework and now we feel tired.
 A: Where is your key? B: I don‘t know. I‘ve lost it. (I haven‘t got it now.)
 He has told me his name but I have forgotten it. ( I can‘t remember it now)
 A: Is sally here? B: No, she has gone out‘. ( She is out now)

C: The actions that happened at many different time or unspecific time before now
We use the Present Perfect to talk about different actions which have occurred in the past at
different times or to say that an action happened at an unspecific time before now.
 I have seen that movie twenty times.
 Have you read the book yet?
 She has already had a few quarrels with her neighbor.
 The government has become more interested in education.
 Doctors have cured many diseases and have faced many problems.
 The army has attacked that city five times.
 I have had five tests so far this semester.
 We have had many problems while working on this project.
 She has talked to specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

The common words or phrases used with Present perfect

 ―Ever and Never‖
We use ―Ever‖ to ask about something that have or have not happened at any time up to
now, we usually use ever in questions and we use ―Never‖ in negative sentences. They go
before the past participle verb.
 Have you ever spoken in a public place?
 Have you ever been to Russia?
 That's the biggest lie that I have never heard in my life.
 We have never been to London.

24
  'For' and 'since'
When an activity began in the past and is still going on, we use the present perfect tense +
for/since.
We use for+ a period of time (for six hours, for three years, for six months, ...),
 She has had a cold for a week, so she should go to hospital.
 We have been tennis partners for two years. (NOT: We are tennis partners for two years.)
 He has lived here for five years. (He is still living here)

We use ―since + at the beginning of time ―(since 2004, since I was five, since last year,. .. ).
 I‘ve become her business partner since 2011.(NOT: I become her business partner since
2011)
 He has lived here since 2000. (He is still living here)
 "Just, already and yet "

a). Just: if something has just happened, it happened only a short time ago. Just is usually
placed after have/has and before the main verb in a sentence.
 Linda has just left and Dara has just arrived.
 I have just finished painting the ceiling.
 John has just told me that he is getting married to a Frenchwoman.

b). Already is used to say that something has been done before and does not need doing again,
we usually use ―already‖ after have/has and before the main verb) or at the end of a sentence
and also it can appear in questions.
 Construction workers have already built the bridge.
 I‘ve told him already about my wedding party day.
 He has done his project already.
 Have you eaten all that food already?
 They have already told me about their vacation.
 She has already had a few quarrels with her neighbor.
c). Yet is used in negative statements and questions to talk about whether something that
was expected has happened:
 Has the train arrived yet?
 I haven‘t finished my homework yet.
 I haven‘t asked him yet.
 Has Lina arrived yet?

Note: 'Been' and 'Gone'

In this tense, we use ‗been‘ and 'gone' as the past participle of 'go', but in slightly different
circumstances.

25
 Been
We use 'been' (when we talk about 'life experience') to mean that the people who we are talking
about their place where they have visited, but now they have come back.
 I've been to Paris (now I'm in London where I live).
 She has been to school today (but now she's back home).
 They have been to London. (But they are not there now. They have come back or they are
somewhere else.)

Gone

We use 'gone' (when we are talking about an action with a result in the present) to mean that the
person is at the place now:
 Where's John? He has gone to the shop. (He is at the shops now).
 They have gone to Tokyo. (They are still there now.)
 A: Where is Maria? I haven‘t seen her for weeks.
B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She‘ll come back tomorrow morning.

Present Perfect Passive

I. Form

Positive Subject+ has/have +been + past participle +...............................

Negative Subject+ has/have + not +been+ past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + has/ have + subject+ been+ past participle +. .................... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 The house has been built by them for four years.
 Twenty novels have been written by my teacher up to now.
 This building has been painted by the children in my neighborhood recently.
 Sochea has been bought a diamond ring for her wedding.
 We have been allowed to stay at the hotel for six days.
B). Negative
 You haven‘t been invited to join her wedding ceremony.
 The house hasn‘t been built by them for four years.
 Twenty novels have not been written by my teacher up to now.
 Dary and Bopha haven‘t been allowed to see each other.
C). Question
 Have you been persuaded to work for Vietnamese Company?
 Has she been forced to vote for a specific political party?
 Have they been permitted to come in the museum recently?
 Have you ever been visited India?

26
  How long has the bridge been built?
 Who has been given the most money?
 Change from Present Perfect Simple Active to Present Perfect Simple
Passive Active Voice: How long have you written the letters to your
girlfriend?
Passive Voice: How long have the letters been written to your girlfriend by you?
Active Voice: Her boss has forced her to leave her job.
Passive Voice: She has been forced to leave her job.
Active Voice: Rithy has told his girlfriend already about his secret.
Passive Voice: His girlfriend has already been told by Rithy about his secret.

II. USE:
We use the present perfect passive the same as present perfect active.

1.2.4. Present Perfect Continuous

I. Form
Positive Subject+ has/have +been + present participle +..............................
Negative Subject+ has/have + not +been+ present participle +.............................
Question ( Wh-word) + has/ have + subject+ been+ present participle + ................. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I have been studying English for four years.
 He has been living in Phnom Penh since 1999.
 She has been working in US embassy for ten years.
 Sopheak has been teaching English for nine years.
 You have been working all day.
B). Negative
 I haven‘t been studying English for four years.
 He hasn‘t been living in Phnom Penh since 1999.
 Elena has not been doing her housework, so everything is very messy.
 We have not been reading for an hour , so our eyes don‘t hurt.
C). Question
 Have you been studying English for four years?
 Has she been living in Phnom Penh since 1999?
 How long have they been learning English?
 What have you been doing there?

27
 II. Use: Present Perfect Continuous is used to express:
[A] Unfinished Past (an activity which began in the past and still continues to the present)

Types of Adverbs
 Since + phrase / clause
 For + phrase
 How long
Types of verb
 Dynamic verbs
 Verb which expresses temporary action
 I have been waiting for John for an hour.
 I have been learning English since we were at high school.
 My father has been working for the same company for 20 years.
 We‘ve been teaching in this school since 2009.

Note: Present Perfect Continuous is used when the activity implies a temporary state.
 I‘ve been standing for 20 minutes.
 She has been crying for a half hour.
[B] Present Result (the activity has just stopped with a result in the presents).
 No adverbs of time
 Long ; repeated activity
 Not used with an object related to quantity or number
 Incomplete activity
 Why is your hair wet? – I‘ve been walking through the rain.
 My hands are hurt. I‘ve been cutting grass.
 My secretary has been writing all the morning.
 I‘m tired. I‘ve been planting in the garden.

Present Perfect Continuous Passive

I. Form

Positive Subject+ has/have +been + being+ past participle +...........................

Negative Subject+ has/have + not +been+ being+ past participle +.........................
Question ( Wh-word) + has/ have + subject+ been+ being+ past participle + ........... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 English has been being studied by many people over the world.
 The problem has been being solved for a week.
 The bridge has been begun built for ten months.
 We have been being allowed to study at the state university.
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  The assassination has been being investigated by the local police.
 He has been being detained in Prey Sor prison.
B). Negative
 English hasn‘t been being studied by many people over the world.
 The problem hasn‘t been being solved for a week.
 The bridge has not been begun built for ten months.
 We have not been being allowed to study at the state university.
 The assassination hasn‘t been being investigated by the local police.
 He has not been being greeted very warmly by Cambodian people.
C). Question
 Has English been being studied by many people over the world?
 Has the problem been being solved for a week?
 Has he been being detained in Prey Sor prison?
 Why has the world been being destroyed for personal gain?
 How long has he been being detained in prison?
 Who has the cottage been being built?
 Change from Present Perfect Continuous to Present Perfect Continuous Passive.
Active: We have been building a house for two months.
Passive: A house has been being built by us for two months.
Active: My teacher, Sotheavy has been encouraging me to study all subjects.
Passive: I have been being encouraged to study all subjects by my teacher, Sotheavy.
Active: Political party has been solving the political deadlock.
Passive: The political deadlock has been being solved by political party
II. USE
The Present Perfect Continuous Passive is used the same as the Present Perfect Continuous. In
English, it is rarely used both speaking and writing.

1.3. Verb forms

1.3.1. Regular verbs
English verbs have five basic forms: the base form, the - S form, the - ing form, the past form,
and the past participle form. There are two types of past forms-- or regular and irregular verbs.
The past form of regular verbs ends in - d, - ed, or - ied. Here are some guidelines for spelling.

1). For regular verbs, normally add -ed.

Base form Past simple

work worked
walk walked
kill killed
ask asked
check checked
spell spelled

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 2). Verbs that end in e just add d.

Base form Past simple

close closed
move moved
hate hated
receive received
decide decided
agree agreed
believe believed
invite invited

3). One syllable verbs that end in one vowel and one consonant double the final consonant
and then add ed.

Base form Past simple

stop stopped
rob robbed
plan planned
chop chopped

Note: For verbs that end with ― w, x, and y ― , not double consonant

Bas form Past simple

play played
enjoy enjoyed
fix fixed
flow flowed
show showed

4). Verbs that end in -y

A). When a verb ends in - y after a consonant , change ― y to i ― and then add ―ed ‖.

Base form Past simple

try tried
fry fried
study studied
reply replied

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 B).When a verb that ends in -y after a vowel, just add ― ed ‖
Base form Past simple
play played
delay delayed
enjoy enjoyed
destroy destroyed

6). For two syllable verbs

A). If the verbs stress on 1st syllable, just add ed.
Base form Past simple
answer answered
offer offered
listen listened
visit visited
develop developed

B). If the verbs stressed on 2nd syllable, double the consonant and then add ed.
Base form Past simple
control controlled
refer referred
occur occurred
permit permitted
regret regretted

7. If the verbs ends in [c ], we have to add [ k ] before adding -ed

Present [V1] Past simple [V2]
picnic picnicked
traffic trafficked

1.3.2. Irregular verbs

Base form Past simple
be was, were
become became
begin began
buy bought
come came
cut cut
do did
dream dreamt, dreamed
drink drank
eat ate
find found
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 forget forgot
get got
give gave
go went
grow grew
have had
hear heard
know knew
make made
meet met
pay paid
read read
say said
see saw
sell sold
send sent
sing sang
sleep slept
speak spoke
spend spent
steal stole
think thought
wear wore
win won
write wrote

1.4. Asking questions

1.4.1. Wh- questions
In English, information questions depend on using specific words — these are what we call WH
question words. We have nine WH question words: what, when, where, which, who, why, whom,
whose, and how.

Some questions are formed with adverbs. These ask for information about time, place, reason, or
manner. The four words which function as adverbs are: when, where, why, and how. Adverbs describe
a verb or an adjective. Think about this example: where did you read that? In this sentence, where is
asking from what source did the information come. Other questions are formed with pronouns. These
ask about people or things. The five words that are pronouns are: what, which, who, whom, and whose.

With most questions, you can use the following structure to form them properly. The first structure is for
the verb ‗to be.‘ The second structure is for all other verbs.

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In many questions with pronouns, the question word functions as a subject. Think of the question ‗who
sings that song?‘ The subject is ‗who‘ and ‗sing‘ is the verb. ‗That song‘ is the object. This is important
because occasionally, questions that start with a pronoun will not use an auxiliary verb. Look at this
example:

 Who sings that song? (who does sing that song?)

 Whose child made that? (whose child did make that?

The WH words explained

Now let‘s take a look at each of the question words we mentioned before. We will explain the situations
in which we use each of them and we will also give some examples of questions and answers we can
have when using those question words.
What
We use ‗what‘ to ask for specific information about something. Here are a few examples of questions
and answers.
 What is your mother‘s name? Her name is Lisa.
 What time is it? It‘s half past four.
 What are you doing now? I‘m watching TV.
When
‗When‘ is used to ask questions about time. Here are a few examples of questions and answers.
 When will Julie arrive at the airport? She will arrive around 1 p.m.
 When can I pick you up from school? I will be ready at 3 p.m.
 When is his birthday? His birthday is October 30.
Where
We use ‗where‘ to ask something about a place or the position of something. Here are a few examples of
questions and answers.
 Where is my phone? I think it‘s on the table.
 Where is Paris? Paris is located in France.
 Where will you travel to next summer? I‘m thinking about going to the Bahamas.
Which
We will use ‗which‘ whenever we have options to choose from. Here are a few examples of questions
and answers.
 Which pizza did you order: the pepperoni or the Margherita? I ordered the pepperoni pizza.
 Which Harry Potter character is your favorite? Hermione is my favorite!
 Which do you prefer: the red coat or the brown one? I prefer the brown one.
Who
‗Who‘ is used to ask questions about someone who is the subject of a sentence, that is, someone who
does an action. Here are a few examples of questions and answers.
 Who is that guy? Oh, that‘s Adam. He‘s a friend of mine.
 Who are you visiting this weekend? I‘m visiting my grandma.
 Who is your best friend? My best friend is Laura.

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Whom
‗Whom‘ is used to ask questions about someone who is the object of a sentence, that is, someone who
receives an action. Here are a few examples of questions and answers.
 Whom do you believe? I believe in Tom.
 Whom are you going to invite? I am going to invite Sam and Michael.
 From whom did you get this information? I got it from Joanna.
Whose

We use ‗whose‘ to ask questions about something that belongs to someone. Here are a few examples of
questions and answers.
 Whose car is this? I think it is John‘s car.
 Whose umbrella did you take? I took my sister‘s umbrella.
 Whose book is this? It‘s Michael‘s book.
Why
‗Why‘ is used to ask about a reason, an explanation. Here are a few examples of questions and answers.
It is common to answer a ‗why‘ question with ‗because‘.
 Why are you sad? Because I‘m having some problems at home. Don‘t worry!
 Why is she traveling alone? Because her husband is sick.
 Why were you late to the meeting? Because my alarm didn‘t go off. I‘m sorry.
How
‗How‘ is used to ask about manner, condition, or quality.
 How far: ask about distance
How far is your hometown?
Not very far, it‘s about 50 km from here.
 How long: ask about length (time or space)
How long have you been dating Taylor?
We have been dating for two months.
 How many: ask about the quantity of countable nouns
How many books do you have?
I guess I have about 100 books.
 How much: ask about the quantity of uncountable nouns
How much coffee did you make?
There‘s enough for two cups.
 How old: ask about age
How old is your brother?
He is 21 years old.

1.4.2. Yes/No questions

Yes / No questions are the questions which are answered yes or no. It means when we are asking yes/no
questions, we are expecting the answer, yes or no.
To form Yes/No questions, we use one of these verbs: auxiliary verbs (be, do and have ) or modal verbs
( can, may, etc.).
We can not use questions words like what, how, why, who, etc. while making Yes/No questions.
34
FORMING YES/NO QUESTIONS
Yes / No questions are made, using the verb (am, is, are, was, were, have, had, do, does, did, can, will,
should etc.) at the beginning of a sentence. Namely, subject and verb change their position in statement
and question.
With An Auxiliary Verb ( ―Be‖ or ―Do‖ or ―Have‖ ) or Modal Verb
With TO BE
The verb ― To Be ‖ has three forms in the present; am, is and are.
The verb ― To Be ‖ has two forms in the past; was and were.
Subject Present Form ―Be‖ Past Form ―Be‖

I am was

He, She, It is was

We, You, They are were

Making Yes/No Questions

Be ( am, is, are, was, were ) + Subject + ….
( be as a main verb )
Sentence Question

I am a doctor. Am I a doctor?

He is from England. Is he from England?

We are happy. Are we happy?

She was ready. Was she ready?

They were the same. Were they the same?

( be as an auxiliary verb )
Sentence Question

I am studying English. Am I studying English?

He is watching television. Is he watching television?

We are working in the office. Are we working in the office?

She was waiting at the bus stop. Was she waiting at the bus stop?

They were coming to take me away. Were they coming to take me away?

35
Questions and Short & Long Answers
Yes + Subject + Auxiliary Verb ( + … )
No + Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Not ( + …. )
Question Answer ( Short -Long )

Am I sympathetic? Yes. / Yes, you are. / Yes, you are sympathetic.

Is she coming? No. / No, she isn‘t. / No, she isn‘t coming.

Are they married? Yes. / Yes, they are. / Yes, they are married.

Was he nervous? No. / No, he wasn‘t. / No, he wasn‘t nervous.

Were you visiting your family? Yes. / Yes, we were. / Yes, we were visiting our family.

Has the statue been painted? No. / No, it hasn‘t. / No, it hasn‘t been painted.
( generally short form is used as an answer )

With DO
The verb ― Do ‖ has two forms in the present; do and does.
The verb ― Do ‖ has one form in the past; did.
Subject Present Form ―Do‖ Past Form ―Do‖

I, You, We, You, They do did

He, She, It does did

Do ( as an auxiliary verb ) + Subject + Main Verb + ….

Sentence Question

I put the keys on the table. Do I put the keys on the table?

She gets up early in mornings. Does she get up early in mornings?

Coffee grows in Brazil. Does coffee grow in Brazil?

You like spend time at home. Do you like spend time at home?

They write letter to me. Do they write letter to me?

We drank milk. Did we drink milk?

He cleaned his room. Did he clean his room?

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Questions and Short & Long Answers
Yes + Subject + Auxiliary Verb ( + … )
No + Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Not ( + …. )
Question Answer

Do you prefer your coffee black? Yes. / Yes, I do. / Yes, I prefer my coffee black.

Do they always criticize you? No. / No, they don‘t. / No, they don‘t criticize me.

Does it work loudly? Yes. / Yes, it does. / Yes, it works loudly.

Does she like swimming? No. / No, she doesn‘t. / No, she doesn‘t like swimming.

Did we visit our relatives? Yes./ Yes, we did. / Yes, we visited our relatives.

Did he take a new car? No. / No, she didn‘t. / No, she didn‘t take a new car.
( generally short form is used as an answer )

With HAVE
The verb ― Have ‖ has two forms in the present; have and has.
The verb ― Have ‖ has one form in the past; had.
Subject Present Form ―Do‖ Past Form ―Do‖

I, You, We, You, They have had

He, She, It has had

ATTENTION:1. If we use ―have‖ as a main verb in a sentence, we use ―do‖ as an auxiliary verb to
make negative and question sentences.
Example:
 I have a car. ( have is a main verb – positive sentence )
 I don‘t have a car. ( we use ―do‖ as an auxiliary verb to make the sentence in negative )
 Do I have a car? ( we use ―do‖ as an auxiliary verb to make the sentence in question )
2. If we use ―have‖ as an auxiliary verb ( especially before -ed (past participle) forms to make the
present and past perfect tense ) in a sentence, we use ―have‖ to make negative and question sentences.
For Prefect Tenses (Present & Past Perfect Tenses and Present & Past Perfect Progressive Tenses )
Example:
 I have finished my homework. ( have is an auxiliary verb, finish is a main verb – positive sentence
)
 I haven‘t finished my homework. ( we use ―have‖ as an auxiliary verb to make the sentence in
negative )
 Have I finished my homework? ( we use ―have‖ as an auxiliary verb to make the sentence
in question)

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Have ( as an auxiliary verb ) + Subject + Main Verb + ….
Sentence Question

I have studied English. Have I studied English?

He has finished his homework. Has he finished his homework?

The film had started. Had the film started?

We had locked the door. Had we locked the door?

They have moved house. Have they moved house?

Questions and Short & Long Answers

Yes + Subject + Auxiliary Verb ( + … )
No + Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Not ( + …. )
Question Answer

Have you ever seen any rainbow? Yes. / Yes, I have. / Yes, I have seen a rainbow before.

Have I met your family? No. / No, you haven‘t. / No, you haven‘t met my family.

Has it been started? Yes. / Yes, it has. / Yes, it has been started.

Had we sold our stock? No. / No, we hadn‘t. / No, we had sold our stock.

Had they been married? Yes./ Yes, they had. / Yes, they had been married.

Has he stayed with us? No. / No, he hasn‘t. / No, he hasn‘t stayed with us.
( generally short form is used as an answer )

With Modal Verb

(Modals / Modal Auxiliaries / Modal Auxiliary Verbs)
There are many modal verbs in English. Here some are;
Modal Verbs

Can Will Shall

Could Would Should

May Must Ought to

Might Have to Had better

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Modal + Subject + Main Verb + ….
Sentence Question

I may visit you tomorrow. May I visit you tomorrow?

You can repeat it. Can you repeat it?

She will pass the salt. Will you pass the salt?

We should stay here. Should we stay here?

They might come. Might they come?

Questions and Short & Long Answers

Yes + Subject + Modal Verb ( + … )
No + Subject + Modal Verb + Not ( + …. )
Question Answer

Can we get married? Yes. / Yes, we can. / Yes, we can get married.

Would you like to drink tea? No. / No, I wouldn‘t. / No, I wouldn‘t like to drink tea.

Might he come tomorrow? Yes. / Yes, I might. / Yes, I might come tomorrow.

Should I clean my room every No. / No, you shouldn‘t. / No, you shouldn‘t clean your room every
day? day .

Will you sit down? Yes. / Yes, I will. / Yes, I will sit down.

Could you tell me about yourself? No. / No, I couldn‘t. / No, I couldn‘t tell you about myself.

( generally short form is used as an answer )

1.4.3. Tag questions

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. We use
tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Is that right?" or "Do you agree?"
They are very common in English.

The basic structure of a tag question is:

positive statement negative tag

Snow is white, isn't it?

39
 negative statement positive tag

You don't like me, do you?

Notice that the tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the statement and changes it
to negative or positive.

Positive Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with positive statements. You will see that most of the time, the auxiliary verb
from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and changed to negative.

(+) positive statement (-) negative tag

subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary not personal pronoun same as subject

You are coming, are n't you?

We have finished, have n't we?

You do like coffee, do n't you?

You like coffee, do n't you?

They will help, wo n't they?

I can come, can 't I?

We must go, must n't we?

He should try harder, should n't he?

You are English, are n't you?

John was there, was n't he?

Notice:
 the use of do in the two coffee questions. Remember that in Present Simple, do is optional in
positive statements (You like coffee/You do like coffee). But the do must appear in the tag. The
same applies to Past Simple did.
40
  in last two questions, no auxiliary for main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple. The tag
repeats the main verb.

Negative Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with negative statements. Notice that the negative verb in the original
statement is changed to positive in the tag.

(-) negative statement (+) positive tag

subject auxiliary main auxiliary personal pronoun same as

verb subject

It is n't raining, is it?

We have never seen that, have we?

You do n't like coffee, do you?

They will not help, will they?

They wo n't report us, will they?

I can never do it right, can I?

We must n't tell her, must we?

He should n't drive so fast, should he?

You wo n't be late, will you?

You are n't English, are you?

John was not there, was he?

Notice:
 won't is the contracted form of will not
 the tag repeats the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. Except, of course, for the verb be in Present
Simple and Past Simple.

41
Answering Tag Questions
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and
reverse it (They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In
some languages, an opposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes
answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!

Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not
(necessarily) the question.

For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:

tag question correct notes

answer

Snow is white, isn't it? Yes (it is). Answer is same in both But notice change of stress when
cases - because snow is answerer does not agree with
Snow isn't white, is it? Yes it is! white! questioner.

Snow is black, isn't it? No it isn't! Answer is same in both

cases - because snow is
Snow isn't black, is it? No (it isn't). not black!

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I
agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!

Here are some more examples, with correct answers:

 The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
 The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
 The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
 Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
 Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
 Men don't have babies, do they? No.
 The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.

Tag Question Special Cases

Negative adverbs
The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative sense. Even though they
may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the statement is negative. We treat statements with these
words like negative statements, so the question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples:

42
positive statement positive tag
treated as negative statement

He never came again, did he?

She can rarely come these days, can she?

You hardly ever came late, did you?

I barely know you, do I?

You would scarcely expect her to know that, would you?

Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation,
it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't
require a real answer:

intonation

You don't know where my wallet is, do you? / rising real question

It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ falling not a real question

Imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an
imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will,
would for orders.

imperative + question tag notes

Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation

Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you? quite polite

Do it now, will you. less polite

Don't forget, will you. with negative imperatives only will is possible

43
Same-way tag questions
Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometimes
possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure. We use same-way tag questions to
express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.

Look at these positive-positive tag questions:

 So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!
 She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
 So you think that's funny, do you? Think again.

Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:

 So you don't like my looks, don't you? (British English)

Asking for information or help

Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement.
This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the
police station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite),
we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more
examples:
 You don't know of any good jobs, do you?
 You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
 You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?

Some more special cases

example notes

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...

I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliary

Nothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)

44
Mixed Examples of Tag Questions
Here is a list of examples of tag questions in different contexts. Notice that some are "normal" and
others seem to break all the rules:
 But you don't really love her, do you?
 This'll work, won't it?
 Oh you think so, do you?
 Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 We'd never have known, would we?
 Oh you do, do you?
 The weather's bad, isn't it?
 You won't be late, will you?
 Nobody knows, do they?
 You never come on time, do you?
 You couldn't help me, could you?
 You think you're clever, do you?
 So you don't think I can do it, don't you? (British English)
 Shut up, will you!
 She can hardly love him after all that, can she?
 Nothing will happen, will it?

1.4.4. Indirect questions

We normally use indirect questions, when we want to be more polite. We begin the question with
expressions such as Can you tell me …? Could you tell me …? Do you know …? Would you mind
telling me … ?
 What time is it? (direct question)
 Could you tell me what time it is? (indirect question)
In indirect questions the order is subject + verb.
 Do you know where I can find a bank? (NOT … where can I find)
 Can you tell me what time the shops close? (NOT … what time do the shops close)
There are other expressions that follow the same rule:
 I don’t know what he is doing here.
 I wonder when he will find the truth.
 I’m not sure when I can come.
 I’d like to know where you left the documents.
For yes-no questions (when there is NO question word), we can use both if and whether:
 Do you know if/whether he’ll be here soon?

45
 1.5. Reading Comprehension
Reading definition
Reading is receptive skill which is defined as the process of recognizing written words or symbols to
construct meaning. It consists of two related processes: word recognition and comprehension. Word
recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols correspond to one‘s spoken
language. Comprehension is the process of making sense of words, sentences and connected text.
Readers typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, experience
with text and other strategies to help them understand written text.

The reader passes through three levels of reading to achieve comprehension. The first level is reading
the lines which refer to the act of decoding the words in order to construct the author's basic message.
The second part is reading between the lines. This is the act of making inferences and understanding the
author's implied message. Finally, reading beyond the lines involves judging the significance of the
author's message and applying it to other areas of background and knowledge. It involves placing the
text in its historical, biographical and socio-cultural contexts in the real world.

Reading techniques
Basically there are some of reading techniques and the corresponding types of activities to develop the
corresponding reading skills:

A. Scanning
Scanning is a mode of fast reading which is used to seek specific information (e.g. name, place, date,
symbol, number, statistics, etc.) of what a text is about. The technique you use when you are using
authentic materials that are commonly scanned in real life, such as the telephone directory, menus, bus
schedules.

B. Skimming
Skimming is a mode of fast reading which is used to seek general information (main idea) of what a text
is about. It is reading for gist. The technique you use when the reader looks quickly at the contents page
of a book, or at the chapter headings, sub-headings, etc. This is sometimes called previewing. Another
example is when the reader glances quickly through a newspaper to see what the main ideas of the day
are. This will often mean just looking at the headlines.

C. Intensive reading (study reading)

Intensive is a way of reading shorter texts to get detailed information from the text. In this careful
reading, you may find it helpful to skim first, to get a general idea, but then go back to read in detail.
The technique you use when you're going through a job advertisement for a job that you are really
interested in: your interest in the job means you will want to understand as much as possible.

D. Extensive reading
Extensive is a way of reading longer texts for pleasure. It is usually done independently and not in the
classroom. The technique you use when you're going through a novel that you are enjoying.

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 Reading stages
Reading has three stages when you are going to read. These are:

1. Pre-reading Stage
Pre-reading is the first stage in which the reader familiarizes with the topic of the reading
comprehension. This helps you to develop guessing skills and create expectations and interest in the text
you are going to read. Pre-reading activities allow you to make predictions about text that will be read
by eliminating possibilities that are unlikely. They are a way to prepare you prior to a reading
assignment by asking you to react to a series of statements, questions, or words related to the content of
the material. While doing pre-reading exercises you should see all the tasks before reading the text. The
following questions are typical of pre-reading questions.
 Can you guess what the text is about judging by the title?
 What do you think the following names, figures or dates (if there are any) have to do with the
story or the text?
 What do you know or what have you heard about the subject you are going to read?

2. While-reading Stage
The while-reading is the stage in which the reader is reading the reading comprehension. This stage of
reading aims to teach you to extract specific information. At this stage you may be required to:
 Scan the text to extract the information which the tasks demand without paying attention to
parts of the text they do not understand.
 Preview the title; roughly read the first sentence of each paragraph and the last sentence
of the passage to guess what the general idea is.
 Find out if some statements given are false or true by reviewing the text.
 Give answers to some questions based on the text.

3. Post-reading Stage
The post reading is stage after the reader has finished his/her reading comprehension. The post reading
exercises are more concerned with summing up the content of the text, investigating into the writer‘s
opinion and may entail some kind of follow-up-task related to the text. At this stage you are expected to:
 Reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.
 Relate what you have read to your own experiences and knowledge.
 Clarify your understanding of the text.
 Summarize and paraphrase the text in your own words.
 Extend your understanding in critical and creative ways.

Activity: Read and comprehend the passage provided below very carefully. Then, you are expected to
provide as adequate as possible responses of the three reading stages.

Activity 1: Pre-Reading Activity

Before reading the following passage answer the following questions.
1. What do you think is central idea of the passage will be about?
2. Do you think campus life is different from high school life?
47
3. What do you think is the difference between the lecturers‘ teaching at campus and teachers‘ teaching
at high school?
4. Do you think there are differences between the ways you study at campus and at high school?

Campus Life
Education is considered as one of the most important elements in life nowadays. A child‘s education
history starts as early as kindergarten period, up to high school, college and university. Enrolling oneself
in university campus after graduating from high school is another option to gain higher education. High
school and university campus are both educational grounds for students to grow and enhance their lives
with knowledge. The transition from high school to campus can be exciting yet challenging. Both social
and academic life in campus will be remarkably different from high school. Some say student will either
adjust to the new condition or struggle with it. Nevertheless, well prepared students will be able to
succeed in the long run when they know the differences in time management, personal freedom and
studying skills applied in high school and campus.

The most significant differences between lives in high school and campus are on the academic front.
These are the absence of parents, less hand holding, less time in class, different attendance policies, note
taking challenges, different attitude toward home work, more study time, greater expectations,
challenging tests, and different grading policies.

One of the challenges in campus is life without parents. It may sound exciting, but it can be a great
challenge as parents play a great role in their students‘ education. For instance, parents care not only for
the feeding and clothing of their children, they also care for their children‘s school time, properties,
safety and good conducts. However, in campus, the time of class, the food and clothing, the safe social
life and the like is all expected to be attained by students themselves.
In high school, the teachers are likely to pull their student aside if they think the student is struggling but
in campus the student should initiate the conversation if he/she needs to get any help from his/her
instructor. Though the help is available, it won‘t come to the student unless he/she plays the roles to get
it. For instance, in high school a teacher may give note or teach twice for a missed class by the student,
but in campus it is up to the student to keep up with the work and get note from a classmate.

Another thing is the time spent in class at high school is very high as compared the time students spend
daily in campus classes. It is usually about three hours a day that campus students spend in the class.
Thus, students in campus are expected to use all these free time to get success in their campus education.
In high school, students are required to go to school every day while campus students are allowed to
decide on their attendance provided that they will accept any disastrous things that follow regarding
their grades.

Still the other difficulty in campus is the challenge of taking notes from the lecture. Unlike the high
school teacher who often follow the text book and write every important note on the board, the
instructors in campus expect the students to take notes on reading assignments that are never discussed
in class and on what is said in the class. Often the content of classroom conversation is not in the book,
but it may be on the exam.
48
In high school, the teacher checks the homework that is given at different chapters, yet in campus it is up
to the students to do their homework by reading different learning materials as they have to exert effort
to succeed in their learning.

Similarly, students spend much time on doing homework in campus than in high school. Especially,
most campus classes require 2-3 hours of homework for every of class time. That mean a 15 hours class
schedule has at least 30 hours out -of- classwork each week.

Another main challenge in campus is that the instructors are testing less frequent than the teachers do in
high school, a single exam may cover a couple months‘ worth of material - the material that are assigned
to be read but was never discussed in class. Tests in campus usually ask the students to apply what they
have learned to new situations rather than simply regurgitate memorized information. At the same time,
if students missed a test in campus, they will probably get a ―0‖ make ups are rarely allowed. Getting
―A‖ grade in campus for students is usually difficult as the instructors are expecting higher level of
critical and analytical thinking than most of high schoolteachers did.

In addition to this, instructors tend to base final grades largely on a couple big tests and papers. In
campus, the students will not be allowed to redo the assignment nor do extra credits work provided that
they have a bad test or paper grade. Also low grades in campus can have serious consequences such as
warning and dismissal.

Generally, campus life is different in the freedom that it gives students together with the exposures that
it offers them to lead life independently.

While-Reading Activity
I. Answer the following questions based on the information you get from the above passage.
1) When do students gain an option to enroll in higher education?
2) What are the similarities and differences of high school and campus?
3) What are the challenges of being in campus rather than high school?
4) What is your feeling situation towards the transition from high school to campus?
5) What kind of writing is this passage?
6) What do you think is the aim of the writer?
7) What are the common advantages of both high school and university campus to students?
8) What is the topic sentence of each paragraph? Write them briefly and shortly in each space.
A. Paragraph 1………………………………………………………………………
B. Paragraph 2………………………………………………………………………
C. Paragraph 3………………………………………………………………………
D. Paragraph 4………………………………………………………………………
E. Paragraph 5………………………………………………………………………
F. Paragraph 6………………………………………………………………………
G. Paragraph 7 ………………………………………………………………………
H. Paragraph 8………………………………………………………………………
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I. Paragraph 9 ………………………………………………………………………
J. Paragraph 10……………………………………………………………………
II. The following words are taken from the above text. Supply their contextual meanings.
1. Remarkably (Para. 1) ___________________________________
2. Keep up (Para. 4) ___________________________________
3. Disastrous (Para. 5) ___________________________________
4. Regurgitate (Para. 9) ___________________________________
5. Redo (Para. 10) __________________________________
III. The following words/ phrases are taken from the above text. Supply what the
words/phrases refer to.
1) it (Para. 1) refers to: _______________________________
2) they (Para. 3) refers to: ____________________________
3) it (para. 3) _______________________________________
4) that (para. 9) refers to: ____________________________

Post-Reading Activity
Read the passage again and answer the following questions.
1. What is the writer‘s purpose in the text?
2. Reflect your own idea about the experiences of your high school and university.
3. Summarize the passage in to one paragraph.

1.6. Vocabulary in context

Use Context Clues
Context refers to the parts of a piece of writing, speech, etc., that precede and follow a word or passage
and contribute to its full meaning. Context clues are words and phrases in a sentence which help you
reason out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Often times the meanings of new or unfamiliar
vocabulary can be figured out by paying attention to the surrounding language. The note below gives the
types of clues, signals and examples of each clue.

Antonym or Contrast Clue: This type of clue helps us to guess the meaning of unfamiliar word
through phrases or words in the sentence that indicate opposite.

Signals: but, in contrast, however, instead of, unlike, yet

Examples:
a) Abebe is a hardworking person in his work, but he is extravagant in managing his money.

b) Houses often increase in value. On the other hand, things such as cars and electronic devices
sometimes depreciate.

Definition or Example Clue: Phrases or words that define or explain the unfamiliar word are used
in the sentence. So the reader can easily guess the meaning using the definition or examples.

Signals: is defined as, means, the term, [a term in boldface or italics] set off with commas
Examples:
a) Sedentary individuals, people who are not very active, often have diminished health.
50
 b) Some mentally ill people have bizarre ideas. For instance they may think that the TV is
talking to them or others can steal their ideas.

c) Livestock animals such as cow, ox, horse, donkey and mile are important for human
beings live.

Restatement or Synonym Clue: Another word or phrase with the same or a similar meaning is
used in the sentence which helps us to figure out the meaning.

Signals: in other word, that is, also known as, sometimes called, or
Examples:
a) The dromedary, commonly called a camel, stores fat in its hump.

b) Arrogant people in other word impolite people are not well discipline.

1.7. Writing
Personal Description
Description is a vivid and detailed representation in words of the image of an object or subjective
phenomenon such as a person, a scene, an object, place, etc. Description writing employs imagery words
that appeal to the five senses, plenty of adjective and figurative language such as simile, metaphor and
personification.

In the real world, it is common to tell what a person is like in order to enable others to recognize the
person being described. It is also customary to describe a person‘s or one‘s own characteristics or
internal qualities so that the listener or the reader can get a clear image of the individual being described.

University students also need to equip themselves with the skill that enables them to clearly describe
others and themselves to others. The activity included in this section will help the students to practice
describing their physical appearances, internal qualities, interests, hobbies, etc.

Study the words or phrases in the lists below that can be used to describe people (oneself or others). You
can use these words or phrases that you have selected, write a descriptive text of yourself (describe
yourself) and read it to the class.

1. Physical Appearance
Height Body Face Eyes Hair Clothes

 tall  frail  round  big  bald  casual

 short  stocky  oval  round  blonde  scruffy
 medium  slim  square  blue  curly  shabby
height spiky
 thin  smiling  large  smart
 dwarf  wavy
 plump  long  small
  kinky
 fat  thin  bright plaited hair

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  skinny  brown
 bonny
 broad shoulders

2. Behaviours/characteristics: sociable, even-tempered, hot-tempered, kind, shy, quiet, aggressive,

tough, generous, self-confident, loyal, cruel, wild, trustworthy, cheerful, friendly
3. Age: toddler, teenager, youngster, middle-aged, old man (woman), young, elderly, in late/early/
mid-twenties, thirties, etc
4. Other facts: artist, single, married/coupled, family head, housewife, a widow, widower, owns
business, spinster, bachelor, etc
Activity 1: Below is a descriptive story of a teacher. Read the text carefully focussing on the
descriptive words or phrases the writer has used to describe him/her. Then, categorize them under the
headings given below the text.

My Best Friend
Belay Desalegn is my best friend who was my dorm mate and classmate for three consecutive years at
Addis Ababa University. He is middle aged adult man. He is blackish, quite tall and rather thin. His face
is shaped oval. Besides, he has black, curly hair. His high forehead covered in bruise exposes that he
started going bald in his early twenties. His flamed black eyes with thick eyebrow can easily be
distinguished from further distance than the rest of his face. He has long straight nose with flared
nostrils. His small ears with ear-buds are turned forward. When his thin lips separate each other, they
expose his white teeth. Whatever happens, he never allow his hair grow longer. It is always cut short and
kept tidy. His neck is long which looks like the neck of giraffe. He has broad shoulder and wide chest;
however, his waist is thin. His legs are tall and his feet are too big. Most of the time, my friend likes
wearing fashion moderate jackets, white t-shirts, jeans and shoes named ―Nike‖ which are liked by
many people. My friend is honest and honorable to his beloved friends and relatives, but he is hot-
tempered when he gets mistakes from any one. Generally, although my friend has good physical
appearance, he gets angry easily and quickly.

Words or phrases the writer has used to describe him/herself:

A. Skin colour: _______________________________
B. Age:
C. Face:
D. Eyes:
E. Hair:
F. Nose :
G. Neck:
H. Clothes:
I. Personal character /behaviour:_____________________
Activity 2: Write a description about one of your friends using his/her name, age, color, height,
hair, weight, face, eyes, waist and behavior. Then show your writing to your friends for comment.

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 Unit Two: Moral Education and Personal Responsibility
2.1. Grammar
2.1.1. Simple past tense
The past tense refers to the time that existed before present. In English, Past Simple, we use to express
actions which happened and finished in the past, and generally with specific time.
I. Form
Positive Subject+ verb ( past tense)+...............................
Negative Subject+ did + not + verb ( base form) +..........................
Question ( Wh-word) + did+ subject+ verb (base form) +. ...................... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I walked to supermarket yesterday.
 We spoke with foreigners last week.
 They went to Phnom Penh last month.
 Dara passed the exam and got good result because he studied very hard.
 A demonstrator died in demonstration last week.
 A few passengers died in traffic accident near the Kizona yesterday.
 My bother got a scholarship to study abroad last year.
 I lived with my Grandparents when I was young
 Many protesters shouted loudly on the street yesterday morning.
 We invited our friends to the party, but they didn‘t come yesterday.

B). Negative
Note: Did not =didn‘t
 I didn‘t walk to supermarket yesterday.(Not : I didn‘t walked or I don‘t walked)
 We didn‘t speak English with foreigners last week.
 He didn‘t die of AIDS two years ago.
 Nara didn‘t forgive him although he admitted his mistakes.
 Some people in the rural areas didn‘t have rights to vote.
 A secretary didn‘t send a report to manager yesterday morning.
 Last week, my parents didn‘t complain about their salary.
 She didn‘t know his phone number because she lost her phone yesterday.
C). Question
 Did I make a lot of noises last night?
 Did they go to Phnom Penh last week?
 Did she work as a supervisor here in 2011?
 What did you do last night? Last night, I watched TV with my family.
 Who did they speak with yesterday? We spoke with foreigners.
 Where did they go yesterday? They went to Kirirom National Resort.
 Where did our friends visit last week? They visited ancient temples
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  How did you come here yesterday? I came here by motorbike yesterday.
 How many dollars did he owe you? He owed me ten dollars
 When did he leave home? He left home at about 7 pm.
 How long did you stay in the Cambodiana Hotel last week?
II. Use:
Simple Past is used to express:
[A] A finished action in the past, usually used with the time expressions: yesterday,
last night, in 2012, in the war...
 I didn‘t watch TV last night.
 We went to school yesterday.
 Meakara and Seanghay did their homework together last night.
 Where did you go last night?
 My parents were at home yesterday?
 Alexander Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
 We went to Cambodian culture village for our holiday.
 Columbus discovered America in 1492.

[B] A Series of Completed Actions

To express the actions which follow each other in a story or a series of completed actions in the
past. These actions happened 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
 I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
 He left from the airport at 8:00, took bus to the hotel at 9:00, and stayed there at 10:00
with other passengers.
 Dary came into the room. He took off his coat and sat down on the bed. Suddenly, he
noticed somebody behind the curtain. He stood up and walked slowly across the
room………..
 When I arrived home last night, I heard a noise from kitchen. Then, I walked into
the living room, but I couldn‘t see anything. In that time I turned back to my room.

[C] A past habit

A habit which stopped in the past. In this case, we often use the expressions such as: always, often,
usually, never, when I was a child, when I was young, every day/week, etc.
 I walked to school until I was 14.
 When I was young, I didn‘t like reading.
 They fought each other every day after their marriage.
 We learned English with Mr. Richard until we finished high school.
 Used to is used in past to express past habit:
This often contrasts with the present. The contrast may be stated or understood.
 I used to go swimming a lot (but I don't now).
 I used to walk to school until I was 14 (but I don't now).
 They used to fight each other every day after their marriage.
The negative form is either:
 Didn't use to or used not to (rarely used).
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 [ D ] Duration in past that something happened.
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which started and stopped in the past. A duration is a
longer action often indicated by time expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day,
etc.
 I lived abroad for nine years.
 He worked for National Bank of Cambodia for nine years.
 Thida studied management for five years.
 They worked as a manager for two years.
 We talked on the phone for thirty minutes last night.
 A: How long did you wait for them last night?
B: I waited for one hour.
 The past simple generally used with time expressions such as:
 Yesterday / last Monday morning
 …… ago (three weeks ago, many years ago)
 last week/month/year/century
 in 2002 /in 1999/in 2012
 for 6 weeks/for two months
 in the past

Simple Past Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ was/ were+ past participle+..........................................
Negative Subject+ was/ were + not+ past participle +............................
Question ( Wh-word) + was/ were + subject+ past participle +. .................... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 A dog was killed by a cruel man yesterday.
 A nice breakfast for the whole family was cooked by me yesterday.
 Many people were killed in Pol Pot Regime.
 A lot of houses were destroyed last week.
 She was forced to marry Dara last year.
 Hundreds of Vietnamese people were arrested last month.

B). Negative
 A dog was not killed by a cruel man yesterday.
 A nice breakfast for the whole family wasn‘t cooked by me yesterday.
 They were not allowed to smoke in the class yesterday.
 Many prisoners were not freed from the prison in 2015.
 Mary and Joe weren‘t invited to the party last night.

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 C). Question
 Was a dog killed by a cruel man yesterday?
 Was a nice breakfast for the whole family cooked by you yesterday?
 Were many people killed during the World War II?
 When was the World Trade Center crushed?
 By whom was the Independence Monument founded?
 How much money were you given by foreigner yesterday?
 Change from the Past Simple to Past Simple Passive.
Active Voice: Police caught the robbers last night.
Passive Voice: The robbers were caught by police last night.
Active Voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive Voice: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare
Active Voice: Your parents didn‘t allowed you to go out last night.
Passive Voice: You weren‘t allowed to go out last night ( by your parents).
Active Voice: Sothearith bought a diamond ring for her before the marriage.
Passive Voice: A diamond ring was bought for her before the marriage by Sothearith.
II. Use:
The Past Simple Passive is used the same as the Past Simple.

2.1.2. Past Continuous tense

I. Form
Positive Subject+ was/ were+ present participle+...........................................
Negative Subject+ was/ were + not+ present participle +............................
Question ( Wh-word) + was/ were + subject+ present participle +. .................. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I was walking to supermarket at 8 o‘clock yesterday.
 He was travelling to Phnom Penh when I called him.
 I was walking to my friend‘s house this time yesterday.
 This time last week we were studying English.
 They were watching football match on TV.
 Menghong was reading during his flight to Australia.
 When Sokha arrived, we were cooking dinner.
 While he was working in the garden, he hurt his back.

B). Negative
 He wasn‘t travelling to Phnom Penh when I called him.
 I was not walking to my friend‘s house this time yesterday.
 This time last week we weren‘t studying English.
 At 7:00 yesterday, Heng was not staying at home.

56
  They weren‘t watching football match on TV.
C). Question
 Where were you reading when I called you last night?
 Was Mary making breakfast when her husband left home?
 What were you doing at 7 o‘clock yesterday?
 With whom were you playing tennis this time yesterday?

II. Use: Past Continuous is used to express:

[A] An activity in progress at the specific time in the past
 What were you doing at 7 pm yesterday? Yesterday, I was reading a book.
 I was walking to my friend‘s house this time yesterday.
 This time last week we were studying English.
[B] Activity happening at the same time in the
past (While + past continuous, past continuous)
 While I was reading, my little brother was playing computer game.
 While they were working at the garden, I was cooking in the kitchen.
 While you were talking on the phone, she was listening to music.
[C] An interrupted past activity, an incomplete activity in the past.
 When + past simple, past continuous
 While + past continuous, past simple
 While I was watching television, the electricity cut off.
 While I was reading newspaper, the wind blew it away.
 I was playing in the field when it started raining.
 When the phone rang, I was taking a shower.
 They were playing soccer when it started to rain.

[D] Past Continuous refers to background activity, while past simple to the main actions
 When I arrived in my school, a woman was cleaning the tables and another was
preparing things for selling. I stopped my bike, and started looking around. I didn‘t
see anything else because it was still early.
 Some people were working in the rice field, some were singing and some were riding
cattle when we reached the countryside. Then, I walked out the car and asked a farmer
which way to get a village.
[E] Incomplete activity in contrast with past simple
 I was painting the kitchen yesterday. (incompleted)
 I painted the kitchen yesterday. (complete)
 I was reading a book last night. (incomplete)
 I read a book last night. (complete)

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 Past Continuous passive
I. Form
Positive Subject+ was/ were+ being+ past participle+...............................
Negative Subject+ was/ were + not+ being+ past participle +.........................
Question ( Wh-word) + was/ were + subject+ being+ past participle +. ................... ?
Examples:
A). Positive
 While the room was being cleaned, we couldn‘t go into it.
 When I arrived, her house was being decorated.
 This time last night, they were being driven home because they were drunk.
 Because my motorbike was being repaired, my soul mate, Kasal gave me a lift to school.
B). Negative
 While the room wasn‘t being cleaned, we could go into it.
 When I arrived, her house was not being decorated.
 This time last night, the housework was not being done.
 Corruption wasn‘t being eliminated completely in some country.
 The political deadlock wasn‘t being solved properly.
C). Question
 Were those schools being destroyed when we went on holiday?
 Was Cambodian people‘s property being reduced during 1997?
 Were they being driven home this time last night because they were drunk?
 Why were they being detained in jail?
 What color was your house being painted?
II. Use
The Past Continuous Passive is used the same as the Past Continuous.

2.1.3. Past Perfect Tense

I. Form
Positive Subject+ had + past participle +...............................
Negative Subject+ had + not +past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + had + subject+ past participle+… ............... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 The plants died because we had forgotten to water them.
 When I returned with his camera, the birds had flown away.
 When we got home, my sister had already cleaned the house and cooked meal.
 When he met her, she had married three time already.

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 B). Negative
 We hadn‘t forgotten to water them.
 When I returned with his camera, the birds had not flown away.
 I was hungry because I hadn‘t had breakfast.
 The house was dirty. They had not cleaned it for weeks.

C). Positive
 Had we forgotten to water them?
 Had the birds flown away when I returned with his camera?
 What had you done before I arrived?
 Why had she left the party before you arrived?
 What time had they had dinner?

II. Use: Past Perfect Simple is used:

[A] To emphasize an action which is completed before another action or time in the past.
 When I arrived home at 7:00, my father had closed the door.
 After the program had started, the guests started fighting.
 When I had taken the tablet, I felt better.
 The little girl was crying because someone had stolen her toy.

[B] Duration before something in the past (non-continuous verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect
to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.
Examples:
 We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
 By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
 They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty
years.
Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-
continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes
used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
[C] Importance specific times with the past perfect
Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past
Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.
Example:
 She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in
1996.
MOREOVER
If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the
Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after"
actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences
below are correct.
Examples:
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  She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
 She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
HOWEVER
If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional.
Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an
action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used.
Examples:
 She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
 She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

Note: We can use ‗ because , after, when , as soon as, before ‘with Past Perfect and Past Simple.
 Past Simple + after + Past Perfect
 She went home right away after she had finished her work.
 After we had bought a car, we felt very happy.
 I went to bed after I had had a bath last night.
 Past Simple + because + Past Perfect
 The house was in a mess because we hadn‘t tidied up after the party.
 Because he had overslept, he missed the bus.
 Past Perfect + before + Past Simple
 Pheavy had lived in Cambodia before she moved to Australia.
 Before Sovann went to the USA, he had already studied English for four years.

Past Perfect Tense Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ had + been+ past participle +.........................................
Negative Subject+ had + not + been + past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + had + subject+ been+ past participle+… ............. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 The plants had been watered before he left home.
 When I returned home, my ducks had been killed.
 When we got home, the house had been already cleaned by my elder sister
 Before he met her, she had been forced to marry an old man.
 Narita cried after her money had been stolen.
 Mr. Blue was so sad because he had been convicted to one year in prison.
 After my friend had been sent to study abroad, he did his best to study English.
B). Negative
 The plants hadn‘t been watered before he left home.
 When I returned home, my ducks had not been killed.
 The children were very hungry because they had not been given any money to buy food.

60
  Dishes were dirty because they hadn‘t been washed.
 We thought that the economic recession had not been solved.
C). Question
 Had the plants been watered before he left home?
 Had you been invited to her wedding ceremony?
 Had he been forgiven for what he said?
 How had the problem been solved?
 Why had you been bothered when you were busy learning?

 Change from Past Perfect Simple Active to Past Perfect Simple Passive.
Active Voice: The Supreme Court had convicted him to four years in prison.
Passive Voice: He had been convicted to four years in prison by the Supreme Court.
Active Voice: Dara had invited Sreypich to a house warming party.
Passive Voice: Sreypich had been invited to a house warming party by Dara.
Active Voice: Nobody had examined the decline in the value of riels properly.
Passive Voice: The decline in the value of riels hadn‘t been examined properly.

II. Use
The Past Perfect Simple Passive is used the same as the Past Perfect Simple

2.1.4. Past Perfect Continuous

I. Form
Positive Subject+ had + been + present participle +.....................................
Negative Subject+ had + not + been + present participle +............................
Question ( Wh-word) + had + subject+ been +present participle+… ........... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I was very tired when I got home because I had been working hard all day.
 We had been playing football for an hour when it started to rain heavily.
 My father quit smoking two years ago. He had been smoking for 23 years.
 Mr. Seanghay had been saving money since 2009 to buy a new car.
 Flora had been looking at the painting for about five minutes before she realized who
the artist was.
C). Negative
 I was not very tired when I got home because I hadn‘t been working hard all day.
 We had not been playing football when it started to rain heavily.
 Police hadn‘t been investigating the case.
 The people were unhappy because the government had not been helping them during the
economic crisis.

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 C). Question
 Had you been working hard all day?
 Had We been playing football for an hour when it started to rain heavily?
 Had Hongly been saving money to marry her?
 Had she been getting on well with you?
 Why had the Supreme Court been charging an Australian man with having sex two under
aged girls?
 What problem had you been solving when I was on holiday?
II. Use
Past Perfect Continuous is used to express an activity that had been happening for a period of time
before something else happened in the past. (Emphasize the duration of an activity)

Example:
 When I arrived home at 7: 30, my niece had been sleeping for an hour.
 We had been walking for 3 days when we saw the mountain.
 We‘d been driving for half of an hour when the police stopped us.
 Yesterday morning I got up and looked out window. The sun was shining but the ground
was very wet because it had been raining a lot.
 John got a job in a factory. He had been working there for ten years before the factory
closed down.
 Their clothes were dirty and their hair was very messy because they had been fighting.

Past Perfect Continuous Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ had + been + being +past participle +...............................
Negative Subject+ had + not+ been + being +past participle +...............................
Question ( Wh-word) + had + subject+ been + being +past participle+ ……?

Examples:
A). Positive
 This bridge had been being built all year. It was finally completed at the end of the year.
 This case had been being investigated for about three years before it was solved.
 Two Chinese women had been being accused of human trafficking until the real
offenders were caught.
 She had been being forced to get married to an old man who hadn‘t loved.
 Many schools and hospitals had been being built in this area before the Khmer Rouge
came to power.
B). Negative
 This bridge hadn‘t been being built all year. It was finally completed at the end of the
year.
 This case hadn‘t been being investigated for about three years before it was solved.
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  My friend hadn‘t been being accused of illegal logging so he wasn‘t worried.
 The problem had not been being solved properly.
 Neak Loeung Bridge had not been being built when went there several years ago.
 Cambodian people‗s living standard had not been being improved before the new law
was passed.
C). Question
 Hadn‘t his bridge been being built all year?
 Had This case been being investigated for about three years before it was solved?
 Why had corruption been being accepted in Cambodia for such long time?
 Had money been being saved before you got married to a young women?
 How long had the dog been being taken out for a walk before we arrived home?
 Had violence against women been being fought all over the world before 1950?
 Why had French been being spoken in some countries and not others during 19th
century?

 Change from the Past Perfect Continuous Active to the Past Perfect Continuous Passive.
Active Voice: We had been improving our country in order to bring prosperity.
Passive Voice: Our country had been being improved in order to bring prosperity.
Active Voice: Tourism had been bringing peace, friendship, and sustainable development
before it was ended when the Pol Pot came to power.

Passive Voice: Peace, friendship, and sustainable development Tourism had been being brought
before it was ended when the Pol Pot came to power.
Active Voice: Had we been getting support for the project from our boss?
Passive Voice: Had support been being gotten for the project from our boss?
II. Use
The Past Perfect Continuous Passive is used to express an action that had been happening for a
period of time before something else happened. The Past Perfect Continuous Passive is hardly ever
used, but English need to know it.

2.1.5. Future Simple

I. Form
Positive 1. Subject+ will + infinitive (without to) +......................................
2. Subject+ am/ is / are + going + to infinitive +.............................
Negative 1. Subject+ will + not + infinitive (without to) +..............................
2. Subject+ am/ is / are + not + going + to infinitive +......................
Question 1. ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ infinitive (without to) +. .............. ?
2. ( Wh-word) + am/ is / are+ subject+ + going + to infinitive +……?

Examples:
A). Positive
 I will go to Phnom Penh this afternoon.
 She will leave here now.
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  They will help you, don‘t worry..
 She is going to visit Angkor Wat with her family next week.
 They are going to get married next year.
 I am going to live in Australia next month.
B). Negative
Note: Will not = won‘t
 I will not go to Phnom Penh this afternoon.
 She won‘t leave here now.
 They won‘t lend us any more money.
 I am not going to move to Paris
 She isn‘t going to visit Angkor Wat with her family next week.
 They aren‘t going to get married next year.
C). Question
 Will you go to Phnom Penh this afternoon?
 Will you give me a lift home?
 Are they going to visit Preah Vihea next month?
 Is she going to have a party next two week?

II. Use
1). Will: (The most common use of will is as an auxiliary very to show future time .It
expresses a future fact or prediction—at some time in the future this event will happen. Will is
used to express the ideas such as intention, decision, arrangement, willingness, etc.

―Will‖ is used to express:

a). Instant decision /intention (decision/intention made at the moment of speaking).
 A. I don‘t know what to cook for dinner.
B. Why don‘t you cook chicken soup?
A. Oh, that‘s good ideas! I will go to market now.
 A. The black is ten dollars, but the white is only five.
B. Really, I will buy the black.
A. Can I have your phone number?
B. O.K, I‘ll give you a name card.

b). Future Prediction (100% based on personal feeling or opinion of speaker.)

Will using for a prediction can be based more on an opinion than fact or evidence. It is often
found with expressions such as: I think…, I hope.., I‘m sure….
 (Before the match) Manchester United will win tonight.
 (No sunshine, dark sky) It will rain tonight. (It is going to rain tonight.)
 I think Labor will win the next election.
 I hope you will come and visit me.
 I‘m sure he‗ll pass his exam
c). Promise, threat, willingness, determination.
 I‘ll love you forever, Theavy.( promise)
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  I‘ll tell your mother if you skip the class .( threat )
 I‘ll give you a lift home. Don‘t worry. (Willingness).
 I‘ll pass my exam next year. (Determination).

2). Going to
―Going to‖ is used to express:
a). Future Plan, decision or intention made before the moment of speaking.
 A: Why are you wearing so nice suit?
B. I ‗m going to interview.
 Jane has chicken, vegetable, and many other things in her basket. She‘s going to cook
chicken soup for her family in this evening.
 We are going to decorate the living room next week.
 We‗re going to get married in the spring this year.

b). Future prediction (100% based on present evidence, the near future).
―Be going to‖ is used to predict future events that are very near (and can be seen) or seem sure
to happen and predictions are based on present evidence:
 (Man United 3.0 Everton): Manchester United is going to win in the this match
 (Dark, windy and lightning): Look at the clouds; it's going to rain.
 He looks very pale. He is going to faint.

Note: Compere
 I‘ll see my parents at the weekend.( instant decision)
 I‘m going to see my parents at the weekend.(personal decision or plan)

Note : Future phrases

When we often use phrases with a future meaning to talk about future rather than a future
verb form. Normally, these phrases are used in spoken English.
1. Middle action future. [Be ready+ to infinitive+ (adverbs of time in the future)]
This form is to express something in a half that someone has not completed yet.
 I am ready to see you about ten minutes more.
 We are ready to leave.

2. Be about + to infinitive/ (be on the point of /to be on verge of) + verb-ing…

“Be about + to-infinitive‖ is used to talk about something that is going to happen very
soon or refers to arranged actions that happen in the immediate future.
 It‘s not a good time to talk. I‘m about to go into the meeting.
 Hurry up! The ceremony is about to begin!
 "Do you have a minute?" "I'm sorry, I'm just about to leave."
(Be on the point of /be on verge of) + verb-ing /……: refer to actions that happen in the near
future and have a meaning similar to be about to:
 Backham is on the verge of signing contract with LA Galaxy
 Thida is the point of giving up her university because she really hates it.
65
  Researchers are on the verge of a breakthrough.

3. Be + to infinitive
―Be +to infinitive‖ is used to talk about actions which are arranged or express about the
important events which are usually organized for high-ranking person. This is a common form in
news reports.
 The Prime Minister, Hun Sen is to visit Pakistan early next year.
 The conference is to discuss about ―Nuclear Tests‖.
 The US President, Barak Obama is to visit Cambodia early next month.
 The government is to introduce the reforms next year.
4. (Be likely / be unlikely) +to infinitive.
This is very common form for making predictions.
 Mass space travel is likely to become a reality.
 It is unlikely to happen.

Be likely + to-infinitive and it is likely + that-clause are used for future events which are
probably going to happen:
 Smokers are more likely to develop lung cancer compared to non-smokers.
 It is likely that he will win the race.

5. Be due to
―Be due to‖ is used to refer to fixed events happening at a specific time:
 The game is due to start at 8:30 pm. (be scheduled to).
 The meeting is due to prepare three days more.
 The film is due to start at 8 pm.
 Half of our employees are due to retire in five years.
 Negotiations are due to take place next week.

6. Be bound +to infinitive

This form is used when someone is sure something will happen or refer to future events which
are certain or very likely to happen:
 Carly is bound to be late. He always is.
 Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam, so he is bound to be late.

7. Be set +to infinitive

―Be set +to infinitive‖ is used when something is likely to happen. This form is also
common in news reports.
 The government is set to introduce the reforms early next year.
 This issue is set to cause some embarrassment.

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Simple Future Passive
I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + be+ past participle + ......................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + be+ past participle +..............................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ be+ past participle +. .............. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 The problem will be solved soon.
 She will be forced to leave here now.
 Seanghay will be given a scholarship to study abroad.
 Our exam result will be released next month .
 The trees will be cut down tomorrow.
B). Positive
 The problem will not be solved soon.
 She won‘t be forced to leave here now.
 The political deadlock‘s solution won‘t be found.
 None of us won‘t be allowed to join the conference.
C). Question
 Will the problem be solved soon?
 Will Phally be sent to study abroad?
 Why will he be removed from power?
 What will you be allowed to do next?
 When will they be freed from the prison?

 Change from Future Simple Active to Future Simple Passive.

Active Voice: The factory will produce 90, 000 cars next year.
Passive Voice: 90, 000 cars will be produced next year by the factory.
Active Voice: They won‘t sell their wonderful painting.
Passive Voice: Their wonderful painting won‘t be sold
Active Voice: They will give me $ 50, 000 tomorrow.
Passive Voice: I will be given $ 50, 000 tomorrow.

II. Use
The Future Simple Passive is used the same as the Future Simple Active.

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 2.1.6. Future Continuous
I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + be+ present participle + ......................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + be+ present participle +..............................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ be+ present participle + ............... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 This time tomorrow, I will be joining the workshop.
 She will be cooking dinner at 6 this evening.
 Don‘t call me at 8 am. We will be taking the final exam.
 At 3-5 pm tomorrow he will be teaching English in Western University.
B). Negative
 This time tomorrow, I will not be joining the workshop.
 She won‘t be cooking dinner at 6 this evening.
 They won‘t be playing football evening tomorrow
C). Question
 This time tomorrow , will you be joining the workshop?
 Will she be cooking dinner at 6 this evening?
 Will Navy be driving to Phnom Penh at 7- 10 tomorrow?
II. Use
Future Continuous is used to express:
[A]. An activity will be happening at specific time in the future.
 This time tomorrow, I‘ll be learning English.
 Don‘t phone me after 10 pm, I‘ll be sleeping then.
 Jane will be discussing the project with our boss tomorrow at 8: 30.
 Don‘t contact me at 5: 00 pm. I will be teaching the students.

[B]. A normal course of activity in the future in contrast with the simple future
which expresses decision, willingness or promise.
 I‘ll be helping him tomorrow.
 She‘ll be smiling when I meet her again.
The prime minister will be talking his wife with him to ASEAN summit tomorrow.

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 Future Continuous Passive
I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + be+ being + past participle + ......................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + be+ being + past participle +..............................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ be+ being+ past participle +. .............. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 This time tomorrow, the workshop will be being held.
 A big dinner will be being cooked at 6 this evening.
 That bridge will be being built during Khmer New Year.
 Many patients will be being cured by the doctors from France.

B). Negative
 This time tomorrow, the workshop will not be being held.
 A big dinner won‘t be being cooked at 6 this evening.
 That bridge will be being built during Khmer New Year.
 Many patients won‘t be being cured by the doctors from France.

C). Question
 This time tomorrow, will the workshop be being held?
 Will a big dinner be being cooked at 6 this evening?
 When will many patients be being cured by the doctors from France?

II. Use
The Future Continuous Passive is used the same as the Future Continuous active.

2.1.7. Future Perfect

I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + have+ past participle + ......................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + have + past participle +..............................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ have + past participle +. .............. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 She‘ll have done all her homework by this evening.
 Don‘t phone me after 12 because I will have gone to bed by then.
 Theavy will have already been married to a smart handsome man by the time next year.

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  Next year they will have worked for BBC for 29 year.
B). Positive
 She won‘t have done all her homework by this evening.
 Call me at 12 tonight, I will not have gone to bed by then.
 Next year they won‘t have worked for BBC for 29 year.
C). Question
 Will she have done all her homework by this evening?
 Will he have built his house by the time next year?
 How long will they have worked for CTN by 2018?

II. Use
Future perfect simple is used to express an action which will be completed before another
action or time in the future. It is not very common verb form.

 Adverbs of time
-By+ phrase
-By +the time +clause
-When+ clause

 We‗ll have finished the reports by Friday.

 By the time they arrive here, we will have reached the destination.
 The residents will have come to safety when the storm approaches.
 I‘ll have done all my work by this evening.

Future Perfect Passive

I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + have+ been + past participle + ......................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + have +been + past participle +..............................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ have +been+ past participle + ............... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 By tomorrow evening John will have been asked to work in Microsoft.
 My house will have been completed by May.
 The seminar will have been finished by 12 o‘clock.
B). Negative
 By tomorrow evening John will not have been asked to work in Microsoft.
 My house won‘t have been completed by May.
 The seminar won‘t have been finished by 12 o‘clock.
C). Question
 Will John have been asked to work in Microsoft?
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  Will the extreme case have been investigated before next month?
 When will the bridge have been completed?

II. Use
The Future Perfect Passive is used the same the Future Perfect Active.

2.1.8. Future Prefect Continuous

I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + have+ been+ present participle + ...................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + have+ been + present participle +...........................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ have+ been+ present participle +. ............. ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 We‘ll have been living here for 20 years by the end of the year.
 By the time her new toys arrive, Jane will have been waiting for 3 months.
 By the time we leave the party at 8 o‘clock, we‗ll been dancing for three hours.
B). Negative
 We‘ll not have been living here for 20 years by the end of the year.
 By the time her new toys arrive, Jane will not have been waiting for 3 months.
 By the time we leave the party at 8 o‘clock, we won‘t been dancing for three hours.
C). Question
 Will she have been living here for 20 years by the end of the year?
 By the time her mum arrives, will Sopha have been doing housework for 3 house?
 By the time we leave the party at 8 o‘clock, will we been dancing for three hours?
II. Use:
Future perfect continuous is used to emphasize the duration of an activity before another action or
time in the future.

Note: In English, the Future perfect continuous is rarely used both in writing and speaking.
 Adverbs of time
-By+ phrase
-By +the time +clause
-When+ clause

 The baby will have been sleeping for two hours by the time her father comes back
home tonight or by 9 o‘clock.
 We‘ll have been living here for 20 years by the end of the year.
 By the time her new toys arrive, Jane will have been waiting for 3 months.
 By the time we leave the party at 8 o‘clock, we‗ll been dancing for an hour.

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 Future Prefect Continuous Passive
I. Form
Positive Subject+ will + have+ been+ being + past participle + ................................

Negative Subject+ will + not + have+ been+ being + past participle +........................

Question ( Wh-word) + will + subject+ have+ been +being+ past participle + .......... ?

Examples:
A). Positive
 By the time they arrives, the housework will have been being doing housework for 3 house.

B). Negative
 By the time they arrives, the housework will not have been being doing housework for 3
house.

C). Question
 By the time they arrives, will the housework have been being doing housework for 3 house?

II. Use
The Future Prefect Continuous Passive is the same as the Future Prefect Continuous Passive,
but nobody uses it. So we just have the form of it.
Generally, we use this structure to change active voice into passive voice.
Active Voice Passive Voice
Rule 1
Subject + verb (verb-s)+ object Object + is/are + V3 + subject
1 We wash the blanket every morning. The blanket is washed by us every morning.
The girl bakes the breads The bread are baked by the girl
I study English with my classmate English is studied by me with classmate
Rule 2
Subject + verb-ed + object Object + was/were + V3 + subject
2 We washed the blanket every morning. The blanket was washed by us every morning.
The girl baked the breads The bread were baked by the girl
I studied English with my classmate English was studied by me with classmate
Rule 3
Subject + is/am/are/was/were + object Object + is/am/are/was/were + being + V3 + subject
3 I am playing volley ball now The volley ball is being played by me now
My uncle is visiting awash national park The awash national park is being visited by my uncle
The teachers are giving the paper to students The paper is being given to students by the teachers
He was taking the medicines to home The medicines was being taken to home by him
They were drinking the water The water was being drunk by them

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My classmate was studying English English was being studied by my classmate.
Rule 4
Subject + has/have/had + object Object + has/have/had + been + V3 + subject
We have visited our relatives. Our relatives have been visited by us.
My sister has baked this cake. this cake has been baked by my sister
She has solved the problems The problems have been solved by her.
My brother had drunk the water. The water had been drunk by my brother.
Rule 5
Subject + will/would/shall/should/can/ Object + will/would/shall/should/can/could/
could/ may/might/must + V1 + object may/might/must + be + V3 + Subject
They will give me a book tomorrow. I will be given a book tomorrow. or
A book will be given to me tomorrow.
My friend can help us do the assignment. The assignment can be helped to by our friend.
The doctor should promise to cure the The patient should be promised the doctor.
patient.

Activity 1: Change the following active voices sentences into passive voice sentences.
1. The teacher is teaching the students at the moment.
__________________________________________________________________
2. He does not notice the importance to speak English.
__________________________________________________________________
3. My cousin will visit us next month.
__________________________________________________________________
4. My parents have advised me to study hard in all courses.
__________________________________________________________________
5. They have been telling Abebe about the rule and regulation of the university.
__________________________________________________________________
6. Our instructor was teaching English an hour ago.
__________________________________________________________________
7. The little girl had received the letter last Monday.
__________________________________________________________________
8. I will begin small business in after two years.
__________________________________________________________________
9. My nephew should prepare the meal.
__________________________________________________________________
10. The students are revising their course lesson this month.
__________________________________________________________________
11. The clever student shall revise English grammar lessons every weekend
__________________________________________________________________
12. The priest blessed the servant and people.
__________________________________________________________________

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 Activity 2: Complete the blank spaces with the appropriate voice (Active or Passive) using the given
verb in brackets. Example: the dishes are being washed in the bathroom now (wash).
1) The problem ________________________ to the children. (explain)
2) These pyramids ________________________ around in 400 AD. (build)
3) Zelalem cannot come now. He ____________________ a radio outside. (listen)
4) All the troubles ________________________ by your friend. (cause)
5) I ________________________ a book to my friend last year. (buy)
6) That picture ________________________ by my grandmother. (paint)
7) The house ________________________ now (paint)
8) I do not know why I ________________________ for class representative this year (choose)
9) The policemen ____________________________ the innocent people tomorrow. (release)
10) This house ___________________________ in 1943 when my grandfather was adult (build)
11) The farmer ___________________ plenty of crops to us (sell).
12) The office ____________________ recently (clean)

Activity 3: Change the following passive voices into active voice.

1. Alemu must be delayed by the traffic.
_______________________________________________________________________
2. English is spoken by many people in Brazil.
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Mr Brown was loved by everybody last year.
_______________________________________________________________________
4. A new stadium is being built near the station
_______________________________________________________________________
5. The cake was being eaten by children three minutes ago.
_______________________________________________________________________
6. All the milk has been drunk by them.
_______________________________________________________________________
7. All the windows had been cleaned before the storm.
_______________________________________________________________________
8. By next year, the lesson will have been studied by the students.

2.2. Conditional sentences

What is a Conditional Sentence?
Conditional sentences describe a conditional situation, or a result that depends on an event
occurring first. "If" one thing happens, "then" another thing will happen. It simply means that one
thing is required for something else to occur or exist. A conditional sentence is based on the word
‗if‘. There are always two parts to a conditional sentence – one part beginning with ‗if‘ to describe
a possible situation, and the second part which describes the consequence.

For example:
If it rains, we’ll get wet.

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We can also invert the two parts of a conditional sentence so that the ‗if‘ part comes second, and
this is especially common in questions. For example:

What will you do if you miss the train?

How can you finish the project if you don’t have a computer?
What happens if the students don’t pass an exam?

There are four types of conditional sentences:

1 – The first conditional
2 – The second conditional
3 – The third conditional
0 – The zero conditional
It is also possible to mix the second and third conditional. Let‘s look at each cond itional to see how
we use them.

2.2.1. Type I: Likely/ Probable condition

When a situation is not completely certain, it‘s time for first conditionals. First conditionals (or
Type 1 conditionals) dictate that a result is not certain, but very likely that one condition will lead
to another. Unlike zero conditionals, first conditionals only use ―if‖ clauses, not ―when‖ clauses.
We use the first conditional to talk about a realistic situation in the present or future. The structure
of the first conditional is as follows:

Here are some examples:

If you’re free later, we can go for a walk.

If they’re hungry, I’ll make some sandwiches.

If you’re not back by 5pm, give me a ring.

If he studies hard, he’ll do well in the exam.

If we arrive late, we must get a taxi.

He’ll call if he needs help.

Take a break if you’re tired.

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Another way to make first conditional sentences is to use ‗unless‘ which means ‗only if‘ or
‗except‘. As with ‗if‘, the word ‗unless‘ can never be followed by ‗will‘ but only by the present
simple. For example:

Unless you hurry up, you won’t catch the bus.

I’ll carry on doing this work, unless my boss tells me to do something else.
We’ll stay at home unless the weather improves.
I will answer if he calls me.
If I study really hard, I'll ace this test.
If the weather is good, our crops will flourish.
You will succeed in college if you're diligent in your studies.
My sister will cry if she watches this movie.
Jenny will buy this dress if it‘s on sale.
I will attend the wedding if I‘m invited.
If the kids eat too much candy, they‘ll have a stomachache.

2.2.2. Type II: Unlikely and imaginary condition

Second conditionals use the modal verb ―would‖ to indicate that it is unlikely that a condition will
be fulfilled. They reflect a bit of wishful thinking, but are not impossible, and if they do happen
then the result will occur. These sentences often use ―were‖ instead of ―was‖ in the past tense, just
like subjunctive sentences. However, the conditional nature of these sentences – condition and
result using the conjunction ―if‖ – makes them conditional, not subjunctive. We use the second
conditional to talk about improbable or impossible situations in the present or future.

Here is the structure:

For example:
If I had more time, I’d exercise more. (But I don‘t have more time so I don‘t.)
If I were rich, I’d spend all my time travelling. (But I‘m not rich so I can‘t.)
If she saw a snake, she’d be terrified.
If he didn’t have to work late, he could go out with his girlfriend.
What would you do if you were offered a job in Canada?
You wouldn’t have to walk everywhere if you bought a bike.
A common expression used to give advice has the second conditional structure. The expression is
‗If I were you, I‘d..‘, meaning ‗in your situation, this is what I would do‘.

For example:
A: I’ve got a headache.
B: If I were you, I’d take an aspirin.

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A: I don’t understand this.
B: If I were you, I’d ask your teacher for help.
A: This order won’t be delivered on time.
B: If I were you, I’d phone the customer to let them know.
I would answer if he called.
If the weather improved, our crops would flourish.
If you resolved to be diligent in your studies, you would succeed in college.
I would faint if I ever met Brad Pitt.
You’d understand the joke if you were there.
If I were rich, I’d never work again.
Harry would help you move if he knew where you lived.
The children would eat their vegetables if they tasted better.

2.2.3. Type III : Impossible condition

Third conditionals, or Type 3 conditional sentences, refer to an impossible condition. These
situations are impossible because they have already occurred and can‘t be changed. If,
hypothetically, that condition were true, then the described outcome would be likely. Like seco nd
conditionals, third conditionals often use ―were‖ instead of ―was,‖ but are not subjunctive. We use
the third conditional to talk about impossible situations, as in the second conditional, in the past.
We often use the third conditional to describe regrets.

The structure is:

Here are some examples:

If we had left earlier, we would have arrived on time.

If you hadn’t forgotten her birthday, she wouldn’t have been upset.

If they had booked earlier, they could have found better seats.

If I hadn’t learnt English, I wouldn’t have got this job.

What would you have studied if you hadn’t done engineering?

They wouldn’t have hired you if you hadn’t had some experience abroad.

You could have helped me if you’d stayed later.

I would have helped if I’d known you were in trouble.

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If Bonnie had studied, she would have passed the test.

My family wouldn’t have bought the house if they had seen the broken pipes.

Your dog would have bitten my dog if he hadn’t been on a leash.

If she had arrived five minutes earlier, she would have seen the whole show.

If my nephew had gotten the job, he would have been set for life.

Pearl wouldn’t have made that comment if she had knew her brother was listening.

The teacher would have assigned less homework if the class had finished their assignment

Mixed Conditionals
It‘s possible to combine the second and third conditional in one sentence when we want to make a
hypothesis about the past that has a consequence in the present. In this case, the structure is:

Here are some examples:

If you’d studied harder, you’d be at a higher level now.

We’d be lying on a beach now if we hadn’t missed the plane.
They’d have much more confidence if they hadn’t lost so many matches.
What would you be doing now if you hadn’t decided to study?

2.2.4. Type IV: Zero-condition

The outcome in a zero conditional sentence is certain. Zero conditionals, also known as Type 0
conditionals, outline situations in which one thing always causes another. If one thing occurs,
something else will also occur.

Zero conditionals are often known as factual conditionals, but they are not factual statements. For
example, ―I get sunburned in hot weather‖ is a factual statement, but not a conditional. ―If it‘s hot,
I get sunburned‖ is a zero conditional sentence. We use the zero conditional to talk about
permanent truths, such as scientific facts, and general habits.

The first part of zero conditionals includes an ―if‖ or ―when‖ clause in the simple present tense.
The next part describes what happens as a natural result, also in simple present. This is important
because the simple present is used when an action is habitual or constant.

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 The structure is simple:

Here are some examples:

If you heat water to 100°, it boils.
If you eat a lot, you put on weight.
If it doesn’t rain for a long time, the earth gets very dry.
If we go out with friends, we normally go to a restaurant.
If I’m tired, I go to bed early
If you trip on pavement, you get a scrape.
You receive a passing grade when you do all your homework.
If it rains, my car gets wet.
My boyfriend smiles when I give him a compliment.
If the clock strikes midnight, it's a new day.
When the dogs get a treat, they wag their tails.
If Hannah sleeps in, she’s late for school.
I get stressed out when I watch the news.

Generally, the conditional is very common in both speech and writing. There are four main categories of
the conditional. Their names, uses and forms with examples are described in the table below.

Type Form and examples Usage

Zero If + simple present, simple present The condition is a
(General)  If I press this button, the machine starts. general or scientific fact.
There is no doubt at all
 If we heat water, it boils. that it will happen.
First If + present simple + future simple The possibility of the
(likely  If I have leisure time, I will visit my relatives. condition to be achieved
condition) is quite high. It is used to
 If you study hard regularly, you will achieve good grade express real conditions in
in my class. the present and their
 Unless my father gives me some money, I will not buy result in the future.
my school facility.

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Second If + simple past, present conditional The possibility of the
(imaginary  If I had leisure time, I would visit my relatives. condition to be achieved
or is quite low. It shows
unreal  If you studied hard regularly, you would achieve good hypothetical conditions
condition) grade in my class. in the present and their
 Unless my father gave me some money, I would not buy hypothetical results in the
my school facility. present.

(might and could can be used instead of would )

Third If + past perfect, perfect conditional The condition can never
(impossible  If I had had leisure time, I would have visited my be achieved as we are
condition) relatives. talking about past time. It
is used to express
 If you had studied hard regularly, you would have hypothetical conditions
achieved good grade in my class. in the past and their
 Unless my father had given me some money, I would results in the past.
not have bought my school facility.

(Might, could and should can be used instead of would.)

Activity 1: Complete the text by putting the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

If I were world leader, I (1) would try (try) to stop the destruction of the earth and I (2) ______ (make)
the world a better place for all people. If the world‘s problems had been tackled sooner, the quality of
life (3) ______ (improve) long ago. First of all, I would try to bring about peace in the world. As long as
there is fighting between nations, millions of people (4) _______ (continue) to suffer and die. If wars
continue, children (5) ______ (be left) without parents and (6) ______ (grow up) in a world of misery
and fear. But as long as people disagree over land and possessions, the fighting. (7)________ (go on).
Therefore, I would ensure that all people were treated as equals and given the same opportunities in life.
It would also help if all countries (8) ________ (stop) producing arms so there would no longer be the
weapons with which to fight. In addition, I would introduce laws to reduce pollution. If pollution levels
(9) ______ (control) earlier, life (10) ______ (not/become) so unbearable. If I (11) ________ (have) the
power, I would ban all cars from city centers and increase public transport. If there were more trees, the
air we breathe (12) _______ (be) cleaner. Unless measures are taken soon, it (13) ______ (be) too late
both for ourselves and our children.

Activity 2: Rewrite the following sentences according the given word in bracket:

1) If you take these pills three times a day, you ________________ better. (get)
2) If the students _______________ what they have learned, they would have equipped more
knowledge. (revise)
3) We would have too much knowledge if the teacher ________________ us properly. (teach)
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4) If my students _______________ lazy in class, they would score poor grade. (be)
5) My uncle has promised that she __________________ me on Monday if she has free time. (visit)
6) The students would not have been failed their exam if they ________________ hard with their class
mate students. (study)
7) Unless the students study hard, they _____________________ the exam. (pass)
2.3. Modal auxiliaries
A verb is the part of speech that expresses action, condition, or being. Verbs change form to indicate
person, number, tense, voice, and mood. The main verb of a sentence is often preceded by one or more
auxiliary or helping verbs, which together form a complete verb. Auxiliary verbs include forms of
―have‖ (has, have, had), ―do‖ (does, do, did), and ―be‖ (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been) as well
as the nine modal auxiliary verbs can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, and must. Note
that ought to is often added to the list of modal auxiliary verbs.

COMMON MEANINGS OF MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

Modal auxiliary verbs are followed by the base form of a verb to show certainty, necessity, or
possibility. Modals and the verbs that follow do not change form to indicate tense or take an ―-s‖
ending. All modal auxiliary verbs can be used in the present, but only ―could,‖ ―would,‖ ―should,‖
and ―might‖ can be used in the past. Common meanings of modal auxiliary verbs with their present
and past tense forms are as follows:

Use ―can, could‖

 to show or infer general ability
You can arrive any time, but you may want to be early to get a good seat. She
could recite the entire poem from memory.
 to make a polite or an informal request
Can you leave early tomorrow?
Could you give me a ride?
 to give permission
You can take a day off tomorrow if you can't find a babysitter. If
necessary, you could ask for an extension.
 make a prediction
If you work hard, you can relax for the rest of the semester.
If you continue to improve your grades, you could graduate with honors.
Use ―will, would‖
 to make a polite or informal request
Will you join me for lunch?
I would appreciate your assistance.
 to make a formal request
Will you be quiet!
Would you please pay attention!
 to show intention or to indicate certainty
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 He will arrive at the beginning of the concert.
They would be the first students to register for the workshop.
 to make a prediction
If she receives a scholarship, she will continue with her studies. I
would be surprised if he is not elected.

Use ―shall‖
 to show intention
We shall overcome.
 to make a polite or informal request
Shall I open it for you?
Use ―should‖
 to indicate expectation
You should receive a new credit card in the mail.
We all need to express our moods and emotions, both in writing and in our everyday life. We do this by
using modal auxiliaries.

Modal Auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries are a type of helping verb that are used only with a main verb to help express its
mood.

The following is the basic formula for using a modal auxiliary:

Subject + modal auxiliary + main verb

James may call

There are ten main modal auxiliaries in English.

Modal
Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb
Auxiliary

I can lift this forty-pound box. (ability)

can Expresses an ability or possibility We can embrace green sources of energy.
(possibility)

I could beat you at chess when we were

kids. (past ability)
Expresses an ability in the past; a present
could
possibility; a past or future permission We could bake a pie! (present possibility)

Could we pick some flowers from the

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Modal
Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb
Auxiliary

garden? (future permission)

I may attend the concert. (uncertain future

action)
Expresses uncertain future action;
may You may begin the exam. (permission)
permission; ask a yes-no question
May I attend the concert? (yes-no
questions)

I might attend the concert (uncertain

might Expresses uncertain future action
future action—same as may)

I shall go to the opera. (intended future

shall Expresses intended future action
action)

I should mail my RSVP. (obligation, same

Expresses obligation; ask if an obligation as ought to)
should
exists Should I call my mother? (asking if an
obligation exists)

I will get an A in this class. (intended

future action)
Expresses intended future action; ask a
will
favor; ask for information Will you buy me some chocolate? (favor)

Will you be finished soon? (information)

I would like the steak, please. (preference)

Would you like to have breakfast in bed?

States a preference; request a choice (request a choice politely)
would politely; explain an action; introduce I would go with you if I didn‘t have to
habitual past actions babysit tonight. (explain an action)

He would write to me every week when

we were dating. (habitual past action)

must Expresses obligation We must be on time for class.

I ought to mail my RSVP. (obligation,

ought to Expresses obligation
same as may)

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 Tip

Use the following format to form a yes-no question with a modal auxiliary:
Modal auxiliary + subject + main verb

Should I drive?
Be aware of these four common errors when using modal auxiliaries:
1. Using an infinitive instead of a base verb after a modal

Incorrect: I can to move this heavy table.

Correct: I can move this heavy table.
2. Using a gerund instead of an infinitive or a base verb after a modal

Incorrect: I could moving to the United States.

Correct: I could move to the United States.
3. Using two modals in a row

Incorrect: I should must renew my passport.

Correct: I must renew my passport.
Correct: I should renew my passport.
4. Leaving out a modal

Incorrect: I renew my passport.

Correct: I must renew my passport.

Remember, when a sentence contains a modal auxiliary before the verb, the helping verb is
always have.

Activity:- Modal verbs short answers. Choose the right forms have to, don't have
to, can, can't, should or shouldn't to complete the following sentences in English.
A: Can you come for a coffee after the meeting?
B: No, I _______ I‘m sorry – I have to go home.
A: Do I have to pay for the meal now?
B: No, you_______. You can pay when you leave.
A: Should we phone to say we‘re going to be late?
B: Yes, we________. Here‘s my phone.
A: Can we leave our luggage during the break?
B: Yes, you________. But don‘t leave any money.
A: Do you think I should write about my education background?
B: Yes, you_________. You can get a better job.
A: My child is five. Do you have to buy him a ticket?
B: Yes, you__________. It costs half the price of an adult ticket.
A: Do you have to get up early tomorrow?
B: No, I___________. I can stay in bed.

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A: Can you speak English?
B: Yes, I___________. I lived in London for 5 years.
A: Should we leave him the message?
B: Yes, we___________. He won‘t be worried about us.
A: Should I study more on English grammar?
B: No, you___________. You know it very well already.

2.4. Speaking
2.4.1. Using so and neither
SO
SO is used to show agreement with positive statements.

SO + Auxiliary/Be + Subject (pronoun)

The Auxiliary (or To Be/Have) needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.

It is similar to using TOO at the end of a sentence.

Person A Person B

I am happy. So am I. = I am happy too.

I'm going to Brazil in the summer. So am I. = I am going to Brazil too.
You look nice today. So do you. = You look nice too.
Stephanie has a new boyfriend. So does Mary. = Mary has a new one too.
We went to the concert last night. So did I. = I went to the concert too.
I would love a coffee right now. So would I. = I would love a coffee too.
He will win a prize. So will I. = I will win one too.
They have finished their homework. So have I. = I have finished too.
I can speak two languages. So can I. = I can speak two too.
He should study more. So should I. = I should study more too.
We could see the mountains. So could we. = We could see them too.
My brother had eaten too much. So had I. = I had eaten too much too.

Sometimes you can use So + Auxiliary + Subject as a continuation of the first part of the sentence.

 John can sing well and so can his brother.

(= John can sing will and his brother can sing well too)

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 NEITHER
Neither is used to show agreement with negative statements.

Neither + Auxiliary + Subject (pronoun)

The Auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.

It is similar to using either at the end of a sentence, although Neither is more commonly used,
especially in spoken English.

A: I don't understand Spanish.

B: Neither do I. (= I don't understand Spanish either.)

A: I cannot swim.
B: Neither can I. (= I can't swim either.)

Sometimes people respond Me Neither instead of Neither + Auxiliary + Subject though this is very
informal spoken English.

Person A Person B

I am not hungry. Neither am I. = I'm not hungry either.

I'm not going to quit. Neither am I. = I'm not going to quit either.
They don't speak French. Neither do I. = I don't speak French either.

Stephanie doesn't eat meat. Neither does Mary. = Mary doesn't eat meat either.

Mary didn't go to the party. Neither did I. = I didn't go either.

I wouldn't like to do his job. Neither would I. = I wouldn't like to do it either.
He won't stop talking. Neither will you. = You won't stop either.
You haven't finished your meal. Neither have you. = You haven't finished either.
I can't reach the top shelf. Neither can I. = I can't reach it either.
You shouldn't talk in the movie. Neither should you. = You shouldn't talk either.
We couldn't hear him. Neither could we. = We couldn't hear him either.
I hadn't seen her before. Neither had I. = I hadn't seen her before either.

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87
ACTIVITY: Choose the correct forms with so, neither, too, either to complete the sentences below.
1. A: 'I haven't written the essay yet.' B: 'Neither ___________ I.'
2. A: 'I'm very thirsty.' B: '_______________.'
3. A: 'Sam won't help us.' B: 'Neither _____________.
4. A: 'I can't forgive them for what happened.' B: 'I can't forgive them _______________ .'
5. A: 'I drink too much coffee.' B: '_________________ .'
6. A: 'Mum was very proud of us.' B: 'And ________________.'
7. Ann will be there and so ________________ .
8. A: 'You didn't tell the truth.' B: 'Nor _________________ .'
9. A: 'I watched the match in a pub.' B: 'So ______________.'
10. A: 'I would really like to go.' B: '________________.'

Complete the following pieces of conversation.

1. 'I'm tired.' ................................
A. So do I. C. Neither do I
B. So am I D. Neither am I
2. 'I was late.' '....................................'
A. So do I C. So did I
B. So was I D. Neither do I
3. 'I didn't like that film.' '...............................'
A. So did I C. So am I
B. Neither did I
4. 'I didn't finish it.' '.................................'
A. Neither did I C. Neither was I
B. So did I
5. 'I like coffee.' '................................'
A. So am I C. Neither am I
B. So do I D. Neither do I
6. 'I can swim.' '.................................'
A. So I can C. So can I
B. So do I
7. 'I'm staying for another two days.' '...................................'
A. So I am C. So am I
B. So do I
8. 'She has a degree in physics.' '..........................'
A. So do I C. So has I
B. So have I D. So did I
9. 'I don't have his number.' '...............................'
A. Neither have I C. Neither I have
B. So have I
10. 'I found the problem very hard.' '...............................'

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 A. So am I C. So did I
B. So do I D. So have I
11. Maria can sing beautifully and ...............................
A. so her sister can C. neither can her sister
B. so can her sister
12. 'I had never seen so much food in my life.' '..............................'
A. Neither have I C. Neither did I
B. Neither had I

2.5. Reading Comprehension

Global Addiction
1. The 1990s have been designated the decade against drug abuse by the United Nations. But, with less
than three years to go before the end of the decade, governments and health organization admit that they
have made little progress in reducing drug, alcohol and tobacco abuse.

2. Today consumption of all these substances is increasing steadily worldwide. Virtually every country
now has problems with illegal drugs. And, the world is producing and consuming more alcohol and
tobacco than ever. Between 1970 and 1990 beer production alone rose by over 80 percent. And, if the
number of smokers keeps on rising, by the second or third decade of the next century there could be 10
million deaths each year from smoking related illness.

3. Experts like Dr. Alan Lopez, Acting manager of the substance Abuse program at the world health
organization (WHO), say that, taken together, abuse of legal and illegal drugs is a greater health threat
than major diseases. world health organization studies indicate that abuse of tobacco, alcohol, illicit
drugs and more mood-altering substances account for between six and seven percent of all diseases and
inquiry that occurs in the world each year. "That is a massive amount," he says, "and it is twice as much,
for example, as diseases like tuberculosis or malaria."

4. Drugs are also a huge burden on the world economy. In the United States, for example, it is estimated
that alcohol and illegal drug use costs the country tens of billions of dollars each year, mainly in health
care. When the cost of tobacco related illnesses is added, that total more than doubles.

5. Drugs are also closely related to crime. Many police forces no longer distinguish between illegal
drugs and legal drugs when fighting crime. In Australia, for example, experts estimate that police in
some parts of the country spend between 70 and 80 percent of their time dealing with alcohol related
incidents.

6. International research has revealed that drug follows different patterns in developing and developed
nations. While the number of cigarette smokers declines in countries like the US (down by 0.5 percent
annually) and the UK (down by 2.3 percent), it is rising by 1.7 percent a year in the developing world.
The Chinese now account for 39 percent of the world's smokers, and the number of cigarette smoked in
the whole Asia region is expected to rise by more than 50 percent by the end of century.

7. Aggressive marketing of cigarettes in the developing countries is one explanation for the rise,
although some countries are starting to limit tobacco advertising. But, Dr. Alan Lopez of the world
89
health organization is still concerned. "There has been a massive increase in cigarette smoking among
men in developing countries, and we are now at the point where about half of all men currently smoke
cigarettes. Equally, we are concerned about trends in alcohol use, which is rising in developing countries
as the multi nationals begin to sell more and more of their products there‖

8. Dr. Lopez is also pessimistic about the effect of campaigns to curb illegal drugs like heroine, cocaine
and cannabis. In developed countries like the US the number of young people taking illegal drugs started
to fall in the 1980s. That trend has now been reversed, he says. ―We are seeing a steady increase in the
prevalence of substances like marijuana and heroine."

9. In fact, so common is drug use in developed countries that illegal drugs have become a part of
everyday life for children growing up in big western cities. Recent research in Glasgow, Scotland's
second city reveals how children progress from one drug to another. "Kids of about 10 or 11 starts on
cigarettes," explains Dr. Neil McKe ganny, who led the Glasgow research. "A year later they were into
alcohol - reporting significant levels of drunkenness -- before moving on within a year to cannabis, and
then a year or so after that into a broader range of drugs-- LSD - and small levels of ecstasy, cocaine and
heroine."
(Taken from BBC English, September 1997)

1. According to the passage, which of the following is true about the economic impact of drugs in the
US?
A. Alcohol and drugs are more expensive than tobacco
B. Tobacco related illnesses are cheaper to treat than alcohol and drug related ones
C. Tobacco related illnesses cost the same money to treat as alcohol and drug related ones.
D. Tobacco related illnesses are more expensive to treat than alcohol and drug related ones.

2. According to paragraph 2, which one of the following sentences is not true?

A. Drug abuse was on the rise
B. Beer production in the 1990s was high
C. Towards the end of the 1990s, people smoked more than they did before
D. By 2030 more than 10 million will have died from smoking related disease.

3. In a recent research conducted in Glasgow, children were observed moving from cigarettes to alcohol,
cannabis and then LSD. This shows.......
A. The degree of irresponsibility of parents
B. A significant improvement in drug abuse
C. The decline in the morale of school children
D. The degree seriousness in the use of alcohol and drugs.

4. The main idea in paragraph one is that.....

A. the 1990s were the years against drug abuse
B. Anti-drug abuse actions might possibly succeed
C. Government have done little to meet the UN set target
D. the 1990s has not met the UN set target against drug abuse.

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5. What does the phrase their products in paragraph 7 last line refers to?
A. Tobacco B. Tobacco and alcohol
C. Alcoholic drinks D. All sorts of drugs

6. The word "Today‖ paragraph 2 line one refers to

A. 1999 B. 1990s C. 1997 D. 2007

7. What percent of world deaths and injuries would diseases like malaria or tuberculosis make every
year?
A. 6 to 7 B. 3 to 4 C. 12 to 13 D. 12 to 14

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 Unit Three: Education
3.1. Grammar
3.1.1. Degrees of Comparison:
Adjective change in form when they show comparison.

Positive Degree: An adjective is said to be in the positive degree when there is no comparison.

Comparative Degree: An adjective is said to be in the comparative degree when it is used to compare
two nouns/pronouns.

Superlative Degree: An adjective is in superlative degree when it is used to compare more than two
nouns/pronouns. We use the article 'the' before the superlative degrees.

Formation of Comparative & Superlative Degrees of Adjectives

Adjectives usually form their comparative and superlative degrees:

1) by addition of '-er' and '-est' to the positive degree

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bright brighter Brightest
black blacker Blackest
bold bolder Boldest
clever cleverer Cleverest
cold colder Coldest
fast faster Fastest
great greater Greatest
high higher Highest
kind kinder Kindest
long longer Longest
rich richer Richest
small smaller Smallest
strong stronger Strongest
sweet sweeter Sweetest
tall taller Tallest
thick thicker Thickest
young younger Youngest
2) by addition of '-r' and '-st' to the positive degree ending in 'e'

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

brave braver Bravest

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 fine finer Finest
large larger Largest
nice nicer Nicest
noble nobler Noblest
pale paler Palest
simple simpler Simplest
wise wiser Wisest
white whiter Whitest
3) When the positive ends in 'y' and has a consonant before it, we change 'y' into 'i' and then add
'er' and 'est'.

By deleting the final ‗y‘ and adding ‗ier‘ and ‗iest‘

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
costly costlier Costliest
dry drier Driest
easy easier Easiest
happy happier Happiest
heavy heavier Heaviest
lazy lasier Lasiest
mercy mercier Merciest
wealthy wealthier Wealthiest
4) when the positive degree ends in a consonant with a vowel before it, we double the consonant &
then add '-er' and '-est'

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

big bigger Biggest
dim dimmer Dimmest
fat fatter Fattest
hot hotter Hottest
thin thinner Thinnest
5) by addition of '-er' and '-est' to the positive degree when it ends in '-y'

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
gay gayer Gayest
grey greyer Greyest

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5) by placing 'more' and 'most' before the positive form

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

active more active most active
attractive more attractive most attractive
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
careful more careful most careful
courageous more courageous most courageous
cunning more cunning most cunning
difficult more difficult most difficult
famous more famous most famous
faithful more faithful most faithful
important more important most important
proper more proper most proper
popular more popular most popular
splendid more splendid most splendid
suitable more suitable most suitable

Some adjectives do not follow any of the rules explained earlier. They are compared irregularly. Here
are the different forms of such adjectives.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bad worse worst
evil worse worst
good better best
ill worse worst
far farther farthest
well better best
late later latest (time)
late later last (position)
little less least
much more most
many more most
near nearer nearest
old older oldest
old elder eldest

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Activities:-Choose the correct Degrees of Comparison for the following sentences
1. The days are ______ in winter than summer.
A. Shorter
B. The shortest
2. Kate is the ________ of the three children.
A. older
B. oldest
3. Andi is 165 cm tall. Donna is 167 cm tall. So, Donna is _________ than Andi.
A. Taller C. Shorter
B. Bigger D. Smaller

4. Jupiter is the _______ planet in the solar system.

A. Larger
B. Largest
5. If I am 10 years old and my brother is 12 years old, my brother is older than me.
A. True
B. False
6. Honesty is the _______ policy of all.
A. Better
B. Best
7. That was the ______ day of my life.
A. Worse
B. Worst
8. The Empire State Building is one of __________ (tall) buildings in the USA.
A. Most tall C. The tallest
B. Taller than D. The most tall
9. I have got __________ (nice) family I know.
A. The nicest than C. The most nice
B. Nicer than D. The nicest
10. Town is __________ than village.
A. Better C. More crowded
B. Worse D. More quiet
11. The living room is the _______ room in our house.
A. Bigger
B. Biggest
12. The man treated his stepchildren … than animals.
A. badly C.worse
B. worst
13. The British weather is __________ (bad) the Portuguese weather.
A. Worse than C. Better than
B. The worst D. The best

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 14. Today is the ________ day of winter.
A. colder
B. coldest
15. My room is _________ than Bill‘s room because I clean it more often than him.
A. Bigger. C. Cleaner
B. Smaller D. Dirtier
16. My sister Elaine is ___________ than my brother Fred.
A. Young. C. Younger
B. More young D. More younger
17. He is _________ than his brother.
A. Less athletic
B. The least athletic
18. This film is awful. In fact, it‘s __________ (bad) film I`ve ever seen.
A. The baddest C. The worse
B. The worst D. Worse than
19. New York is ____________________ than Woodstock.
A. Exciting C. Excitingest
B. Excitinger More exciting
C. Most exciting
20. I am not as ________ as my father.
A. Stronger C. Strong
B. More strong D. Stronger than
Ex. 1 Degrees of Comparison
Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. Red apples are usually ___________ than green apples.
A. more sweeter C. sweeter
B. most sweet D. sweetest
2. They have three sons and two daughters. Betty is ____________ of their children.
A. most young C. the youngest
B. the younger D. younger
3. I can't hear you. Please speak ___________.
A. louder C. more loud
B. loudest D. the most loud
4. As we didn't have much money, we stayed at ______________ hotel that we could find.
A. a less expensive C. the least expensive
B. a more expensive D. the most expensive
5. They say that it's ______________ storm in ten years.
A. by far worse C. the worse
B. most worst D. the worst

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6. That happened in 1990, maybe even __________ .
A. earlier C. the earliest
B. more early D. the most early
7. I have no ___________ questions.
A. farther C. farthest
B. further D. furthest
8. I need a brown carpet. This carpet is_____________ than brown.
A. more red C. redder
B. most red D. reddest
9. She walked _________ trying to see the house numbers in the dark.
A. as slow as C. more slower
B. More slow D. more slowly
10. I think that it's___________ but still possible.
A. as likely as C. likelier
B. less likely D. more likely

3.1.2. Relative clauses

Relative clauses begin with relative pronoun such as who, which, that, whom and whose. These are two
main types of relative clauses. These are: defining relative clause and non-defining relative clause.
Here is the table to show
Antecedent Subject Object Possessive
Who Whom
People That Who (informal) Whose
That
Things Which Which
Animals That That Whose

A. Defining Relative Clause

Defining relative clause is also called as an identifying or a restrictive relative clause. This clause
describes the antecedent (preceding noun) to identify it from other nouns of the same group. This clause
is very important to understand the antecedent clearly because it identifies the person or thing that is
being talked about. In this case, antecedent is a noun or pronoun to which the relative pronoun and/or
clause refers to. In other word, an antecedent is a noun or pronoun which is before relative pronoun.
Notice that, the relative pronoun "that" can be used in place of all of the rest of relative pronouns.

Examples
The boy who has come to Fitche from Addis Ababa is my cousin.
The nurse who treated you very well yesterday will be transferred to black lion hospital after a year.
The student whom Fasika is greeting right now can speak more than five languages.
The teacher whom most students admire in our school has got the chance of scholarship.
The book which you bought at the stationery is enabling us equip more knowledge.
The cow which my mother is milking now can be sold by 10,000 birr.
The girl whose father works in high court is a student at Selale University.
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The dog whose tail has been cut is dangerous for stranger people.
The school where we have attended our secondary education has been improved its quality of
education.

B. Non-defining relative clause

Non defining relative clause does not select or specify the antecedent (a noun that comes before a
relative pronoun). This clause comes after a noun which is already definite. Therefore, the relative
clause does not define the antecedent except adding more information. In other words, non-defining
relative clause is not necessarily essential to define the antecedent because we already know who or
what it is. Notice that, the non-defining relative clause is separated by comma from the rest, and the
relative pronoun "that" cannot be used in place of all of the rest of relative pronouns.

Examples
The man, who was talking about the essence of politics, is a popular politician.
The farmer, who sells plenty of crops and vegetables, is the richest man in the village.
The girl, whom Daniel wants to marry, has beloved boyfriend.
The person, whom you have shown him the way to bus station, lives in Addis Ababa city.
The tigers, which were roaring the whole night, have eaten several goats many times.
The bag, which my son carries to school, is long lasting.
Abel's uncle, whose dress is colorful and fashion, is a multilingual speaker.

Meaning difference between defining relative clause and non-defining relative clause
Here below are provided pair of three different relative clauses to differentiate the meaning between the
defining relative clause and non-defining relative clause.

1. A. Ali's sister who lives in Gonder is a clever nurse.

B. Ali's sister, who lives in Gonder, is a clever nurse.

To explain the meaning, in the first sentence "Ali's sister who lives in Gonder is a clever nurse." implies
that Ali has two or more sisters and one of them is a nurse. On the contrary, in the second sentence,
"Ali's sister, who lives in Gonder, is a clever nurse." implies that Ali has only one sister.

2. A. The students who studied hard passed the examination.

B. The students, who studied hard, passed the examination.

In sentence A, it is defining relative clause. The sentence implies that there were several students. Some
of them studied hard and passed the examination, but some of the students did not study hard and they
did not pass the examination. In sentence B, it is non-defining relative clause. The sentence implies that
all of the students studied hard and all of them passed the examination.

3. A. The milk which was in the bottle was sour.

B. The milk, which was in the bottle, was sour.

The first sentence is defining relative clause, and it implies that some of the milk was sour only which
was in the bottle, but we infer that the milks which was somewhere else was not sour. However, the

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second sentence is non-defining relative clause. The sentence implies that all of the milk was sour and
all of it was in the bottle.

Activities
1. Join the sentences to write a longer one.
Example: A man phoned. He didn‘t say his name. The man who phoned didn’t say his name.
1. A woman opened the door. She was wearing a yellow dress.
The woman__________________________________________________________________
2. The people live next door to us. They are very nice.
The people__________________________________________________________________
3. A policeman stopped our car. He wasn‘t very friendly.
The policeman ______________________________________________________________
4. A boy broke the window. He ran away.
The boy __________________________________________________________________
5. The farmer works hard. He has got plenty of products.
The farmer_________________________________________________________________

2. Insert who/whom/that/which in the provided blank spaces

1. I met the woman __________ story was told yesterday.
2. The thief man __________ robbed our friends home has been arrested.
3. The house, __________ Ahmed purchased 10,000 birr 10 years ago is now worth.
4. The stranger man, __________ I saw an hour ago, told me to come back today.
5. The car __________ my friend repaired two years ago has been broken down again.
6. Do you know anybody _____________ wants to buy a car?
7. The pictures, _____________ were bought yesterday, have been attractive so far.
8. She always asks me questions _____________ are difficult to answer.
9. I have a friend _____________ is very good at repairing cars.
10. My neighbour, _____________ is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.
11. Alemitu _____________ children are at school all day is trying to get a job.
12. Why does he always wear clothes _____________ are too small for him?
3. Complete the conversation by putting relative pronouns into the gaps.
Carol: Did you watch that programme last night?
David: Which one?
Carol: The programme __________ I mentioned a couple of days ago. It is a new series __________
started last night.
David: No, I did not see it. Was it good?
Carol: Yes. It was about a group of friends __________ were at school together. Well, Rupert...
David: Who was Rupert?
Carol: He was an old student of the school __________ had become a doctor. He went to a party
__________ his old teachers organized. He met a lot of people __________ had been at school with him
many years before. They talked about the things __________ they did when they were at school. Then
suddenly, Rupert saw an old girl-friend __________ was dancing with John...
David: Don‘t tell me anymore. It‘s getting too complicated!
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4. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph with the appropriate relative pronouns given
below.
Football game, _________ has got its upmost pick time, becomes the interest, with varying degrees, of
almost all people under normal conditions, regardless of profession, age, religion, or ethnicity. A man,
______ desire is watching particular clubs, frequently asks,‖ When do Clubs X and Y play?‖ I have an
intimate friend with ________ I always watch football games. Whenever he watches games, he is
emotionally immersed and totally forgets where he is. Any football player __________ appears smart
like Christian Rolando or Messy is emotionally cheered up by many people, regardless of the clubs to
__________these players belong.

5. Underline the relative clause in the following sentences

1. The days which I enjoy them are Saturday and Sunday.
2. My niece who teats patient people at Black lion hospital is 40 years old.
3. My relatives whom I am missing them too much are coming to visit me next week.
4. The boy whose uncle lives in Addis Ababa is my elder brother‘s intimate friend.
5. Addis Ababa University where most of friends are attending is a recognised university for its quality
of education in Africa.
6. Most of the students who scored high in the university entrance examination joined Addis Ababa
Science and Technology University.
7. Students whose result is high during their graduation will be selected for job vacancy in
governmental and non-governmental organizations.

3.1.3. Adverbs
What is an Adverb?
An adverb is a word that is used to change, modify or qualify several types of words including
an adjective, a verb, a clause, another adverb, or any other type of word or phrase, with the exception
of determiners and adjectives, that directly modify nouns. A good way to understand adverbs is to think
about them as the words that provide context. Specifically, adverbs provide a description of how, where,
when, in what manner and to what extent something is done or happens. Normally, we can spot an
adverb by the fact that it often ends in –ly, but there are lots of adverbs that don‘t end in this way.
Moreover, adverbs can be used in many combinations with each other.

Traditionally considered a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of functions, making it
difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. However, spotting an adverb, especially one that
ends in -ly is easy. Adverbs normally help paint a fuller picture by describing how something happens,
such as
 When? She always arrives early.
 How? He drives carefully.
 Where? They go everywhere together.
 In what way? She eats slowly.
 To what extent? It is terribly hot.

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This function of providing more information about how something is done is called the adverbial
function, and it may be accomplished by using adverbial clauses and adverbial phrases as well as by
adverbs that stand alone.
There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which type of adverb you are
using. Remember these basics and using adverbs to make sentences more meaningful will be easier for
you.
Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs. Notice that the second of these two sentences is
much more interesting simply because it contains an adverb:
 The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don‘t really know much more about the
scene.)
 The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting happily, and
looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much more interesting picture in your head when
you know how or why the dog is running.)
Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters ―-ly‖ to adjectives. This makes it very easy to
identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to this rule; everywhere,
nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.
An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it conveys. For
example:
 My math teacher is incredibly patient.
 This movie is more interesting than the first one.
As you read the following adverb examples, you‘ll notice how these useful words modify other words
and phrases by providing information about the place, time, manner, certainty, frequency, or other
circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs or verb phrases in the sentences.
Types of Adverbs
3.1.3.1. Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner will explain how an action is carried out. Very often adverbs of manner are
adjectives with -ly added to the end, but this is certainly not always the case. In fact, some adverbs of
manner will have the same spelling as the adjective form.
Some examples of adverbs of manner include:
1. Slowly
2. Rapidly
3. Clumsily
4. Badly
5. Diligently
6. Sweetly
7. Warmly
8. Sadly

Adverb of manner examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
A. She passed the exam easily.
B. They walk quickly to catch the train.

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 C. The dinner party went badly.
D. John answered the question correctly.

Notice how the adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjectives bad, correct and quick, although there
is a slight spelling change when forming an adverb with the adjective easy.
As mentioned, some adverbs of manner take the same spelling as the adjective and never add an -ly to
the end:
1. The boys had worked hard.
2. The car drives
3. Julia dances well.

3.1.3.2. Adverbs of place

An adverb of place, sometimes called spatial adverbs, will help explain where an action happens.
Adverbs of place will be associated with the action of the verb in a sentence, providing context for
direction, distance and position: southeast, everywhere, up, left, close by, back, inside, around. These
terms don‘t usually end in -ly.
Adverbs of place examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
Directions
A. New York is located north of Philadelphia.
B. They traveled down the mountainside.
C. First, I looked here, and then I looked there, but I can‘t find them anywhere.
Notice that here and there are often used at the beginning of a sentence to express emphasis or in
exclamation.
a) Here comes the sun.
b) There is love in the air.
c) Here you are!
Many times, adverbs of place can be used as prepositions as well. The difference is, when the phrase is
used as an adverb, it is modifying a verb; when it is used as a preposition, it is always followed by a
noun.
 New York is located north of Philadelphia -> New York is on the map.
 They travelled down river -> They travelled in the first compartment.
 That puppy was walking around by itself-> We put a collar around its neck.
Distance
 There was a deli
 Jane is moving far away.
 Carly is sitting close to me.
Position
 The treasure lies underneath the box.
 The cat is sleeping on the bed.
 Why are you standing in the middle of the dancefloor?

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In addition, some adverbs of position will refer to a direction of movement. These often end in -ward or
-wards.
 Oscar travelled onward to Los Angeles.
 Hannah looked upwards to the heavens.
 Molly, move forward to the front of the queue, please.

3.1.3.3. Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are used to express time or how often something occurs. Adverbs of frequency can
be split two main groups. The first, adverbs of indefinite frequency, are terms that have an unclear
meaning as to how long are how often something occurs: usually, always, normally. These adverbs will
usually be placed after the main verb or between the auxiliary verb and infinitive.
Adverbs of frequency examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
 The adverb is usually placed before the main verb.
 I can normally make the shot.
 I will always love
Adverbs of definite frequency will usually be placed at the end of the sentence.
 We get paid hourly.
 I come here
 The situation seems to change monthly.
 The newspaper is bought daily.

3.1.3.4. Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time, while seemingly similar to adverbs of frequency, tell us when something happens.
Adverbs of time are usually placed at the end of a sentence.
Adverbs of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
 I will see you
 Harvey forgot his lunch yesterday and again today.
 I have to go now.
 We first met Julie last year.
While it‘s almost always correct to have the adverb of time at the end of the sentence, you can place it at
the start of the sentence to put a different emphasis on the time if it is important to the context.
 Last year was the worst year of my life.
 Tomorrow our fate will be sealed.
 Yesterday my troubles seemed so far away.

3.1.3.5. Adverbs of Purpose

Adverbs of purpose, sometimes called adverbs of reason, help to describe why something happened.
They can come in the form of individual words – so, since, thus, because – but also clauses – so that, in
order to. Notice in the examples that the adverbs of purpose are used to connect sentences that wouldn‘t
make sense if they were formed alone.

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Adverbs of purpose examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
 I was sick, thus didn‘t go to work today.
 I started jogging so that I wouldn‘t be late.
 Because I was late, I jogged a little faster.
 Since it‘s your birthday, I will buy you a gift.

3.1.3.6. Positions of Adverbs

The positions of adverbs are not a fixed or set thing. As you have seen, adverbs can appear in different
position in a sentence. However, there are some rules that help us decide where an adverb should be
positioned. The rules will be different depending on whether the adverb is acting to modify an adjective
or another adverb, a verb or what type of adverb it is.
Positional adverb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
Adverb position with adjectives and other adverbs
These adverbs will usually be placed before the adjective or adverb being modified:
 We gave them a really tough match. The adverb really modifies the adjective tough.
 It was quite windy that night. The adverb quite modifies the adjective windy.
 We don‘t go to the movies terribly often. The adverb terribly modifies the adverb often.

Adverb position with verbs

This can be a bit trickier because, it will depend on the type of adverb – place, position, time etc. – and
there are many exceptions to the rules. However, a basic set of guidelines is shown below:
Adverbs of manner or place are usually positioned at the end of the sentence:
 She laughed timidly.
 I stroked the cat gently.
 Janine lived here.
 There is money everywhere.
As mentioned, if the adverb is of definite time it will be placed at the end of the sentence.
 I did it yesterday.
 We can discuss it tomorrow.
 Let‘s go to Paris next week.
However, if it is an indefinite period of time, it will go between the subject and main verb.
 We often go to Paris in the springtime.
 Debbie regularly swims here.
 Bobby and Audrey always loved fishing by the lake.
Order of Adverbs
Adverb order is so important it has clear rules. It‘s already mentioned that some adverbs will act to
modify another, but how do you decide the structure of a sentence with several adverbs? Thankfully,
there is a simple set of rules to follow, called the order of adverbs. Handily, the order of adverbs,
sometimes also called the royal order of adverbs, can help us determine sentence structure too. In short,
the adverbs get preference (are placed first) in the following order:

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 1. Adverbs of manner.
2. Adverbs of place.
3. Adverbs of frequency.
4. Adverbs of time.
5. Adverbs of purpose.

Consider this sentence:

I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place) every morning (frequency) before
school (time) because (purpose) I might miss the bus.
While it is good to remember the order of adverbs, there is always flexibility with language, and we
have already mentioned that adverbs of time and frequency can be placed at the start of a sentence to
change the emphasis. So, bottom line: think of the order of adverbs as more of a guideline than a rule
that can‘t be broken.
Examples of Adverbs
As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs have been italicized for easy
identification. Consider how replacing the existing adverbs with different ones would change the
meaning of each sentence.
1) She was walking rapidly.
2) The kids love playing together in the sandbox.
3) Please come inside now.
4) His jokes are always very
5) You don‘t really care, do you?

Adverbs Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how adverbs work. Choose the
best answer to complete each sentence.
1. The driver stopped the bus _______________.
A. Financially C. Abruptly
B. Exactly. D. Now
2. During autumn, colorful leaves can be seen falling ______________ from trees.
A. Everywhere C. Gently
B. Very D. Loudly
3. My grandmother always smiled _______________.
A. Cheerfully C. Never
B. Sadly D. Yesterday
4. After the party, confetti was strewn _________________.
A. Blandly C. Later
B. Everywhere D. Carefully

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 5. It‘s time to go ____________.
A. Before C. Yesterday
B. Now D. Lightly

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate adverb.

1. She worked ……………………. and passed the test.
A. Hard
B. hardly
2. She will be here ……………………….
A. Soon
B. soonly
3. We ……………………. see tigers or lions.
A. Rarely
B. scarcely
4. This book is …………………….. interesting.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. too
B. very
C. so
5. He often comes …………………… to school.
A. late
B. lately
6. I often feel …………………………. about it.
A. bad
B. badly
7. The refugees ……………………….. need food and medicine.
A. bad
B. badly
8. They ran ………………………..
A. fast
B. fastly
9. The task was ………………………… easy.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. rather
B. quite
C. fairly
10. These shoes are …………………….. Uncomfortable.
A. rather
B. fairly
11. The lecture was …………………….. boring.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. quite
B. rather

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 C. fairly
12. I have had ……………………… any rest since morning.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. rarely
B. hardly
C. scarcely

Adverbs List
There are many different words that function as adverbs. The following list is broken down into
segments which list adverbs by function. After reading, you will be able to think of additional adverbs to
add to your own list – after all, there are thousands.
Many adverbs end in ―-ly‖. This makes it very easy to spot the adverbs in most sentences.
Abruptly Mildly
Boldly Naughtily
Carefully Openly
Deliberately Poorly
Excitedly Quickly
Financially Sadly
Horribly Terribly
Willingly Yearly

Some adverbs tell us where the action happened. These are known as adverbs of place.
Everywhere Underground
Here There
Inside Upstairs

Certain adverbs let us know when or how often the action happened. These are known as adverbs
of time and adverbs of frequency.
After Now
Always Today
Before Yesterday
Later
Many adverbs tell us the extent of the action.
Almost Quite
Enough Rather
So Very
Too
Some adverbs are used as intensifiers.
Absolutely Heartily
Certain Really
Completely
Certain adverbs called adverbs of manner tell us about the way in which something was done.
Briskly Randomly
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 Cheerfully Willingly
Expectantly
Some groups of words serve the same functions as adverbs. These are known as adverb clauses.

3.1.4. Adjectives and prepositions

An adjective is a word that describes something (a noun) or someone (a person).

Adjectives sometimes appear after the verb To Be

 He is short.
 She is tall.
Adjectives sometimes appear before a noun.
 Red car
 Old hat
BUT… Sometimes you want to use more than one adjective to describe something (or someone). What
happens if a hat is both old AND ugly?
Do we say… an ugly old hat OR an old ugly hat?
An ugly old hat is correct because a certain order for adjectives is expected
(Note, you may hear the other version old ugly hat, though it doesn't sound natural)
So what is the correct order of adjectives when we put them before a noun or the thing they describe?
Adjectives are words used to describe a person, place, or thing, for example:
The tall man in the red shirt is a friend of mine.
We drove along a quiet road until reaching a small town.

Types of Adjectives
Before the adjectives you will normally have the Determiner.

Determiner: The determiner tells us if the noun is singular or plural, definite or indefinite
 a, an, the, my, your, four, those, some, etc.
And then we have the adjectives that refer to…
Opinion: Explains what we think about something. This is usually our opinion, attitude or observations.
These adjectives almost always come before all other adjectives.
 beautiful, boring, stupid, delicious, useful, lovely, comfortable
Size: Tells us how big or small something is.
 big, small, tall, huge, tiny
Shape / Weight / Length: Tells about the shape of something or how long or short it is. It can also refer
to the weight of someone or something.
 round, square, circular, skinny, fat, heavy, straight, long, short,
Condition: Tells us the general condition or state of something
 broken, cold, hot, wet, hungry, rich, easy, difficult, dirty
Age: Tells us how old someone or something is.
 old, young, new, ancient, antique
Colour: The colour or approximate colour of something.
 green, white, blue, reddish, purple
Pattern: The pattern or design of something.
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  striped, spotted, checked, flowery
Origin: Tells us where something is from.
 American, British, Italian, eastern, Australian, Chilean
Material: What is the thing made of or constructed of?
 gold, wooden, silk, paper, synthetic, cotton, woollen
Purpose/Qualifier/Use: What is it for? These adjectives often end in –ing.
 sleeping (bag), gardening (gloves), shopping (bag), wedding (dress)
If you look at the examples above, you can ask… what are the gloves used for? (gardening) What is the
bag used for? (shopping)
And after these adjectives we have the noun.
Noun: The person or thing that is being described
Examples of the order of adjectives before a noun
Something to have in mind is that it does not sound natural using three or more adjectives in the same
sentence and it is very rare to hear four adjectives together before a noun.
 A big fat dog.
 An interesting old Indian rug.
 A striped silk shirt
 Some comfortable black sleeping bags
 Four small round wooden tables
 Those funny little old men
 I‘m reading an interesting book.

Choose the correct answer

1. Those are probably the ___________ curtains in the store.
A. Fancyest C. most fanciest
B. Fanciest
2. Uncle Carl is really ______________________ man.
A. an old sweet C. a sweet old
B. a sweet
3. The Karmen-Ghia used to be _________________ sportscar.
A. a fine German C. a fine, German
B. a German, fine
4. Everyone was home for the holidays. What could make for ___________ Christmas than that?
A. a merrier C. a merryer
B. the merriest
5. They grew up in ___________________ house in Mexico City.
A. a comfortable, little C. a comfortable little
B. a little, comfortable
6. Diehard is the ____________ movie I've ever seen.
A. most excited C. most excitable
B. most exciting

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 7. Tashonda wanted to take a course with _____________________ professor.
A. that interesting new Japanese economics C. that interesting, new, Japanese, economics
B. that Japanese interesting, new economics
8. Of all the mechanics in the shop, Jerzy is surely ______________ .
A. the less competent. C. the competentest.
B. the least competent.
9. In the fall, the valleys tend to be ___________ than the hilltops.
A. Foggy C. foggier
B. more foggier
10. My cold is definitely _________ this morning.
A. Worse C. Worser
B. Worst
11. We saw _____ animals at the zoo.
A. Much C. So Many
B. Many D. All
12. It's raining ______
A. Heavy C. Heavily
B. Heavier D. Heaviest
13. I don‘t have ______ friends.
A. Much More C. So Many None of the Above
B. Many
14. it‘s a small problem
A. Small C. It's
B. A D. None
15. The brides were much _______ than the grooms.
A. Young C. Youngest
B. Younger D. None
16. I like hot food
A. I C. Food
B. Hot D. like
17. The bus is slow.
A. Is C. The
B. Slow D. bus
18. The eagle was _______ than the bluebird.
A. Big C. Biggest
B. Bigger D. most big
19. Which words are sound adjectives?
A. large, small, gigantic C. red, green, yellow
B. loud, quiet, soothing D. rough, smooth, cold
20. He is ________ than his neighbors.
A. Rich C. Richest
B. Richer D. None

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21. He fishes with _________ success than I do.
A. Great C. Greatest
B. Greater D. None
22. The car sustained heavy damage in the accident.
A. Car C. Damage
B. Heavy D. the
23. His situation was very __________
A. Serious C. Seriously
B. Seriousness D. None of the Above
24. Every man has his duties.
A. Every C. Duties.
B. Has D. man
25. He died a glorious death.
A. He C. A
B. Death D. glorious
26. Two students didn't do ________ mathematics homework.
A. Their C. Those
B. Them D. None
27. The ________ thing of all was that his son was rude to him.
A. Bad C. Worst
B. Worse D. baddest
28. Thomas likes to play basketball, __________ plays it very well.
A. It C. He
B. They D. we
29. Josh is the ____________ person in his family.
A. Tall C. Tallest
B. Taller D. None
30. She arrived early.
A. early C. arrived
B. she D. a
31. I want a _________ haircut.
A. Different C. New
B. Variety D. style
32. I didn‘t get _____ sleep last night.
A. More C. Many
B. Much D. heavy
33. She walks
A. quickly C. quicker
B. quick D. quickest
34. Marie is a good writer. She writes
A. well C. easier
B. perfect D. none

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35. He is much ________ now.
A. Good C. Best
B. Better D. All of the above

Definition of a Preposition
A preposition is defined as ―a word that connects a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun to another word,
esp. to a verb, another noun, or an adjective‖, according to the Cambridge Dictionary. The Oxford
Learner‘s Dictionary says that a preposition is ―a word or group of words, such as in, from, to, out
of and on behalf of, used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position, time or method.‖
The Collins Dictionary defines a preposition as ―a word such as ‗by‘, ‗for‘, ‗into‘, or ‗with‘ which
usually has a noun group as its object.‖ The Merriam Webster Dictionary provides a slightly different
definition. According to it, a preposition is defined as ―a function word that typically combines with a
noun phrase to form a phrase which usually expresses a modification or predication.‖

Uses of Prepositions
Prepositions are seen to show some key characteristics and perform some vital functions when used in
sentences. Let us look at the various uses of prepositions in English.
 They are used to show the direction of something.
 They can refer to the time of something happening.
 They can be used to denote the position or location of an object in the sentence.
 They are also used to represent spatial relationships.
 Prepositional phrases, in particular, can be used to do all of these when used in sentences.
Types of Prepositions
Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they can be divided into four main types. They
are as follows:
1. Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.
For example:
 We will be meeting on Friday.
 The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m.
 Can you come after some time?
 We have been asked to work from home until the end of May.
 The whole country was asked to stay home during the pandemic to ensure safety and
well-being.
2. Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.
For example:
 I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.

 Henry hid behind the door.

 The dog jumped over the fence.
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  Can you place the red roses in between the white daisies?
 He was waiting in front of the EB office.
3. Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction in which something travels or moves.
For example:
 The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw him.
 Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.
 Veena passed the book to Priya.
 When will Salvia be returning from London?
 Neena lives across the street.
4. Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a particular object.
For example:
 Kenny would be staying at his cousin‘s place for the weekend.

 Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after you play.
 I lay on the floor for a really long time.
5. Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an object‘s movement away from the
source and towards a source.
For example:
 Navya sat leaning against the wall.
 The circus was stationed opposite the children‘s park.
 Lakshmi sat beneath the trees.
 Shankar sat beside the stairs.
 We spent the evening walking around the lake.
6. Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition and a noun (the object it is affecting).
For example:
 See to it that you reach the venue on time.
 The medicines you asked for are out of stock.
 Why don‘t we try taking classes outside for a change.
 Make sure you fill in all the forms at once.
 Salmaan was able to finish it only with the help of his friends.

Examples of Prepositions Used in Sentences

To know how exactly prepositions can be used in sentences, check out the following sentences.
 I will be going to church in the morning.

 She placed the plates on the dining table.

 Baskar found the cat hiding under the bed.
 Will you be with Raimy or Mazeeka?

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  I love sitting on the beach at night.
 Rachel met Phoebe by the lake.
 Finn stood opposite Lisa.
 The grocery store is right in front of the bus stop.

Examples of Prepositions

On At In Over

Around Through Opposite to In front of

Behind Beneath Beside Above

Below Under Underneath Down

Up Out With Into

Onto Across After Before

Near Among Along Between

Toward Away From To

Next to By Until About

My brother climbed onto the roof.

 It feels great to sit beneath the trees and read.

List of Most Popular Prepositions for Everyday Communication

Given below is an extensive list of prepositions that you can make use of in your daily communication.

Commonly Confused Prepositions

With the huge number of prepositions in the English language, it almost seems impossible to have no
confusion at all. Here is a list of prepositions that cause confusion among the users of the language.

In/On/At
These three prepositions can be used to depict both time and position. Take a look at the table below to
have a better understanding of how it works.

Prepositions of Place

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In On At

Can be used to show general Can be used to refer to Can be used to refer to
locations like neighbourhoods, more specific locations like very specific locations
cities, countries and places with a streets, avenues, islands,
boundary surfaces and large vehicles

For example: I live in India. For example: Latha For example: You can
We will be staying in a hotel stays on the fourth floor. find us at the park.
tonight. The book you are looking She is at home now.
for is on the rack.

Prepositions of Time

In On At

Can be used to depict general Can be used to Can be used to denote very
timings like months, years, refer to dates, days specific time, times of the day
centuries and parts of days of the week, days and holidays without ‗day‘ (for
of the month and example – Easter)
holidays with ‗day‘
(for example –
Republic day)

For example: Dan was For example: For example: We decided to

born in 2000. There is a national meet at 4 p.m.
Technological development in the parade every I wished my brother at midnight.
field of science and medicine year on Republic
reached its zenith in the 21st day.
century. All of us will be at
home on Christmas
day.

 To/From
To and from are two other prepositions that create confusion.

To From

Used to denote the end location Used to denote the starting location

For example: We went to Sri Lanka For example: Have you

with my family. started from Bangalore?

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I gave my coat to Sandra. I received a letter from my father.

 By/With
The prepositions by and with have various meanings. They sometimes appear to be confusing for a
second language learner of English

By With

Near or next to. In the company of

For example: Is the post office by the For example: Glint went to
bus stop? Chennai with his friends.

A given time or not later than In addition to

For example: See that you reach the For example: would you like to have
exam hall by 8:30 a.m. tea with breakfast?

Denotes the doer of the action By means of

mentioned in a sentence For example: I cut my birthday
For example: The poem was cake with a fruit knife.
written by my brother.

COMMON ADJECTIVE & PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS
There are many cases in which adjectives are combined with prepositions – but there is no rule stating
when to use which combination. As you read and listen to more English, you will become more and
more familiar with how these adjective-prepositions combinations are used.

Here are a few of the most common combinations of adjectives and prepositions in English:

AT – SURPRISED AT, ANGRY AT, GOOD AT, TERRIBLE AT

I‘m surprised at how fast my students are learning.
My mother is angry at me because I forgot her birthday.
Jamila is good at songwriting and painting.
He‘s terrible at math – he failed the class twice!

OF – PROUD OF, AFRAID OF, FOND OF, FULL OF

You practiced a lot and gave a great performance – I‘m proud of you!
Jewell is afraid of swimming in the ocean.
The kids are very fond of the puppy.
The mall is always full of teenagers on the weekend.

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WITH – SATISFIED WITH, BUSY WITH, FED UP WITH, ASSOCIATED WITH
I wasn‘t satisfied with the customer service at the bank.
We‘ve been working overtime lately because we‘ve been busy with a new project.
I was fed up with my boyfriend‘s lies, so I ended the relationship.
There are many health risks associated with smoking.

IN – DISAPPOINTED IN, SKILLED IN, INTERESTED IN, INVOLVED IN

The teacher was disappointed in the behavior of the class.
She was highly skilled in physics and chemistry.
Giovanni is interested in classic English literature.
Marlene is very involved in volunteer work.
*Notice that in can have a similar function to at. Ex) She’s skilled at soccer. She’s skilled in playing
soccer.
FOR – KNOWN FOR, GOOD FOR, TERRIBLE FOR, EXCELLENT FOR
Brazil is known for its wonderful music and friendly people.
Chocolate and red wine are actually good for your heart!
Looking at screens all day is bad for your eyesight.
Playing memory games is excellent for improving your brain function.

TO – MARRIED TO, FRIENDLY TO, SIMILAR TO, RUDE TO

He‘s married to an Australian woman.
Everyone I met on the trip was friendly to me.
The movie is very similar to the book.
The little boy was punished after being rude to his grandfather.

3.1.5. Reported Speech

When we use reported speech, we are referring to something that was said either by ourselves or by
someone else in the past. An example of this might be ‗he said that he was going shopping.‘

This type of speech is used very frequently during both spoken and written examples of English and it is
an important part of the language which any English student will find useful to learn. In this section, we
are going to look at types of reported speech as well as how we can use it.

What is Reported Speech?

Reported speech is simply when we tell somebody what someone else said. You can do this in your
writing, or in speech. Reported speech is very different from direct speech, which is when you show
what somebody said in the exact way that they said it. In reported speech though, you do not need to
quote somebody directly.

Instead, we use a reporting verb, such as ‗say‘ or ‗ask‘. These reporting verbs are used to report the
speech to someone else. There are many different reporting verbs that can be used, and we‘ll try to use
different ones throughout this article to show you some examples, but you can always do some research
too if you want to learn more examples for yourself.
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In short, reported speech is the linguistic technique that we use to tell somebody what someone
else‘s direct speech was. In reported speech though, you may need to make certain changes to the
grammar to make the sentence make sense. So, we‘ll look at some grammar change examples below and
highlight what needs to be changed.

Reported Speech Examples

When we use reported speech, we are usually talking about the past (because obviously, the person who
spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
 Direct speech: I’ve lost my umbrella.
 Reported speech: He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.

Reported Speech Rules

When changing from direct to indirect speech, you need to change the grammar in certain ways. In this
section, we are going to be looking a little more closely at direct and indirect speech and how they are
used.

Verb Tense Changes in Reported Speech

Present
If the reporting verb is in the present tense, then very little needs to be done to the direct speech sentence
to change it. Here‘s an example.
 Direct speech: I like dogs.
 Reported speech: She says she likes dogs.

Here nothing really needed to be changed except the pronoun, because you are now talking about
somebody else, so ‗I‘ becomes ‗She‘ or ‗He‘. The tense is still the same because ‗says‘ is the present
tense version of the reporting verb. But what happens if the sentence needs to be changed to past tense?

Past
Sometimes it is necessary to change the reporting verb into the past tense if what was said is no longer
relevant, or was said sometime in the past. Here are the changes that would need to be made.
 Direct speech: I like dogs.

 Reported speech: She said she liked dogs.

As well as changing the pronouns here, we‘ve had to change the tense of both the reporting verb and the
verb. So, ‗says‘ becomes ‗said‘ and ‗like‘ becomes ‗liked‘.

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Direct and indirect speech

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, verb tense forms usually need to change.
The tenses generally move backward in this way:
 Present Simple Tense into Past Simple Tense
 Present Continuous Tense into Past Continuous Tense
 Present Perfect Tense into Past Perfect Tense
 Past Simple Tense into Past Perfect Tense
 Past Continuous Tense into Past Perfect Continuous Tense
 Past Perfect Tense (the tense remains unchanged)

Future
If somebody is talking about what will happen in the future then, again, you will need to change the
tense of the reporting verb.
 Direct speech: I shall leave in a moment.
 Reported speech: She said that she would leave in a moment.
Notice how ‗shall‘ and ―will‖ become ‗would‘ here in order for it to make sense.
 Will into Would
 Will be into Would be
 Will have into Would have
 Will have been into Would have been

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Modal verbs actually have a very interesting relationship with reported speech, so we‘ll look at that
below too.

Modal Verbs and Reported Speech

We‘ve already covered modal verbs in another article, but it‘s interesting to see how they are changed in
reported speech.
 Can into Could
 Could (The verb remains unchanged)
 Have to into Had to
 Must into Must/Had to
 May into Might
 Might (The verb remains unchanged)
 Should (The verb remains unchanged)
Let‘s take a look at some examples.
 Direct speech: Will I see you later?
 Reported speech: He asked if he would see me later.

In the direct speech example you can see the modal verb ‗will‘ being used to ask a question. Notice how
in reported speech the modal verb ‗will‘ and the reporting verb ‗ask‘ are both written in the past tense.
So, ‗will‘ becomes ‗would‘ and ‗ask‘ becomes ‗asked‘. It‘s important in reported speech to make sure
that each part of the sentence is in the same tense.
Sometimes though, modal verbs do not need to change tense because they already read correctly. Here‘s
an example.
 Direct speech: I should go to the park.
 Reported speech: He told me he should go to the park.
Notice that nothing needed to be changed here to fit the past tense reporting verb ‗told‘. ‗Should‘ does
not need to be changed grammatically for either sentence to make sense. But you will notice that
because we decided to use the reporting verb ‗told‘ instead of ‗said‘, we had to include the pronoun ‗me‘
for it to make sense.
 Reported speech: He told me he should go to the park.
 Reported speech: He said he should go to the park.

Both of these sentences make grammatical sense, because we added the pronoun ‗me‘ after ‗told‘ in the
first sentence, but we didn‘t after ‗said‘ in the second one. Here is the incorrect versions so you can see
why it doesn‘t work grammatically:
 Incorrect reported speech: He told he should go to the park.
 Incorrect reported speech: He said me he should go to the park.

In order to make the top one make sense, we need to add ‗me‘ like we did in the correct examples above.
In order to make the second one make sense, we would either have to remove ‗me‘ like we did in the
correct one above, or we would have to add another word. So that it looked like this.
 Reported speech: He said to me he should go to the park.

The above sentence makes sense, but sometimes you have to watch your wording of certain things to
make sure that you aren‘t over-speaking/writing. This can be a problem if you are trying to get your
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point across quickly. You should always choose the option that is quickest to say/write because it
sounds/looks better and you run less risk of making a grammatical mistake.

This guide could not possibly be extensive, because there are many grammar rules that need to be
followed when reporting speech, but they vary wildly. The take-home message should really be that
when reporting speech, it is important to think carefully about what you are going to say or write, so you
know it makes sense. Hopefully, this guide served as a good starting point though, so you can identify
reported speech now, and start to think about which grammar rules are applied.

Direct and Indirect Speech

Changes in Time and Place in Reported Speech
Time and place references often have to change in Indirect Speech
 Now –> Then Tomorrow –> The following day/ The next day/ The day after
 Today –> That day Next week –> The following week/ The next week/ The week after
 Here –> There Yesterday –> The previous day/ The day before
 This –> That Last week –> The previous week/ The week before
 Ago –> Previously/ Before Tonight –> That night

Changes in Time and Place in Reported Speech

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No Change in Verb Tenses in Reported Speech
There is no change in verb tenses in Indirect Speech when:
 The introductory verb is in the Present, Present Perfect or Future.
 If the reported sentence deals with a fact or general truth.
 The reported sentence contains a time clause.
 The verb of the sentence is in the unreal past (the second or the third conditional).
 The subjunctive stays unchanged in the subordinate clause.
 Had better, could, would, used to, should, might, ought to and mustn’t remain unchanged.
 If the speaker reports something immediately or soon after it was said.

No Change in Verb Tenses in Reported Speech

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Reporting Verbs in Indirect Speech
List of reporting verbs in reported speech.
 Tell, say, ask.
 Verb + that + clause: complain, deny, explain, exclaim, remark, promise, boast, inform
somebody, claim, agree, suggest.
 Verb + to + infinitive: agree, offer, refuse, demand, threaten, promise, claim.
 Verb + indirect object + to + infinitive: advise, allow, beg, command, encourage, forbid,
invite, want, instruct, permit, urge, order, remind, warn.
 Verb + ―ing‖ form: admit (to), accuse somebody of, apologize for, boast about/ of, complain to
somebody of, deny, insist on, suggest.
 Verb + how: explain to somebody.
 Wonder.
Introductory Verbs in Indirect Speech

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Introductory Verbs in Indirect Speech

Changes of Pronouns in Reported Speech

In indirect speech, you need to be careful with personal pronouns. They need to be changed according to
the situation. You need to know the context.

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Changes of Pronouns in Indirect Speech |

Reported Questions in English

When you are changing a question from direct speech into indirect speech, you follow the same kinds of
rules as for statements.
To report a question, we use verbs such as inquire, wonder, want to know, ask…

Reported Questions in English

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Reported Commands and Requests in English
Reported Orders, Commands, and Requests are formed using the to-infinitive and not to-infinitive.
The reporting verbs for the orders/ commands/ requests are order, shout, demand, warn, beg, command,
tell, insist, beseech, threaten, implore, ask, propose, forbid…
When we change from direct to indirect speech, the pronoun and tense changes are also needed.

Reported Commands and Requests in English

Exercise 1
Choose the correct form to complete the sentences below.
1) 1'I work in a bank.' ⇒ He said that he_________ in a bank.
2) 'I am working today.' ⇒ She told us she________ that day.
3) 'I've been ill for a couple of weeks.' ⇒ He told me he________ for a couple of weeks.
4) 'I was at the doctor all morning.' ⇒ She told me that she________ at the doctor all morning.
5) 'I'll lend you the money .' ⇒ He told me he___________ me the money.
6) 'I can't do it without your help.' ⇒ She said she___________ it without my help.
7) 'The meeting may start early.' ⇒ He told us that the meeting____________ early.
8) 'I must leave early today.' ⇒ He said that he_______________ early that day.
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 9) 'You should talk to Jim.' ⇒ She said that I___________ to Jim.
10) 'Get out!' ⇒ She told me____________.

Rewrite the following sentences in the reported speech.

1. "It is too late to apologize," I said.
I said it_____________ too late to apologize.
2. "I have replied to them," claimed Peter.
Peter claimed that______________ to them.
3. "I met you yesterday," he told me.
He told me he had met me________________ .
4. "I cannot come to your birthday party," explained Mary.
Mary explained that______________ to my birthday party.
5. "I could fall down the stairs," said my grandma.
My grandma said___________________ down the stairs.
6. "I will pay for it tomorrow," he suggested.
He suggested he would pay for it________________ .
7. "The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world," explained our teacher.
Our teacher explained that the Himalayas________________ the highest mountains in the world.
8. "I may lend you some money," promised Bill.
Bill promised_____________________ some money.
9. "I have been watching a romantic film," replied Mary.
Mary replied that___________________ a romantic film.
10. "Claire must rest a little bit," said the doctor.
The doctor said Claire___________ a little bit.
11. "I have not done the shopping today," I explained to my mum last Friday.
I explained to my mum last Friday that I had not done the shopping___________ .
12. "If I was twenty years younger, I would accept it," he thought.
He thought that if________________ twenty years younger, he would accept it.
13. "I was with him at the disco last week," admitted Jill.
Jill admitted that_____________with him at the disco the previous week.
14. "You needn't change your shoes in our house," she reminded me.
She reminded me that I________________ my shoes in their house.
15. "I am calling my mum because of the boat trip," she said.
She said she__________________ her mum because of the boat trip.
16. "I will finish this picture tomorrow," supposed Diana.
Diana supposed that she would finish_____________ picture the next day.
17. "I would buy the house on the coast," she said.
She said_____________ the house on the coast.
18. "Greg used to be my best friend from school," he told us.
He told us Greg____________ his best friend from school.

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 Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Maria said, "It is my car." Convert it into indirect speech.

A. Maria said that it is my car.
B. Maria said that it is her car.
C. Maria said that it was my car.
D. Maria said that it was her car.
2. Raj said, "I work here every day." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Raj said that he worked here yesterday.
B. Raj said that he worked there everyday.
C. Raj said that he worked here everyday.
D. Raj said that he worked everyday.
3. Monica said, "I have finished my homework." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Monica said that she had finished her homework.
B. Monica said that she had finished my homework.
C. Monica said that she has finished her homework.
D. Monica said that she has finished my homework."
4. My daughter said to me, "I can sleep alone." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. My daughter said to me that she can sleep alone."
B. My daughter told me that she can sleep alone."
C. My daughter said to me that she could sleep alone."
D. My daughter told me that she could sleep alone."
5. Leo said, "My friend may come tonight." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Leo said that his friend might come tonight.
B. Leo said that his friend might come that night.
C. Leo said that his friend might go that night.
D. Leo said that his friend might go tonight.
6. Jullie said to me, "I have to win this game." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Jullie told me that she must win this game.
B. Jullie told me that she had to win that game.
C. Jullie told me that she had to win this game.
D. Jullie told me that she must win that game.
7. He said, "I am a man." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. He said that he was a man.
B. He said that he is a man.
C. He said that I am a man.
D. He said that I was a man.
8. Mary says, "I am coming here." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Mary says that she is coming there.
B. Mary says that she is coming here.
C. Mary says that she was coming there.
D. Mary says that she was coming here.

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9. My brother said, "I went to school yesterday." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. My brother said that he had gone to school yesterday.
B. My brother said that he had gone to school the day after.
C. My brother said that he had gone to school the previous day.
D. My brother said that he had gone to school the next day.
10. Mathew said, "I will go to school next year." Convert it into indirect speech.
A. Mathew said that he would go to school the year before.
B. Mathew said that he would go to school the following year.
C. Mathew said that he would come to school the year before.
D. Mathew said that he would come to school the year after.

3.2. Reading Comprehension

What is involved in reading? Reading involves recognizing words, comprehending ideas, guessing the
meaning of new words contextually, inferring hidden ideas, analyzing and evaluating the reading text.
Below is reading comprehension about chewing chat.

A) Pre- Reading Activity

Before reading the following passage, try to give answers to these questions. Share your answers
with your partner.
1) Look at the title. What do you think is the text about?
2) Do you think that chewing chat has positive or negative impact in our life?

Chewing Chat
1. Chewing Chat is a traditional practice which has continued and spread over many years. Different
groups hold different views on the question of chewing. The question is, should it be encouraged as a
cultural practice or be banned for medical reasons? This is a serious problem in eastern African
countries where chat chewing has reached epidemic proportions among the student population.

2. Chewers, on the other hand, contend that it does postpone or wad off fatigue and contributes to
concentration of mind as a stimulant. They also claim that it reduces the chewer‘s desire for food, drink
and sexual provoke which may distract his concentration on studies. At any rate, it is the lesser of
several evils such as drinking, gambling and smoking. It has also been established as a means of
generating considerable income.

3. Medical authorities, however, have questioned if any of these apparent advantages are real. They
maintain that it leads to loss of appetite, malnutrition, and addiction, state of sleeplessness and impotent,
which results in ineffective sexual intercourse with a partner. The chewer‘s physical and moral stamina
would, thus, gradually weaken. After all, chewing is accompanied by chain smoking and excessive
drinking known as Chebsi.

4. In other words, the habit, once, deep-rooted becomes unbreakable that the student chewer will
gradually tend himself spending precious hours sitting around fellow chewers and gossiping or wasting
time when he should be studying or pursuing his lessons. When one compares the evidence from

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reputable medical authorities with the hearsay evidence of traders and users of chat, the advantages of
chat appear to be negligible in comparison to its disadvantages.

5. Nowadays, this habit has reached epidemic proportions not only in central and south –eastern Africa
but also in all Universities of this country including north-western regions where it was abominable
before two or three decades ago. Authorities in charge of such affairs should therefore, ban this product
by law or by tradition to save the generation from an irresistible drug addiction.

Comprehension Questions
Part One: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write it on the space provided. (1
point each)
_____1.The supporters of this practice argue that chat has__________
A. stimulating effect B. an addictive quality
C. an economic benefit D. A& C
____2.The word ―authorities ―in paragraph 3 denotes_____________________
A. Government officials B. Medical doctors
C. Traditional healers D. Traders
____3.What does the writer want to convey with the word ―malnutrition‖?
A. Nourishment B. Lack of proper diet
C. loss of appetite D. ineffective sexual intercourse
____4. According to the writer, chewing chat does have the following adverse impact on chewers
except______________
A. Loss of sexual appetite B. Nourishment
C. sleeplessness D.A& C
____5. In the last paragraph, the writer states _____________________
A. The proportional status of chewing habit in central and south-eastern Africa including
Ethiopia.
B. How responsible authorities should give due attention to ban the chat product.
C. How to alleviate the lives of generation from a mouth-watering drug obsession.
D. All can be the answer

Part Two: Say true or false based on the information given in the reading passage
____6. According to the passage, the chewing habit, once, it has become natural, is short-lived that the
chewer will progressively tend oneself spending precious hours with fellow chewers.

_____7. Chewer students do not believe that chewing chat helps delay exhaustion and contributes to
concentration on their studies.

_____8. According to paragraph 1, chewing chat has reached outbreak proportions among the student
population in all African countries.

_____9. In the passage, there is no place where the writer reveals his/her own comment on what to be
done to forbid the production of chat.

_____10.The writer seems to be against chewing chat in his attitude.

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_____ 11. The word ―banned‖ in paragraph1 means ______________________________

_____ 12. The word ―fellow chewers‖ in paragraph1 means ______________________________

Part Three: Explain what the following pronouns refer to in the passage. _____
13. this (paragraph1, line 3) refers to_______________________________
14. they (paragraph 2, line 2) refers to_________________________________
15. they (paragraph 3, line 2) refers to____________________________
16. this (paragraph 5, line 1) refers to______________________________
Part Four: Match the following vocabularies from reading passage listed under ‗A‘ with their similar
words/expressions stated under ‗B‘
A B
______17. hearsay A. epidemic
______18. impotent B. abominable
______19. provoke C. Unconfirmed report
______20. contend D. argue
______21. unbreakable E. aggravate
F. powerless
G. permanent
H. factual
I. fragile

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 3.3. Writing
Letter Writing
A formal letter is one written in a formal and uses formal language. Such letters are written for official
purposes to authorities, dignitaries, colleagues, seniors, etc, and not to personal contacts, friends, or
family. A number of conventions must be adhered to while drafting formal letters.

What to Include in a Formal Letter

Formal correspondence should include the details of why you‘re writing, your contact information so the
recipient can follow up, a greeting and closing, and your signature.1

Contact Information (Written Letter): A written letter should include your and the recipient‘s contact
information (name, title, company name, address, phone number, email), followed by the date.

Contact Information (Email): When sending an email, you don‘t need to include the recipient‘s
contact information. List your contact information at the end of the letter, after your signature.

Greeting: Address the letter using a professional greeting and formal title ("Dear Mr./Ms./Dr.").

Body of Letter

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  The first paragraph of your letter should provide an introduction as to why you are writing, so
that your reason for contacting the person is obvious.
 Then, in the following paragraphs, provide specific details about your request or the
information you are providing.
 The last paragraph of your letter should reiterate the reason you are writing and thank the
reader for reviewing your request. If appropriate, it should also politely ask for a written
response or for the opportunity to arrange a meeting to further discuss your request.

Closing: Use a formal sign-off, such as "Sincerely" or "Best regards."

Signature (Written Letter): End the letter with your handwritten signature followed by your typed
name.

Signature (Email): Include your typed name followed by your contact information.

Sample Letter

Bishoftu
Po Box 6011
August 30, 2014
Mr. Tesfaye Tura
The Manager
Adama

Dear Mr. Tesfaye:

Further to my letter of 20.4.2013, I would like to give you information concerning my qualifications and
experience as well as. Holding a Diploma in catering, I also have an advanced certificate in hotel
management. The course covered the usual areas: finance, front services, publicity, space allocation and
so on. I also wish to point out that in addition to holding these qualifications; I have now been working
in the hotel trade for five years. Moreover, my experience prior to that was also connected with tourism
and hospitability. I hope you will give my application due consideration.

Your sincerely,
Fraol Regassa
Fraol regassa

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 Unit Four: Water
4.1. Grammar
4.1.1. Like and as
In English, the words like and as, are commonly interchanged and used synonymously. However, they
are not similar in their meanings, as we use the word ‗like‗ to mean something we enjoy or prefer to do,
or for someone you admire. On the other hand, the word ‗as‗ is used to refer to the occupation or
character of a person.

Apart from these meaning, like and as can also refer to ‗in the same way‘ which often confuses
people with respect to their usage in sentences. Let‘s look at the example to understand their difference:

 Like your father, he wants you to succeed in your life.

 As your father, he wants you to succeed in your life.

You might have noticed that, in the very first sentence, we‘ve used ‗like‘, which means that the person
we‘re talking about is not the father, but holds a similar position. In the next sentence, we‘ve used ‗as‘
which means the person is the father of the subject.

Comparison

BASIS FOR
LIKE AS
COMPARISON

Meaning The word 'like' is used to The word 'as' is used in sentences to
mean 'similar to' or 'the same highlight the job, appearance or
as'. It can also be used to give function. It can also be used to mean
some examples. 'in the same way.'

Parts of Speech Noun, Adjective, Adverb, Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction

Preposition and Conjunction

When followed by It refers to 'similar to or the It refers to 'in the role of'.
noun same way as'.

Comparison Like is followed by a noun As is followed by a clause.

phrase.

Examples Nick dances like Michael As I told you, I would be moving to

Jackson. Delhi, this week.

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BASIS FOR
LIKE AS
COMPARISON

Talking to you is like talking She has been working as a

to a 3 year old baby. cinematographer.

I wish I could have a house He is late for the class, as always.

like yours.

Definition of Like

The word like is used in the sentences for someone or something that we enjoy, admire or feel positive
about. It also indicates similarity, i.e. when someone or something resembles another, we use the word
like in the sentence. Either it is used as a preposition, and followed by a noun/pronoun, or it is used as a
conjunction, where a clause comes after it. Now let‘s discuss the uses of like:

1. To admire something:

 Sophia likes dancing.

 Do you like being arrogant?
To show same features, qualities or traits:
 He is like a brother to me.
 Paul has a dog like Jane.
If like is followed by a noun, it implies ‗the same way as‗:
 You look like your mother.
 Monica is behaving like a celebrity.
To draw attention towards the kind of an action done:
 How could you talk to me like that?
As an adverb, it can be used to modify sentences:
 Just like her mother, Jimmy also wants to serve the nation.
It can also mean for example:
 There are many beautiful places in Delhi like Lotus Temple, Red Fort, Nehru
Planetarium, India Gate, etc.

Definition of As
Basically, ‗as‘ is used to make a comparison, to indicate the extent or degree of an object or an
individual. It may also refer to an individual‘s function, job or qualities. Moreover, ‗as‘ can also be used
in the context of ‗in the same way that‘. Now, let‘s have a look at the given points to understand, how
we can use it in our sentences:

1. To refer to ‗in the same manner‗:

 You can use the new software as instructed in the manual.
 The event took place, as I planned.
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 To indicate a person‘s occupation, character, position or role:
 As a teacher, I always love to teach new things, my students.
 It is your duty as an Auditor, to give a true and fair view, on the accounts.
To make a comparison between two entities:
 I am not as tall as Jane.
 Football is not as famous as cricket in India.
We use as when two things take place simultaneously:
 I looked at her, as she was going outside.
 As I grew older, I realized what is good for me or not.
 As I was going, the guests came.
To give reasons:
 As I was in a hurry, I didn‘t notice the signboard on the road.
 As she was hungry, she ate everything; her mother made for her.

Key Differences Between Like and As

The difference between like and as is presented in the points given below:
1. ‗Like‘ is a term that we can use to denote some similarity in quality or characteristic or the way
something is done. It can also be used to give examples or to indicate that we admire something.
Conversely, ‗As‘ is used to refer to ‗in the same manner‘. It also describes the function,
character, or job of a person. It also reflects comparison in the way something takes place.
2. ‗Like‘, can be used as a Noun, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. However, ‗as‘
can be used as a preposition, conjunction and adverb.
3. If the word ‗like‘ is followed by a noun, it reflects something similar to or the same way as. On
the other hand, as is succeeded by a noun, it means ‗in the role of‘.
4. While making comparisons, ‗like‘ is followed by a noun phrase. In contrast, ‗as‘ precedes the
clause in the case of comparison between two entities.

Examples:
 Complete the project as I suggested and not like you have decided.
 Veronica is as beautiful as Meera, but not like Divya.
Examples
Like
 I don‘t like wasting money unnecessarily.
 He is like blaming me for the incident.
 Why are you acting like a kid, when you are not?
As
 Steve worked as a programmer, at the initial phase of his career.
 As always, Peter scored 90% on his exams.
 Could you please do it, as I directed you.

Fill the correct answer for the following questions

1) She works____________ a teacher (it's her job).
2) I'm very _____________ my mother..

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3) Julie loves mangoes __________ much I do.
4) He arrived _______________ I was leaving.
5) He works in a bank, ____________ his father.
6) I used a tea towel ___________ an oven glove and I burned it!.
7) Your perfume smells ____________ flowers.
8) ____________ it was cold, I took a scarf.
9) He works __________ a hairdresser (it's his job).
10) That woman looks __________ my grandmother.
11) Please do it ___________ me.
12) She hates chocolate ___________ much ___________John.
13) ________ the other students, Paul failed the exam.
14) London is just ____________ busy _________ Tokyo.
15) She often plays sports, __________ tennis or football.
16) Amanda works ____________ a lawyer (it's her job).
17) This room is just _____________ hot __________ the other room.
18) You look __________ your sister.
19) She studied really hard, ____________ us.
20) We are ___________ intelligent ___________ you.

4.1.2. Quantifiers
As the name suggests, quantifiers are meant to inform us about the quantity or amount of
something, particularly a noun. While some quantifiers are more specific to tell us the exact amount of
something, some are more generic and can only express whether something is in small or large quantity.
Quantifiers further belong to a much larger class called determiners, which are basically the words
people use at the beginning noun phrases. They‘re meant to inform us whether a noun phrase being used
is specific or general in nature.

Types of Quantifiers:
Quantifiers come in different tastes and shapes. At the core, there are two broad categories in which
quantifiers can be explained, and they include.
 Quantifiers in grammar.

 Quantifiers in logic.

Quantifier in Grammar
This encapsulates all the quantifiers that people use before nouns to indicate the number, amount, or
quantity of it.
In which case, the quantifier can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns [External Links].
 Quantifiers to use with countable nouns.

These quantifiers are meant to indicate the number or quantity of countable nouns. They don‘t
necessarily need to narrow to the specific count, but just clue the reader on whether the underlying noun
is in small or big quantity.

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They include little, a little, a bit of, a large amount of, a great deal of, a large quantity of, and so forth.

NOTE: Little and a little are NOT one and the same.

While little or very little means that there isn‘t enough of something, a little can be interpreted to mean
something is not a lot, but it‘s surely enough.
Examples in a sentence:
 There‘s a little milk in the fridge. We can use it to bake the cakes.

 The milk is little. We can‘t do much with it.

Same goes for few or very few and a few.

While few or very few means there isn‘t enough of something, a few can be interpreted to mean
something isn‘t a lot, but it‘s surely enough. In other words, ‗few‘ is meant to express a negative idea
while ‗a few‘ is more focused on expressing small quantity.
Examples in a Sentence:
 Very few students attended the class.
 The teacher came with only a few books.
 Few people know me by name.
 I only know a few people in town.

Quantifier to use with uncountable nouns.

These quantifiers are meant to be used before any noun that cannot be counted, such as water, milk,
hair, furniture, and so forth.
Examples include all, more, least, any, a lot of, some, less, least and most to name a few.

Quantifiers in Logic
This type of quantifier only indicates the scope of the underlying term or the scope of a specific in
domain discourse satisfying an open formula.

Examples of Quantifiers
 Much and Many.
These two quantifiers are meant to express large quantities of the item in question.
Speaking of which, much is used when the underlying noun is singular, while ‗many‘ is used when the
noun being used is in the plural.

Examples in a Sentence:
 Much money.
 Many friends.
While drawing the difference between the two quantifiers, many people try to establish the connection
they have with countable and uncountable nouns .

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In which case, it‘s worth noting that countable nouns have both a singular and plural form. In the plural,
this type of nouns can be used with numbers, and that‘s the reason they‘re referred to as countable
nouns.

Examples include kids, buses, houses, lamps, roads, and so forth.

Meaning it‘s possible to put a number before any of these and still make sense, and if that‘s the case the
right quantifier to use is many.

Example many kids, many buses, many lamps, many roads, and so forth.

Uncountable nouns on the other hand only occur in the singular. No number attached before them makes
any logical sense – and if that‘s the case, the most suited quantifier to use before them is much.

Much money, much water, much milk and so forth.

How Much vs How Many.

Again, we use how much when describing uncountable nouns, and how many when describing
countable nouns.
Examples with ‗how many‘?
 How many eggs?
 How many visitors are we expecting?
 How many of the students should we send home?

Examples with ‗how much‘?

 How much water is needed?
 How much money do you need?
 How much furniture?
A lot of/ Lots of.
A ‗lot of‘ can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Where a lot of is mostly used in formal writs or conversations, lots of works much better with informal
communication.
Examples in a sentence:
 The stage has a lot of buses.
 There are a lot of eggs in the tray.
 There‘s a lot of water in the drum.
 The kid was awarded a lot of money.
 He wasted lots of his hard-earned savings on drinking and partying.

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 Choose the correct answer for the following questions
1. How ___ time do we have?
A. Much
B. many
2. They moved to France a ___ years ago.
A. few
B. little
3. I need ___ help moving these boxes.
A. some
B. any
4. I've got a ___ minutes. I'll help you.
A. Little
B. few
5. He had ___ time to study, but he still failed.
A. many
B. a lot of
6. Do we have ___ cake left?
A. many
B. any
7. There was ___ of noise because it was such a big party.
A. a lot
B. lot
8. There aren't ___ tickets let for the concert.
A. Much
B. many
9. I'm so tired today. I paid ___ attention in class.
A. very little
B. few
10. Our garden looks awful! There are too ___ weeds.
A. Much
B. Many

4.1.3. Articles
What is an article?
 Articles ("a," "an," and "the") are determiners or noun markers that function to specify if the
noun is general or specific in its reference. Often the article chosen depends on if the writer and
the reader understand the reference of the noun.
 The articles "a" and "an" are indefinite articles. They are used with a singular countable noun
when the noun referred to is nonspecific or generic.
 The article "the" is a definite article. It is used to show specific reference and can be used with
both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Many languages do not use articles ("a," "an," and "the"), or if they do exist, the way they are used may
be different than in English. Multilingual writers often find article usage to be one of the most difficult
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concepts to learn. Although there are some rules about article usage to help, there are also quite a few
exceptions. Therefore, learning to use articles accurately takes a long time. To master article usage, it is
necessary to do a great deal of reading, notice how articles are used in published texts, and take notes
that can apply back to your own writing.
A few important definitions to keep in mind:
Countable noun: The noun has both a singular and plural form. The plural is usually
formed by adding an "–s" or an "–es" to the end of it.
 one horse, two horses
 one chair, two chairs
 one match, two matches
Countable nouns may also have irregular plural forms. Many of these forms come from earlier
forms of English.
 one child, two children
 one mouse, two mice
Uncountable noun: The noun refers to something that cannot be counted. It does not
have a plural form.
 Information
 Grammar
Proper noun: The name of a person, place, or organization and is spelled with capital
letters.
 Tim Smith
 McDonalds
"A" or "An"
When to Use "A" or "An"
"A" and "an" are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is nonspecific or generic.
 I do not own a car.
 In this sentence, "car" is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could be any
car.
 She would like to go to a university that specializes in teaching.
 "University" is a singular countable noun. Although it begins with a vowel, the first
sound of the word is /j/ or ―y.‖ Thus, "a" instead of "an" is used. In this sentence, it is
also generic (it could be any university with this specialization, not a specific one).
 I would like to eat an apple.
 In this sentence, "apple" is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could be any
apple.
"A" is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound.
 a book
 a pen
 a uniform
(Note that "uniform" starts with a vowel, but the first sound is /j/ or a ―y‖ sound. Therefore "a" instead
of "an" is used here.)

"An" is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.
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  an elephant
 an American
 an MBA
(Note that "MBA" starts with a consonant, but the first sound is /Ɛ/ or a short ―e‖ sound. Therefore, "an"
instead of "a" is used here.)

Sometimes "a" or "an" can be used for first mention (the first time the noun is mentioned). Then, in
subsequent sentences, the article "the" is used instead.

 He would like to live in a large house. The house should have at least three bedrooms and
two bathrooms.
 In the first sentence (first mention), "a" is used because it is referring to a nonspecified house. In
the second sentence, "the" is used because now the house has been specified.
"The"
When to Use "The"
"The" is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns when
the noun is specific.
 The book that I read last night was great.
 In this sentence, "book" is a singular, countable noun. It is also specific because of the phrase
―that I read last night.‖ The writer and reader (or speaker and listener) know which book is
being referred to.
 The books assigned for this class are very useful.
 In this sentence, "books" is a plural, countable noun. It is also specific because of the phrase
―for this class.‖ The writer and reader (or speaker and listener) know which books are being
referred to.
 The advice you gave me was very helpful.
 In this sentence, "advice" is an uncountable noun. However, it is specific because of the phrase
―you gave me.‖ It is clear which piece of advice was helpful.
Here are some more specific rules:
"The" is used in the following categories of proper nouns:
 Museums and art galleries: the Walker Art Center, the Minneapolis Institute of Art
 Buildings: the Empire State Building, the Willis Tower
 Seas and oceans: the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean
 Rivers: the Mississippi, the Nile
 Deserts: the Sahara Desert, the Sonora Desert
 Periods and events in history: the Dark Ages, the Civil War
 Bridges: the London Bridge, the Mackinac Bridge
 Parts of a country: the South, the Upper Midwest
In general, use "the" with plural proper nouns.
 the Great Lakes
 the French
 the Rockies (as in the Rocky Mountains)
"The" is often used with proper nouns that include an ―of‖ phrase.

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  the United States of America
 the University of Minnesota
 the International Swimming Hall of Fame
Use "the" when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of the world.
 The Earth moves around the sun.
 Wolves howl at the moon.
Use "the" when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text. This is also known as
second or subsequent mention.
 My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation.
 I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English.
"The" is used with superlative adjectives, which are necessarily unique (the first, the second, the
biggest, the smallest, the next, the only, etc.).
 It was the first study to address the issue.
 She was the weakest participant.
 He was the only person to drop out of the study
Which article a or an can be put before the following words or phrases?
Fill the correct articles for the following questions
1. _________ old car

2. __________one-dollar bill
3. _________ pet
4. __________outdoor activity
5. __________answer
6. __________European school
7. __________younger brother
8. __________aunt
9. __________expensive bike
10. __________comic

Fill the correct articles (or the blank space):

1. Have_____ nice day.
2. Would you like_____ apple?
3. Where are_____ scissors?
4. I had_____ argument with Jo.
5. You can have_____ last piece of chocolate.
6. I usually have_____ shower in the morning.
7. I don't know_____ way to your house.
8. I think_____ bank closes at 5 o'clock.
9. Did you go to_____ doctor's?
10. I use_____ internet a lot.
11. You watch too much_____ television!
12. It's_____ bit cold in here.

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 13. I received_____ interesting email from Jo.
14. Please pass me_____ sugar.
15. I missed my appointment because_____ traffic was bad.

4.1.4. Linking words

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three
kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical purpose in a
sentence. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the acronym
FANBOYS:
F: for: The teachers were frustrated, for the school had cut funding for all enrichment programs.
A: and: In this course, I will write a literature review, a case study, and a final paper.
N: nor: The students did not complete their homework, nor did they pass the test.
B: but: The study is several years old but still valuable to this study.
O: or: At the end of the class, the students can choose to write an essay or take a test.
Y: yet: The patient complained of chronic pain, yet she refused treatment.
S: so: I have only been a nurse for one year, so I have little experience with paper charting.

 "For" is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English.

 When the conjunctions "and" and "or" connect three or more words or phrases, use a serial
comma to separate items in the series.
Transitional words such as "however" and "therefore" can also function as conjunctions:
 The authors agreed on the prevalence of the problem; however, they disagreed on the problem‘s
cause.
 Several employees complained about the new policies, and therefore, the manager held an all-
staff meeting to address their concerns.

Paired Conjunctions (correlatives conjunctions)

Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives.
Although paired conjunctions can be helpful in structuring a sentence, they can also make sentences
wordier than necessary, so use these conjunctions sparingly.
 both…and
o The project will require significant investments of both time and money.
o Both the students and the teachers were satisfied with the pilot program.
 Note: When two subjects are connected by "both…and," use a plural verb (such
as "are" or "were").
 not only…but also
o Students who did not complete the assignment received not only a poor grade but also a
warning from the teacher.
o Not only did the student include full sentences from the source without using quotation
marks, but he also failed to properly cite paraphrased material.
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  either…or
o Either the students were unprepared or the assessment was poorly written.
o Participants in the survey could either choose from a list of possible answers or write in
their own responses.
 neither…nor
o Students who did not complete the project received neither praise nor rewards.
o The staff neither followed the new policy nor asked for clarification.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes a relationship
between the two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common:
 After since
 Although than
 as much as/as soon as/as long as that
 as though unless
 because though
 before until
 how when/whenever
 if where/wherever
 in order to/in order that whether
 Once while

There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction:

1. Main clause + subordinate clause
o The teacher administered the test after giving instructions.
o The author must avoid bias if she wants to maintain a scholarly tone.
o I will turn in this assignment at midnight whether or not I complete it.
2. Subordinate clause + , + main clause
o After giving instructions, the teacher administered the test.
o If she wants to maintain a scholarly tone, the author must avoid bias.
o Whether or not I complete this assignment, I will turn it in at midnight.

"That" as a Conjunction for Noun Clauses

"That" has a few different functions in English. This can lead to confusion because some instances of
"that" are more optional than others in academic writing.
One important use of "that" is for embedding (inserting) a certain type of dependent clause called a noun
clause into an independent clause. Frequently, such "that" clauses serve as the direct object of a
reporting verb (such as found, reported, posited, argued, claimed, maintained, and hypothesized) to
introduce a paraphrase, summary, or quotation.
For example,
 Smith (2015) reported that more research was necessary.
o Smith (2015) = subject
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 o reported = verb
o that more research was necessary = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "reported"
 The authors hypothesized that there would be significant results.
o The authors = subject
o hypothesized = verb
o that there would be significant results = dependent clause, direct object of the verb
"hypothesized"
 Jones (2014) asserted that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study.
o Jones (2014) = subject
o asserted = verb
o that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study = dependent clause, direct
object of the verb "asserted"
 Rephrasing these sentences into questions and answers is one way to see that the "that" clauses
are acting as direct objects.
o What did Smith (2015) report?
 Answer: that more research was necessary
o What did the authors hypothesize?
 Answer: that there would be significant results
o What did Jones (2014) assert?
 Answer: that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study

In formal written English, for clarity, most academic writers choose to keep "that" when it introduces a
noun clause (Caplan, 2012). Leaving out "that" can cause the reader to misread (at first anyway) the
subject of the dependent clause as being the object of the reporting verb (Jamieson, 2012).

 For example, if readers see the sentence, "Smith (2015) reported more research was necessary
(without 'that')," they may understand ―more research‖ as the thing Smith reported and then have
to backtrack and reread upon seeing ―was necessary.‖
 Any structure that leads to misinterpretation, even temporarily, can be an unwanted distraction
from the writer‘s message.
 In spoken English, however, "that" may be dropped in such sentences. (Intonation patterns—
rising and falling pitch—give the listener clues that may not be present in writing.)

Fill the correct coordinating conjunctions for the following questions.

1. I asked you to come ________ see me.
2. What you suffer from is nothing more_________ less than sheer ignorance.
3. He helped himself to another drink, his hand shaking ________that he could hardly hold the
decanter.
4. They entered the room ________ closed the door behind them.
5. But this was _______ to be the end.
6. His legs were trembling _________ that he could hardly sit his horse.
7. He came to me _______ laid his hand on my shoulder.
8. It moved after a moment _______ two.

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 9. It really means nothing more ________ less than the sweet expression sometimes observed in the
eyes of a sorrowful animal.
10. There was nothing _________ it but to go.
11. He went round to the door __________ opened it.
12. Then he came to her ______ took her hand.
13. The others turned _________ looked at him.
14. She waited for an answer, _______ none came.
15. He went to her ______ laid his hand on her shoulder.
16. So it was that the dog often used to get off by himself _________ a joyous race through the
woods, where the dried leaves made such a jolly, rattling sound.
17. She put it off ______ looked at it.
18. She got out of bed ________ went to the window.
19. Then there was nothing to do ________ wait.
20. ______ it was that the French war department turned over to the Americans this artillery training
ground which had been long vacant.

Choose the correct subordinating conjunctions for the following questions.

1. _____ I was finishing my homework, she began cooking.
A. If B. As C. Before
2. _____ as the students had completed their exams, their parents rewarded their efforts by giving them a
trip to Paris.
A. Inasmuch B. Due to C. Before
3. He will let us know _____ he decides.
A. as soon as B. due to the fact C. inasmuch
4. Mary is rich, _____ I am poor.
A. If B. While C. when
5. ____ you have the time, why don't you come for dinner?
A. Before B. As long as C. As soon
6. _____ the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep.
A. As soon as B. Due to C. As
7. _____ he loves music so much, he decided to go to a conservatory.
A. Since B. Though C. When
8. They won't be able to come _____ they have enough money.
A. Because B. even if C. as long as
9. We waited _____ he finished his homework.
A. Although B. Before C. until
10. We will have finished our homework _____ they arrive.
A. By B. by the time C. until
11. They received a high mark on their exam _____ they had studied hard.
A. Because B. as soon as C. whereas
12. She ate _____ I had left.
A. Until B. After C. by the time
13. ______ the course was difficult; he passed with the highest marks.
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 A. Although B. Because C. As soon as
14. We'll go to Kelly's to celebrate _____ you win.
A. Unless B. If C. although
15. We will finish ______ he arrives.
A. Before B. due to the fact that C. because
16. I have played tennis ______ I was a young boy.
A. as long as B. since C. because
17. _____ it was expensive, he bought the car.
A. Despite B. Even though C. Whereas
18. _____ you need me, I'll be at Tom's.
A. In case B. As C. By the time
19. I saw Jack ______ I went to San Francisco.
A. even though B. the last time C. as long as
20. ______ she saves a lot, she won't be able to afford that house.
A. Even if B. Although C. Because
Choose the correct correlatives conjunctions for the following questions.
1) I want ______ gummy bears _____ jelly beans for a snack.
A. Whether/or B. neither/nor C. either/or
2) Mary likes ____ Skittles _____ Sweet Tarts.
A. both/and B. either/or C. whether/or D. neither/nor
3) _______ save me a seat _____ I will leave my coat on that chair.
A. whether/or B. either/or C. not only/ but also D. both/and
4) Mark earns a lot of money because he _____ works late, ___ has a second, part-time job.
A. either/or B. not only/ but also C. neither/nor D. whether/or
5) I knew it was going to be a bad day because I _____ over slept ____ missed the bus.
A. neither/nor B. not only/ but also C. both/and D. whether/or
6) We will go to the movies ______ tonight ____ tomorrow night.
A. either/or B. whether/or C. both/and D. not only/ but also
7) _______ Mary _____ Alice like rap music.
A. whether/or B. either/or C. neither/nor
8) I will be your friend ______ you stay here_____ move away.
A. whether/or B. neither/nor C. not only/ but also D. either/or
9) ______ Mom ______ Dad insist that I practice an hour a day.
A. either/or B. both/and C. whether/or
10) I want to go ________ to Disneyworld ________ to Sea World.
A. neither/nor B. either/or C. whether/or D. both/and

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4.2. Reading Comprehension
What is Critical Reading?
Critical reading is a more active way of reading. It is a slower, deeper and more complex engagement
with a text. It is a process of describing, analyzing, interpreting and evaluating the larger meanings of a
text and how those meanings are created by the text. It also requires the reader‘s critical thinking skills
to question both the text and personal reading skills of the text being read.
What does critical reading involve? Actually, critical reading involve self-reflection, reading to
understand a text, reading to interpret a text, reading to evaluate a text and evaluation.

Traditional Marriage in Ethiopia

1. Marriages, in almost all nations and nationalities in Ethiopia, are often arranged by the parents of the
bride and the groom after a great deal of negotiation. According to traditional beliefs and culture in
Ethiopia, the bride must be virgin when marriage takes place. The bride‘s virginity is highly valued and
respected. If, in case, a bride lost her virginity, it would damage the total relationship among the parents.
It brings crises among all the families. The bride will be considered bandit and taken as a dishonest and
insincere woman that no one respects her in her daily life communications. But males are unrestricted
to do whatsoever they want to do regarding sexual practicing. No one enquires whether a male has
practiced sexual activity before marriage or not. Even, in some societies, the males‘ parents encourage
them to practice sexual intercourse repeatedly ahead of the actual marriage engagement.

2. Age is also one factor that rural women in particular tend to marry at a very young age than their
husbands. In the past, it was used to be the custom for the bridegroom to be 30 years of age when getting
married.

3. Traditionally, the groom‘s parents search for a bride for their son. Before they make any contact with
the bride‘s parents, they conduct investigation to make sure that the families are not related in blood
and/or check their kinship. In the past, they were expected to make research that they should count back
their kinship lines to see their being far from each other in affinity by seven generations, but now five
generations is becoming acceptable. Once this has been done, the boy‘s parents then make contact with
the bride‘s parents through a mediator. The mediator; hence, goes to the home of the potential bride and
asks if their daughter will marry the son of the other parents. The bride‘s parents often impose
conditions and the mediator will take the message to the groom‘s parents; then they arrange a date for
both parents to meet at a mutually convenient time and the whereabouts of the ceremony.

4. When the parents have reached an agreement, then the man and the woman get engaged. The parents
then set a wedding date and they meet all the wedding expenses. The bride and groom first see each
other on their wedding day. In some areas, the groom may see his future wife in a hidden way without
the bride‘s wakefulness. Both parents prepare food and drink for the wedding ceremony and invite
guests to accompany and celebrate with them. The groom goes to the bride‘s house to take his future
wife. The wedding ceremony starts with dances and music; and the bride‘s parents give the groom a
dowry, in most cases money and cattle. At the end of the ceremony, the groom takes his bride to his
parents‘ house. The groom takes the bride‘s virginity during the first three days after the marriage. In
some areas, it happens immediately just the night of the wedding day. The honeymoon will last between
one to three weeks. This takes place at the husband‘s parent house. After the honeymoon, the couple
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returns to the house of the bride‘s parents where they stay together for a set time; with the best man/men
being available. During the honeymoon, the bride is not allowed to go out during the daytime; she is
only allowed to go out after sunset.

5. In some societies, a husband may have 2 to 4 wives based on his economic status. This is taken as a
means of having many children to elongate the clan he belongs to. It is also traditionally considered as a
sign of high status among societies. For some, it is also taken as a means of boredom free that a
husband spontaneously wonders here and there to satisfy his sexual desire.

Comprehension Questions
1. According to the passage, one of the following statements is not true.
A. Parents could be proud if their daughters found deflowered before marriage.
B. Ancestral lines must be investigated before interaction for marriage.
C. The bride has no right to see her future husband before engagement.
D. Husbands are not accused for their practicing sexual intercourses before marriage.

2. According to the passage, the bride is not allowed to go outside. What additional similar experience
can you add to this?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3. Write the three typical reasons stated in the text that in some societies a husband may have more
wives based on his economic status.
A._________________________________________________________________________________
B._________________________________________________________________________________
C._________________________________________________________________________________

4. According to the passage what are the criteria to be achieved before getting married?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. Unfortunately, if a bride lost her virginity in the marriage, what crisis would occur to her?
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

6. Explain what each of the paragraphs below is about?

Paragraph 1 ________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2 ________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 3 ________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 4 ________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 5_________________________________________________________________________

7. Guess the contextual meaning of the following words.

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A. unrestricted (Para.1line6) ______________________________________
B. kinship (Parag.2line3) ______________________________________
C. boredom (parag.5) ______________________________________
D. dowry (Parag4) ______________________________________

8. Explain what each of the following pronouns refers to in the passage.

A. Their (parag.2 line 6) _______________________________
B. They (para.3 line 2) _______________________________
C. His (last para. & last line) _______________________________
D. This (para4 line 10) _______________________________
9. Summarize the passage in your own words in to one paragraph without distracting the message of the
text.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

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 Unit Five: Family Life
5.1. Grammar
5.1.1. Talking about Future Tense
The future time indicators are associated with the contemplated aspect of the verbs and, therefore, are
closely tied with future tense. This section presents some of the most common expressions indicating
particular points/sections in the future.

English Grammar Tenses for Talking about the Future

Scheduled Events / Timetables
Think about these questions and how you might answer them:
 How do you get to work? Do you take the bus or the metro? What time does your bus leave on
Friday?
 If you are talking to a client on the phone and you have to go to a meeting soon, what might you
say?
 Does your friend have a birthday party scheduled for this weekend? What time does it start?
These questions are focused on scheduled events that you cannot change.
For example, you cannot change the timetable for the trains or buses.
And if your friend has a birthday party scheduled for 25 people, you probably can‘t change the date and
time.
If you have a business meeting later in the day, most of the time it is something you cannot change.
Now think about how you might answer these questions:
 What time does the train leave on Friday morning?
 When does the next bus arrive?
 What time does your friend‘s party begin on Saturday?
Generally, we use the present simple to talk about future scheduled events (events that you cannot
control or change) and timetables (public transportation schedules, movie times, class times, programs,
etc.) for example:
 The train leaves at 8:45 a.m. on Friday.
 The next bus arrives in 12 minutes.
 Susan‘s party starts at 8:00 p.m. on Saturday evening.
 My next meeting is right after lunch and then I have another at 3:30 p.m.
 He has a dental appointment scheduled for this afternoon.
 Classes starts next Monday.
 We have to hurry! The movie starts in 5 minutes!
 The grocery store closes in just a few minutes.
In each of these examples, we‘re focused on scheduled events or timetables. This means we‘re focused
on the date or time for which something is scheduled in the future.

Plans / Arrangements
Now, look at your calendar. What is written on your calendar? Do you have an upcoming plans or
arrangements? Think about these questions:
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  What are you doing this weekend?
 Where are you going for your summer holidays?
 Where are you meeting your client for lunch tomorrow?
 Where are you celebrating the holidays this year? At your home or your mother‘s home?
These are common questions focused on your plans or arrangements. This means it is something
you‘ve thought about and you‘ve made arrangements, for example, made reservations, bought tickets,
registered, had a discussion with someone else.

We generally use the present continuous form to talk about our future plans and arrangements. This
can include the form going to + verb that you may have learned.

Now remember, the present continuous is also used to talk about what you are doing now, so let‘s look
at two examples to help understand the difference:
A: What are you doing? (question focused on now)
B: I‘m working on the agenda for tomorrow‘s meeting. (answer is focused on now)
A: What are you doing tomorrow? (question focused on future)
B: I‘m meeting Sue for lunch to discuss the contract. (answer is focused on future)

Let‘s look at more examples for talking about future plans:

 We‘re working in the garden most of the weekend to get it ready to plant and then we‘re
having dinner with some friends Saturday night. What about you?
 We‘re going to Corsica for a couple of weeks in August. I just booked our tickets. I‘m SO
excited!!!
 We‘re meeting at Lucia tomorrow for lunch. Do you want to come?
 My family‘s coming to my house for Thanksgiving this year. I‘m cooking most of the dishes but
my sister‘s bringing dessert and my mom‘s making a salad.

Intentions / Predictions with Evidence

Previously we talked about plans. With plans, arrangements have been made or discussed and agreed
upon. An intention is something want to do, something you‘ve thought about but you haven‘t made any
arrangements. For example:
 I‘m going to start exercising after the New Year! I‘ve been eating too much over the holidays.
(No arrangements are made by you want to do this.)
 What are you going to order? (at a restaurant)
 He‘s going to travel around Europe or Asia after he graduates from school next year.
 What are we going to do about this customer complaint?
 When are you going to respond to Susan about the conference? I think she‘s waiting to hear
from you.
Do you notice the pattern? For talking about intentions, we use the going to + infinitive verb form.

This is also the form generally used when you make a prediction based on evidence. For example:
 Look at the clouds coming in! It‘s going to rain shortly. (We predict the rain based on the
evidence of heavy rain clouds in the sky.)
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  Did you know Susan‘s pregnant? She‘s going to have the baby in 3 months.
 If we continue at this rate, we‘re going to have our best sales quarter yet.

Pronunciation Note:
In American English pronunciation, we often connect the sounds between going + to. This is
called connected speech. In spoken form, going to sounds like gonna. However, this is not appropriate
in written form.
Predictions without Evidence / Factual Statements / Immediate Decisions
Now look at these final questions and think about how to answer them:
 What do you think life will be like in 20 years?
 What will happen if you don‘t pass your exam?
 Do think it will rain while we‘re on vacation? Should we pack a rain jacket?
 Will you be able to come to my party this weekend?

Finally! Talking about the future with will. When you make a prediction based on something you
believe, think, or feel, then it is common to use will + verb. This suggests it is your prediction but there
is no fact or evidence for it. For example:
 Cars will fly and everyone will live in glass houses by 2040.
 I don‘t think it will rain. That would be very unusual for August.
 I‘ll come to your party if I can get my project finished at work. We‘re under a tight deadline.

We also use will to talk about factual future statements. For example:
 I‘m sorry you‘re having a bad day. But tomorrow the sun will rise and it will be a new day.
 We will have a full moon tonight.
And lastly, if you‘ve made an immediate decision at the moment of speaking, then will is often used.
For example:
A: The phone‘s ringing!
B: I‘ll get it.
A: Oh no! I‘ve spilled milk all over the floor and I‘m already running late. I don‘t have
time for this.
Now It‘s Your Turn to Practice Talking About the Future
I‘d love to hear from you and help you practice using these forms correctly and naturally in English.
Take a few minutes this week to answer 2-3 of these questions. Be sure to share in the comments section
below this lesson:
 What are you doing this weekend?
 Where are you going for your next vacation?
 What are you going to do after you graduate from university?
 How are you going to celebrate if you get the new job?
 What do you think life will be like in 50 years?
 What are your plans for your next holiday? (Talk about Christmas, Eid, Easter, the New Year,
etc.)
 Do you have plans after work this evening?
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Activity: - Use the verbs in brackets in the correct future tenses – will-future, going to-future, Simple
Present or Present Progressive.
1. The train ___________ at 11:45. (to leave)

2. We ____________ dinner at a nice restaurant on Saturday, but we have't booked a table yet. (to
have)
3. My ski instructor believes it ____________ in the mountains tomorrow evening. (to snow)
4. On Sunday at 8 o'clock I ______________ my friend. (to meet)
5. They _______________to London on Friday evening at 8:15. (to fly)
6. Wait! I ______________ you to the station. (to drive)
7. The English lesson ______________ at 8:45. (to start)
8. I ______________ my sister in April. (to see)
9. Look at the clouds - it ______________ in a few minutes. (to rain)
10. Listen! There's someone at the door. I ____________ the door for you. (to open)

5.1.2. Sentence Types

Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause is a group of grammatically-related words including a verb
and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). They are the building blocks of sentences:
every sentence consists of one or more clauses. In more complex sentences there is always a main
clause, together with one or more relative or subordinating clause(s). Therefore, we can say that a
sentence is a group of clauses expressing a complete thought with some kind of meaning for the
audience. Every sentence must have at least one independent clause. Sentences can be classified
according to their grammatical structure as simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

A) The Simple Sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence with a single independent clause and no dependent (subordinate)
clauses. It has only one subject and one predicate; however, either the subject or the predicate may
contain more than one element. It also expresses just one idea or provide just one piece of information.
A simple sentence can also be called an independent clause (IC).
Example:
Nega had to take the bus to Dessie.
Reading books can broaden your knowledge.
We have stopped our work this year.

Simple sentence with compound subject:

Example:
I and Abebe put up with Abera‘s misbehavior.
The prime minister and the president of Ethiopia have visited many historical places.
The engineers, the ministers and the journalists visited the Ethiopian Grad Dam.

Simple sentence with compound predicate:

Example:
We drank Pepsi and ate popcorn.

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The police man the robbers and caught them quickly.
Our teacher can speak English and write in English.

Simple sentence with a compound subject and a compound predicate

The little girl and old man came to the market and bought food consumptions.
My father, mother and sister came to the school, applauded the performers and attended the party.

Once you understand the rules for creating simple sentences, you will be well on your way to writing at
the college level. Simple Sentence = Subject + Verb + Complete thought.

B) The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses but no dependent
(subordinate) clauses. The independent clauses are joined by a conjunction, or by a semicolon.
Conjunctions include and, for, nor, but, or, yet, so, therefore, however, consequently, furthermore,
instead, otherwise, nonetheless, moreover…

Examples 1: Akele studies hard day and night. He does not achieve good result in class.

These sentences can be joined to form the compound sentence as below.

Akele studies hard day and night; he does not achieve good result in class.
Akele studies hard day and night, but he does not achieve good result in class.
Akele studies hard day and night; however, he does not achieve good result in class.
Akele studies hard day and night. However, he does not achieve good result in class

Example 2: The students came to class late. The teacher did not allow them to get in the class.

These sentences can be joined to form the compound sentence as below.

The students came to class late; the teacher did not allow them to get in the class.
The students came to class late, so the teacher did not allow them to get in the class.
The students came to class late; therefore, the teacher did not allow them to get in the class.
The students came to class late. Therefore, the teacher did not allow them to get in the class.

Here below are compound sentences.

It was sunny yesterday in our travel, but we did not have an umbrella.
We came to class punctually; we learned the lesson very well.
The students participated actively in class, so the teacher valued their participation.
My aunt is well-behaved in my homeland; moreover, she is respectful to everyone equally.
The nurse teats people honestly; as a result, many people come to her clinic.

Activity 1
Join the following sentences using your own technique to form compound sentence.
1. It stopped raining yesterday. We continued our journey.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. His parents are wealthy. They are not having happy life.
______________________________________________________________________________
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3. You can come with me. You can wait here.
______________________________________________________________________________
4. The children may not play. They may not study.
______________________________________________________________________________
5. The man was too hungry. He was too thirsty
______________________________________________________________________________
6. My father advised me study hard. I prepared schedule program for my study.
______________________________________________________________________________
7. The food has been spoiled. I am going to eat it now.
______________________________________________________________________________
8. The dog ate quickly. It was very hungry.
______________________________________________________________________________
9. You must study your notes. You will not pass the test.
______________________________________________________________________________
10. The meat is spoiled. No one can eat it.
______________________________________________________________________________

C) The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and at least one dependent
(subordinate) clause. Such dependent clauses may be adjective clauses, noun clauses, or adverb clauses.
Use comma to set off nonrestrictive (or nonessential) clauses. Separate the opening adverb clauses from
the rest of the sentence with a comma.

Examples:
If it rains, we will call off the race.
When I was child, I used to watch goats.
Although my parents are healthy and rich, they are not having happy life.

Complex sentences involve combining two sentences of unequal value; one dependent and the other
independent. For example, the clause ‗‘after her father reads her a bedtime story‘‘ is dependent clause,
but it is not a complete sentence, for it does not make sense by itself. It leaves us with the question, what
happened after the bedtime story? It is an example of a dependent clause. Unlike an independent clause,
a dependent clause starts with a dependent word (subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun) that
leaves the sentence hanging. In the above example, this word is after. A dependent clause must be
paired with an independent clause to achieve its full meaning.

The common subordinating conjunctions are: although, though, even though, as, because, after, before,
as if, since, for, so that, unless, until,

There are two methods for creating complex sentences. Both of these methods use subordinating
conjunctions; one puts the independent clause first; the other puts the dependent clause first.

A. Independent Clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent Clause.

Example:

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 I want to proofread my essay before I show it to my advisor.
I think I will do just fine although I am nervous about writing

B. Subordinating + Dependent Clause + Comma + Independent Clause.

Example:
Before I show essay to my advisor, I want to proofread my essay.
Although I am nervous about writing, I think I will do just fine.

Subordination: is the joining of an independent clause with the dependent clause in the same sentence
using subordinators. The linking devices between the clauses in subordination are subordinating
conjunctions and relative pronouns.

Subordinating conjunctions include because, since, if, while, even if, when, whenever, where,
wherever, though, although, even though, as long as, whereas, unless, so that, that, in order to, after,
before, until, as soon as, as, than, as…as, etc.
Relative pronouns include who, whose, which, that, whom

Activity 1
Join the following pair of sentences using an appropriate subordinating conjunction to make it
complex sentence.
1. I had to return home. I forgot the tickets.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Helen arrived for the job interview. The interviewer was reluctant to have interview with her.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. The examination will begin. All of the students come to the class.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. The teacher had finished his lecture. The students began to ask questions about the lesson.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. The light went off an hour ago. We were watching TV in the room.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Some students pay attention the teacher‘s lesson explanation. They equip little knowledge.

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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

7. Rahel always sits in front of the students in class. She can listen her teacher successfully.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_
8. My mother called me two hours ago. I was having a shower.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

D) The Compound Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least
one dependent (subordinate) clause. (Dependent clauses are enclosed in brackets):
Example:
If the weather is fair, we will go on our camping trip, and I expect to have a great time.
When my friend comes to my home, I will call you to wander in the city, but we will have little time for
wandering.
The teacher has asked us for comment about his lecture method although he taught us properly, but we
recommended him that he should not have assessed frequently.

Activity 1
Write the name of each sentence below as simple, compound, complex or compound-complex.
1. If you don‘t succeed at first, proceed to the next option. _________________________
2. You never really learn to swear until you learn to drive. _________________________
3. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets nasty sunburn. ____________________
4. Although they are 200 km apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet. ____________
5. The students have found the university boring, but they continued to attend their program.
_______________________________________________________

6. A painting that hangs in a museum is one kind of art. _________________________

7. Are they fixed, or are they totally replaced? ________________________________
8. Things that are part of our ordinary lives can be art too. _____________________________
9. Aster developed an outstanding project, and her advisor corrected her spelling. ____________
10. The boy who is speaking is my brother, and he will be staying with us. _________________
11. Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but students from out of the
area seem to like it. _______________________________________________
12. The priest has blessed all the people of Ethiopia regardless of religion and nations.
_______________________________________________________

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 5.1.3. Verb Pattern
Verbs followed by '-ing' or by 'to' + infinitive 1
Do you know when to use -ing and when to use to + infinitive after a verb? Test what you know with
interactive exercises and read the explanation to help you.
Look at these examples to see how the verb forms are used.
I enjoy learning languages.
I want to learn a new language.

Grammar explanation

A verb can be followed by another verb. The second one usually needs to change into the -ing form or
the to + infinitive form. Which form you need depends on what the first verb is.

Verbs followed by the -ing form

When enjoy, admit and mind are followed by another verb, it must be in the -ing form.

 I enjoy travelling.
 He admitted stealing the necklace.
 I don't mind waiting if you're busy.
Other verbs in this group include avoid, can't help, consider, dislike, feel like, finish, give
up, miss, practise and suggest.
Like and love can be followed by the -ing form and the to + infinitive form. They are both correct.

Verbs followed by to + infinitive form

When want, learn and offer are followed by another verb, it must be in the to + infinitive form.

 I want to speak to the manager.

 She's learning to play the piano.
 He offered to help us wash up.
Other verbs in this group
include afford, agree, ask, choose, decide, expect, hope, plan, prepare, promise, refuse and would like.

Verb patterns: verb + -ing

Three verbs with similar meaning that take the pattern verb + -ing are recommend, advise and suggest.
 She advises keeping an egg timer by the computer.
 They recommend arriving on time for the performance.
 She suggests ringing him to find out what has happened.

The pattern changes if the person who is receiving the recommendation is mentioned.

Recommend/
suggest + noun + verb
They recommend (that) the audience arrive on time for the performance.
She suggests (that) we ring him to find out what has happened.

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Note that advise cannot be used with this pattern.
 She advises that addicts keep an egg timer by the computer.
Instead, with advise, we can use the infinitive.
 She advises addicts to keep an egg timer by the computer.
We can use passive forms of recommend and advise.
 Addicts are recommended to keep an egg timer by the computer.
 Addicts are advised to keep an egg timer by the computer.
Note that suggest cannot be used with this pattern.
 Addicts are suggested to keep an egg timer by the computer.

Verb patterns: it + verb + object + infinitive

The following verbs follow the pattern of it + verb + object + infinitive: annoy, upset, irritate, bug (this
is an informal, colloquial
word), worry, concern, interest, puzzle, surprise, amaze, shock, please and comfort.

It Verb Object Infinitive

It bothers me to see food being wasted.

It worried Linda to hear the news.
It amazed the doctors to witness the patient's recovery.
It will please us to receive your invitation.

These verbs are also commonly used in passive forms.

 I am bothered by seeing food being wasted.
 Linda was worried by the news.
 The doctors were amazed by the patient's recovery.
 We were pleased by your invitation.
Choose the correct Verb patterns for the following questions.
1. We tried _____________ the 9 o'clock train, but we arrived too late.

2. The doctor told Henry to stop _______________.

3. Do you expect _________________ your maths exam?
4. All the beach hotels were full, so they ended up __________________ in the town Centre.
5. I love this city. I can't imagine __________________ here.
6. Jerry promised ________________ my computer for me.
7. I meant __________________ some stamps yesterday, but I forgot.
8. Do your children enjoy __________________ computer games?
9. We've decided___________ (redecorate) the children's bedrooms.
10. Mike and Janet had a big argument and stopped____________ (speak) to each other.
11. It cost €600 to have the car______________ (repair) .
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 12. What sort of computer is James hoping____________ (buy)?
13. They made everyone____________(leave) the building when the fire alarm went off.
14. I don't really feel like_______________ (go) shopping today.
15. Would you ever consider_______________ (move) to another country?
16. Every morning I have to force my son_____________ (get up) for school.

5.2 Capitalization
Capitalization means using a capital letter (for example, A instead of a). The use of capital letters helps
readers read your writing without confusion.

Always capitalize the following:

The first word in a sentence.
 I grew up in India.
 She left a message on my phone.

The pronoun I.
 This country is where I dreamed of.

The first letter of a proper noun (specific name).

 David wants to play soccer with us.
 This letter is from Chang.
 I graduated from the University of New York.
 I like Coca-Cola.
 She likes Godiva chocolates.

The first letter of months, days, and holidays (but not seasons).
 Today is June 8, 2011.
 Susie‘s birthday is this Thursday.
 The shops are closed on Easter.
 This summer is going to be very hot.

The first letter of nationalities, religions, races of people, and languages.

 We often eat Italian food.
 I want to master many languages, such as Spanish, Korean, Chinese, and Russian.
 There is one Christian church in my town.

The first letter in a person‘s title.

 This is Dr. Simon.
 I got it from Mr. Tom.

Geographic areas: cities, states, countries, mountains, oceans, rivers, etc.

 My destination is Paris, France.

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  Hawaii is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.

Historical periods.
 The Renaissance began in the 14th century.
 The Qing Dynasty is the last dynasty in China.

The first letter of each major word in the title of a book, movie, article, etc.

 Tolstoy‘s War and Peace is my favorite novel.

 I found the article ―How to Write a Good Cover Letter‖ in this magazine.

Activity:- Correctly write each sentence using proper capitalization.

1)i was born in shanghai, china, but grew up in the united states.
2)mrs. ohana gave me the bible.
3)if you walk two more blocks, you will be able to see mt. rocky.
4)my family will have a summer vacation in hawaii.
5)I didn‘t want to cook tonight, so I just ordered thai food for dinner.

5.2. Vocabulary in Context

Part one: Synonyms and Antonyms
Synonyms and antonyms are word powers that occur in communication skills specially to improve
reading and writing skills. Moreover, since words represent thoughts, it can plausibly be stated that they
allow students to understand the world at a deeper, richer level. It is important to remember that
synonyms are not words that have the same meaning, but rather, words that have similar meanings. This
means that by learning synonyms, students learn to differentiate between shades of meaning. This
enables them to be more precise. In addition, by learning antonyms, students learn the logical opposites
of important words, thus enhancing their overall command of language.

Word Synonyms Antonyms

1. Blame criticize praise
2. Reward prize punishment
3. Sociable friendly hostile
4. Significant important harmful
5. Save deposit expend
6. Boring depressing interesting
7. Profit gain loss
8. Preserve save destroy

Activity
The following words are taken from the passage you have already read. Therefore, by referring the
paragraph back, match the word that is most nearly similar and nearly opposite in meaning to the words
given bellow.

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 Word Synonyms Antonyms

6. Security ____________________ ____________________

7. Obtain ____________________ ____________________
8. Respect ____________________ ____________________
9. Enhance ____________________ ____________________
10. Motivate ____________________ ____________________
11. Desperate ____________________ ____________________
12. Hate ____________________ ____________________
13. Diminish ____________________ ____________________
14. Battle ____________________ ____________________
15. Actual ____________________ ____________________
16. Selfish ____________________ ____________________
17. Bless ____________________ ____________________

Part Two: Making a Word Classes (Word Formation)

You can build your vocabulary by learning different forms of a word. For example, when you learn the
adjective successful, you can also learn the noun success, the verb succeed, and the adverb successfully.
(Not every word has four forms.)
8. Noun formation: nouns can formed from verbs and adjective
The formation of noun from verb by adding ―-ment, -ion‖
Verb Noun
agree agreement
pay payment
punish punishment
manage management
develop development
improve improvement
move movement
comprehend comprehension
create creation
admire admiration
discuss discussion
participate participation
activate activation

The formation of noun from adjective by adding ―-ness‖

Adjective Noun
Good Goodness
Kind Kindness
Polite Politeness
Rude Rudeness
White Whiteness

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 Red Redness

2. Adjective formation: adjectives can formed from verb and noun

Adjectives can formed from verb by adding ―-able, -full, -less, -ive‖
Verb Adjective
care careful, careless
use useful, useless
harm harmful, harmless
cheer cheerfull, cheerless
power powerfull, powerless
hope hopeful, hopeless
profit profitable
advise advisable
believe believable
accept acceptable
expense expensive
comprehend comprehensive
attract attractive

Adjectives can formed from noun by adding ―-an, -al‖

Noun Adjective
Ethiopia ethiopian
Kenya kenyan
reason reasonal
nation national
3. Adverb formation: adjectives can formed from Adjective by adding ―-ly‖
Adjectives Adverb
Slow Slowly
Quick Quickly
Hopefull Hopefully
Careless Carelessly

Irregular word class formation

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
succeed success successful successfully
profit profit profitable profitably
manage management managerial managerially
secure security - -
produce production product -
delight delight delightful delightfully
work work - -
hope hope hopeful hopefully
rent rent rental _______
impress impression impressive impressively
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profit profit profitable profitably
manage management managerial managerially

Activity: Fill the blank spaces with the word class provided below
Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
1 destroy
2 heal
3 force
4 hate
5 fright
6 persuade
7 sadden
8 introduce
9 glorify
10 modernize
11 care
12 advise

Activity: Choose the correct form of the word in parentheses to complete each sentence bellow.
1. (succeeded/ successful/ successfully)
A. Mr. Alemu is a _____________ scientist and physicist.
B. Mr. Alemu invented many discoveries ____________.
C. Mr. Alemu _____________ in very sciences he participated.
2. (hope/hopeful/hopefully)
A. It is ____________ that everyone learns from the intellect of Mr. Hawking.
B. ___________, we all learn many things from Hawking‘s science discoveries.
C. We__________ that we can learn many things from sciences.
3. (manager / managed / managerial)
A. Mr. Alemu was the _________of a Science Publishing Groups.
B. Mr. Alemu __________ a Science Publishing Groups.
C. Members in the Science Publishing groups were very happy in the __________ skills of Mr.
Alemu
4. (impression / impressed / impressive)
A. Mr. Alemu work ___________every one.
B. His work made an ___________ on his followers.
C. All Mr. Alemu discoveries were very ___________.
5. (profit / profited / profitable)
A. It is really _____________ to be participated in every science aspects in our life.
B. Mr. Alemu made a __________ from the sale of his intellect.
C. Mr. Alemu ___________ from the invention of many science discoveries.

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Part Three: Using word parts to determine meaning
Word parts are meaningful segments that readers can identify and put together to determine the meaning
of an unfamiliar word. There are three types of word parts: prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Those word
parts have been put together like puzzle pieces to create tens of thousands of words in English. It is
estimated that students can use word parts to figure out the meaning of 60% of the new words they
encounter. That‘s a lot of words!

A. Prefix
A prefix is found at the beginning of a word. Some common prefixes are: un-, re-, in-, im-, ir-, il-, dis-,
en-, em-, non-, in-, im, mis-, sub-, pre-, inter-, de-, trans-, super-, semi-

Prefixes Meaning Example

1 dis not disagree, disbelieve, discontent, disable, disbelief, discomfort, discredit,
disrepair, disrespect
2 un not unhappy, unripe, unfair, unusal, unacceptable
3 in not incorrect, inappropriate, invisible
4 im not imbalance, impossible, improbable, improper, impatient
5 il not illegal, illegitimate, illogical
6 ir not irresponsible, irrational, irregular
7 non none noncandidate, nonsense, nonessential, nonmetallic, nonviolence,
8 mis wrong mislead, miscommunicate, misplace, mistreat, misspell
9 re again rewrite, redo, reappear, resave, rearrange, rebuild, recall
10 sub small subordinate, subskills, subway, subhuman, substandard
11 co to co-operate, co-ordinate, coauthor, coedit
12 de decrease demoralize, deactivate, deemphasize
13 super big supermarket, superscript
14 auto self autocracy, autobiography, automobile, autograph
15 bi two bi-lingual,
16 multi many multi-lingual,
17 pre before pereading, preconceive, preexist, premeditate, predispose, prepay
18 post after postreading, postdate, postwar, postnasal, postnatal
19 anti against antibacterial, antinatal, antifungal, antivirus, antisocial

Activity: Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write the word on your own
sheet of paper.
1. He is a very _____social person as he doesn‘t like people.
2. The man _____appeared suddenly.
3. The man insults many people. He is _____behaved person.
4. Aklilu is very ____polite person. He has never respected people in his life.
5. I wanted to ease my stomach ________comfort, so I drank some ginger root tea.
6. Eleni looked at his ________matched shirt and pants.
7. The girl‘s ________standard performance on the test alarmed his parents.

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8. Even though Arsema got an excellent job offer, she did not want to ________locate to a different
country.
9. Some envious people _____motivate other people who work hard.
10. I ____read the sentence.
11. I married in 1995. I divorced in 1999. I ____married in 2001.
12. Submitting the assignment lately is _____possible according the course policy.

B. Suffix
A suffix is found at the end of a word. Some common suffixes are: -s, -es, -ed, -ing, -ly, -er, -or, -ion, -
tion, -ation, -ition, -ible, -able, -al, -ial, -y, -ness, -ity, -ty, -ment

Word class Examples

1 -ion Noun celebration, opinion, decision, revision
2 -ity Noun probability, equality, abnormality, civility
3 -ment Noun movement, retirement, abandonment, establishment
4 -ness Noun condness, awareness, kindness, darkness
5 -sion Noun depression, confusion, tension, compulsion
6 -ship Noun worship, ownership, courtship, internship
7 -ed Verb laughed, climbed, called, missed
8 -en Verb soften, fasten, lengthen, strengthen
9 -ing Verb laughing, swimming, driving, writing
10 -s (-es) Verb plays, knows, churches, goes
11 -ize(-ise) Verb memorialize, authorize, commercialize, advertise
12 -able Adjective preventable, adaptable, predictable, credible
13 -ible Adjective responsible, visible, credible
14 -al Adjective national, theatrical, natural, criminal, seasonal
15 -ful Adjective grateful, beautiful, wonderful, fanciful
16 -ous Adjective gracious, cautious, humorous, fabulous
17 -ive Adjective creative, expensive, expressive, pensive
18 -ly Adverb bravely, simply, honestly, gladly

Activity 1: Read the following paragraph and takeout the suffixes

Many people have believed that we should use technology to its prime level as it helps to easily access
what we need, to accomplish tasks with less amount of energy than needed before and accommodate us
with unlimited knowledge. Though technological advancement is contributing a lot with this regard, I
believe that it is letting the generation to be dependent. If a teacher cannot explain concepts in the
absence of electric power to display his projector, for example, where is the realization of real learning?
Evidences are showing that teachers who often use overhead projectors to teach a course fail to teach
without the aid of the machine. Besides this, it is found that the capacity of our mind to retrieve and
restore information (even the telephone number of our friends) is shrinking than before. Hence, our
mind is losing its sharpness and depreciating from time to time. Most significantly, technology is
playing unpredictable role for the augmentation of global warming. Since new innovations require

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energy and produce poisonous and dusty by products, they are polluting the environment. Don‘t you
think that we are being affected of our own accord?

Word Suffix

1. _________________ ____________
2. _________________ ____________
3. _________________ ____________
4. _________________ ____________
5. _________________ ____________
6. _________________ ____________
7. _________________ ____________
8. _________________ ____________
9. _________________ ____________
10. _________________ ____________
11. _________________ ____________
12. _________________ ____________

Activity 2: look at each word bellow and take out prefix, root word and suffix.
Word Prefix Root word suffix
Miscommunicating mis communicate -ing

1. unacceptable _____________ ___________________ ___________

2. disagreement _____________ ___________________ ___________
3. unripe _____________ ___________________ ___________
4. disrespectful _____________ ___________________ ___________
5. manageable _____________ ___________________ ___________
6. misplaced _____________ ___________________ ___________
7. irresponsible _____________ ___________________ ___________
8. rewriting _____________ ___________________ ___________

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 Unit Six: United Nations

6.1. Expressing Purpose in English

What Is The Purpose?
Expressing purpose – A purpose (might mean objective, intention, or goal) is anything a person
intends to do or achieve in the future. There are many ways people can express purpose in English. In
this lesson, you will be introduced to some of the most common expressions. Below, there three
different ways to express purpose. Each category shows you a way of expressing purpose.

Expressing Purpose – Category One

 For
In English, /for/ is always followed by a noun or a verb + ing
1. Examples:
 I work hard for success
 I travel a lot for amusing myself.
Expressing Purpose – Category Two
 To
 So as to
 In order to
In English, /to, so as to, and in order to/ are always followed by a verb (infinitive)
1. Examples:
 She prepared well to get a good grade.
 Bob studies hard so as to get a good job.
 I practice sports every day in order to have a fit body.

Expressing Purpose – Category Three

 So that
 In order that
In English, /so that and in order that/ are always followed by a subject + modal + verb (infinitive)
1. Examples:
 I read many short stories so that I can learn many vocabularies.
 She spends a lot of money on herself in order that she can look beautiful.

Note: You can use /in order not to and so as not to/ to express purpose in the negative form.
1. Examples:
 They study hard so as not to
 She practices sports so as not to be fat.
 I write every day in order not to be a bad writer.

Purpose with to, in order to and so as to

Use to, so as to, and in order to to express purpose in the affirmative form.
 He is looking for a part time job to go on holiday
 She wakes up early in order to be on time to work.
 They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of her husband.
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Use so as not to and in order not to to express purpose in the negative form.
 They woke up early in order not to miss the train.
 She exercises regularly so as not to get too lazy.
 He helped him so as not to fail in his first mission.

To, in order to, so as to, so that.

These structures express purpose and answer the question why something is done.
To: We use 'to + verb' to say why we do something.
Examples: I'm going to Ireland to visit my family.
I went to the post office to buy some stamps.
In order to
So as to We can also use 'in order to' or 'so as to'.

Examples: I'm going to Ireland in order to visit my family.

I went to the post office so as to buy some stamps.
Note: 1- 'in order to' and 'so as to' are more common before stative verbs like:
be, have, know, appear, seem, understand, etc.
Example: she left work early in order to be at home with the children.

2- Before a negative infinitive, we normally use 'so as' or 'in order'.

Example: I am leaving now so as not to be late.
(not: I am leaving now not to be late).
3- Do not use 'for' before the infinitive of purpose.
Example: I phoned Jenny to invite her to dinner.
(not: I phoned Jenny for invite her to dinner).
So that This structure is also frequently used to talk about purpose.
It is normally followed by modal such as can or will.
Example: I am saving money so that I can buy a new car.

More Examples of Expressing Purpose In English:

 She saves a lot of money so as to buy what she needs.
 They help my classmates understand lessons in order to learn
 I run 2 miles to reduce cholesterol in my blood.
 They educate their children so that they could get a good job.
 She studies languages for communication.
 Do these assignments in order that you learn the rules very fast.

Activity:-Fill the correct word for the following questions.

1. I'm studying very hard at the moment _______________ pass my exams next month.
2. I bought a dictionary ___________________ help with my vocabulary.
3. I went to bed early _________________ I wouldn't be tired in the morning.
4. I have to get up early. I set the alarm for five o'clock _____________ oversleep.
5. I waited for an hour _______________ I could meet her.
6. Some people do not eat before exercises ________________ feel nauseated.
7. Do exercise regularly ____________________ have excellent health and well-being.
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8. My sister gave English lessons ______________ earn some pin money.
9. Jenny is a very nice person. She is always prompt ____________ help her friends.
10. They took the taxi ______________ waste time.
11. I'm going to Australia _______________ forget my English.
12. Make sure your bags are tagged ______________ you can identify them later.

6.2 Expressing Probability and Certainty

can; could; may; might; should/ought to, must

We use will to express a strong possibility that something is true, especially when we don‘t have actual
evidence at the moment.
That will be Maria on the phone - she said she‘d call.
- We use must to express complete certainty.
That must be Maria on the phone - she‘s the only person with my new number.
- We can always use had to be meaning ―must have been‖ to express certainty in the past.
She had to be the person I saw on the train.
- We use can/could or will/would to form questions.
Who can that be on the phone?
Who would have phoned so late?
- We can use modals of possibility to refer to the past, present or future.
Don‘t drink it - it could/may/might be poisonous. (= present; I'm not sure about poison)
It can‘t/could/may/might have been poisonous. (= past; ... but luckily it wasn't.)
We may/ought to/might/should get a reply tomorrow. (= future)
- There is sometimes a change in meaning.
It may have/might have rained. (= I‘m not sure)
It could have rained. (= but luckily it didn‘t)

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Activity:- Fill the correct answer for the following questions
1. I'm certain he doesn't know the secret.
He ___________ the secret.
2. Perhaps he will be home soon.
He ___________ home soon.
3. I'm sure she has gone on holiday.
She ______________ on holiday.
4. It's possible she has been delayed in traffic.
She __________________ [?] in traffic.
5. I'm certain she is looking for a new job.
She ______________ [?] for a new job.
6. Perhaps she is visiting a friend.
She ________________ [?] a friend.
7. I'm certain he didn‗t call me.
He __________________ me.
8. I'm certain Marie sent you a birthday card.
Marie __________________ you a birthday card.
9. I‘m sure David didn't go to the supermarket.
David _____________ to the supermarket.
10. It's likely she has forgotten about the meeting.
She ________________ about the meeting.
11. It's likely we will go shopping this afternoon.
We _______________ shopping this afternoon.
12. It's likely he hasn't been promoted.
He _________________.

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 6.3. Speaking skill
Public Speaking
Public speaking is making a speech to public in order to address a group of people in a structured,
deliberate manner intended to inform, influence or entertain them. Presenting a good public speech
requires practice and knowledge. There are a few basics to get started. The first thing to consider is the
speaking situation which comprises identifying the audience, the occasion and the purpose of the speech.
In identifying the audience the speaker need to know who they are and what their qualities are in terms
of values, intellectual capacity and style of communication. With regard to purpose, speakers need to
accomplish general and specific purposes when they communicate.

Public speeches are organized into three main parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. The
introduction part of public speaking needs to accomplish three things: grabbing audience's attention
accompanied by greeting, establishing goodwill and credibility of the information and giving a preview
of the general structure of the speech. The body part of public speaking will follow and it is structured
by a mode of organization, a logical or culturally specific pattern of critical thinking about ideas, events,
objects, and processes. After the body part of the speech, the conclusion will follow. The conclusion
should be somewhat shorter than the introduction and accomplishes two purposes: summarize main
ideas and give the speech a sense of closure.

Public speaking requires critical thinking-being able to make good speech with good arguments. This
need to be accompanied by arguments (claims backed by reasons that are supported by evidence),
reasons (statements of support for claims) and claims (statements about what is true or good or about
what should be done or believed).

Types of Public Speaking: Their Delivery

Public speech can be delivered by the speaker in four ways.
1. Manuscript Speech: is public speech which the speaker delivers it by reading word for word from
the written note according to meticulously prepared manuscript (note). However, facial expression and
eye contact is necessary.

2. Memorizing Speech: is public speech delivery in which the speaker memorizes first and presents it
orally in front of public without having note.

3. Impromptu Speech: is public speech which is delivered spontaneous without requiring time for
preparation the speech. The speaker might be called suddenly to say something about something.
Example interview for job competition is spontaneous speech.

4. Extemporaneous Speech: is public speech in which the speaker carefully get prepared and practiced
in advance. In presenting the speech, the extemporaneous speaker uses only a set of brief notes. It is like
mixed speech of both memorizing and manuscript speech.

Types of Public Speaking: Their Purpose

1) Informative speech: it is essentially a lecture. It is intended simply to inform your audience on
some topic. Your teachers are trying to inform you, and their lectures are essentially informative
speeches.

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 2) Persuasive Speech: is also related to the informative speech, except that you are doing more than
simply providing information on your topic- you are also providing your own opinion on that topic
and attempting to persuade your audience. Aristotle outlined the three basic ways in which
speakers can persuade their audience.
 Ethos (Appealing to Authority) establishing credibility, image, public reputation and
expertise on the subject.
 Logos: Words, concepts and logic should be used in persuasion.
 Pathos: Character, emotions, feelings, gut reactions should be exhibited by the speaker.
3) Special Occasion or Ceremonial Speech: is a speech prepared for a specific occasion and for a
purpose dictated by that occasion. Special occasion speeches are made on occasions such as
parties, holydays, award ceremonies, funeral ceremonies (eulogy) etc.
While there are a number of strategies that help you to make a better public speech the
fundamental considerations are analyzing audience, planning; organizing ideas, preparation,
coping with nervousness and extemporaneous delivery.
Speaking extempore: Effective strategies
Make eye contact and facial expression with the audience.
Speak at a normal conversational speed, neither too fast nor too slow.
Have positive body language — maintain a good posture by standing straight, with your arms in a
comfortable position.
Follow these steps to speak on the topic:
 Define the topic.

 Give examples.

 Mention one or more characteristic of the topic.

 Say why it is good/bad/important.

―Buy‖ yourself time by using expressions to:

 Introduce the topic: My topic today is…/I would like to begin by….

 Keep people interested: What is interesting about this is…/ I think the audience would be
interested to know that…

 Give illustrations: For example…/for instance…/a good example of this is…

 Emphasize: An important thing about this is…/Let me emphasise that

 Conclude: In the end…/I’d like to end by…/In conclusion…

Present your speech in an organized and structured way

Choose your words carefully, and try to use different words in each sentence. For example, rather than
saying: Ethiopia is a beautiful country. It has beautiful scenery and beautiful animals, use
different descriptive terms like breath taking scenery, a variety of animals, etc.

175
Use good pronunciation. Do not run over your words, and avoid an artificial accent. A natural and clear
pronunciation impresses people.
Be grammatical correct. The best of speeches fail to impress if the sentences are ungrammatical.
Studies show that public speaking is the number one fear of many people. However, with the help of
different strategies and training one can overcome anxiety and becomes a confident and compelling
speaker. If you speak well in public, it can help you get a job or promotion, influence peoples‘ attitude,
raise awareness for your team or organization, and educate others. The more you push yourself to speak
in front of others, the better you'll become, and the more confidence you'll have. In this section you will
select topic, gather information on the subject, plan, organize, rehearse and present different types of
speeches in groups.

Activity: The following list contains some general topics for public speaking. Select any topic and
narrow down the topic; decide on your purpose; gather information; organize your ideas and structure it
in speech format. Then, present it to the class.

 Abortion  Weather condition of Fitche

 Academic Freedom  Challenges of campus
 Affirmative Action  Harmful traditional practices
 Disabilities  Equality
 Global Warming  Illegal Migration
 Advantage or disadvantage of watching TV  Environmental pollution

6.4. Punctuations Mark in English

In English, there are 16 punctuation marks — the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma,
semicolon, colon, em dash, en dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, double quotation
marks, single quotation marks, and ellipsis — and they‘re not as scary as they sound.

Each punctuation mark has a specific use and purpose in a sentence's structure.

Period ( . )
The . is called a period. The period actually serves two purposes in grammar.

When it appears at the end of a declarative sentence, it ends the sentence. The period can also indicate
that a word is an abbreviation.

As a sentence ender - Jane and Jack went to the market.

After an abbreviation - John Jones Jr. was born on Dec. 6, 2008.

Question Mark ( ? )
The ? is called a question mark. Question marks ask direct questions, which are also known as
interrogative sentences. They can also express confusion.
Interrogative sentence - When did Jane leave for the market?
Expressing confusion - Why do we have so much homework
176
 Exclamation Point ( ! )
The ! is called an exclamation point. Exclamation points are punctuation marks that show a sudden
outcry in writing.

They also emphasize a point more strongly than a period.

Sudden outcry - "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.

To emphasize a point - My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

Comma ( , )
The , is called a comma. Commas separate ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence. They
also appear in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the salutation and closing.

Direct address - Thanks for all your help, John.

Separating two complete sentences - We went to the movies, and then we went out to lunch.
Separating elements in a list - Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue dress.

Semicolon ( ; )
The ; is called a semicolon.

Semicolons are punctuation marks that connect independent clauses to show a closer relationship
between the clauses than a period would. They can also separate items in a list that already include
commas.

Connecting independent clauses - John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.
Items in a list - I‘ve visited Cleveland, Ohio; Los Angeles, California; and St. Louis, Missouri.

Colon ( : )
The : is called a colon. Colons introduce a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series. They can
also clarify information or emphasize an important word or phrase.

Introducing a series - He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and
economics.
Clarifying information - I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.
Emphasizing an important phrase - There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

Em Dash ( — )
The — is called an em dash. Em dashes set off information from the rest of the sentence. They can also
show emphasis to a word or phrase.

You can add spaces to either side of an em dash, depending on your style guide.

177
Setting off information - My best friend — whom I‘ve known since I was a kid — is moving away.
Showing emphasis - The house was beautiful — but haunted.

En Dash ( – )
The – is called an en dash. En dashes are shorter than em dashes, and they indicate a range or connection
between numbers or words.

You don‘t need to use spaces on either side of an en dash.

Indicating range - The Civil War (1861–1865) made a lasting impact in the United States.
Indicating connection - When does the Denver–Dallas flight arrive?

Hyphen ( - )
The - is called a hyphen. Hyphens are even shorter than en dashes. They join two or more words
together to make compound nouns, compound adjectives, and compound numbers.

Compound noun - My sister-in-law works as a pastry chef.

Compound adjective - The well-known author signed autographs for his fans.
Compound number - Cory can count all the way to ninety-nine.

Parentheses ( )
The ( ) are called parentheses.
Parentheses add further thoughts or qualifying remarks to a sentence. They separate these phrases from
the rest of the sentence.

Further thought - John and Jane (who are brother and sister) both have red hair.
Qualifying remarks - Add any special skills (typing, organization, training, and so on) to your resume.

Brackets [ ]
The [ ] are called brackets. Brackets clarify meaning in a quote by adding words or the phrase sic. They
also form parenthetical statements inside larger parenthetical statements (called nesting parentheses).

Adding words to a quote - ―He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house,‖ reported the detective.
Adding sic to a quote - ―Our team issues no further statements [sic] at this time.‖
Nesting parentheses - We decided to go to the Grand Canyon (my [childhood] dream) this summer.

Braces { }
The { } are called braces. Braces contain sets of numerical or specialized information to show that they
are considered as a unit.

You won‘t often see braces in writing, but you‘ll see them around groups of numbers and mathematical
expressions.

178
Grouping numbers - The teacher wrote a set of numbers {6, 9, 12} on the board.
Mathematical expression - (2{1+[23-3]}=x)

Apostrophe ( ‗ )
The ' is called an apostrophe.
Apostrophes are punctuation marks that indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word.
They form contractions, show the possessive case, or create plurals of lowercase letters.

Contractions - I've seen that movie several times.

Possessive case - Sara‘s dog bit the neighbor.
Plural for lowercase letters - Mind your p's and q's.

Quotation Marks (― ‖)
The " " are called quotation marks (or double quotation marks). Quotation marks indicate the beginning
and end of a quoted passage. They can also show dialogue in fiction.

Quoted passage - Nathan Hale‘s last words were, ―I regret that I have but one life to live for my
country.‖
Dialogue - "Don't go outside," Katie said.

Single Quotation Marks (‗ ‘)

The ' ' are called single quotation marks (or single quotes). Single quotation marks show quotes within a
quotation, and they set off quotes in headlines.

Quotes within quotations - Marie told the teacher, "Marc said to me 'Bill started the fight,' and I believed
him."
Quotes in headlines - President Declares, ‗War Is Over‘

Ellipsis (...)
The .... is called an ellipsis. An ellipsis indicates an omission of words or sentences.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipsis to
avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.

Omission of words - She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to 10, then went to find
him.
Within a quotation - When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays
in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

179
 COLLOCATIONS IN ENGLISH
What is a collocation?
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right" to native
English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and
just sound "wrong".
Look at these examples:

natural English... unnatural English...

the fast train the quick train

fast food quick food

a quick shower a fast shower

a quick meal a fast meal

Why Learn Collocations?

 Your language will be more natural and more easily understood.
 You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yourself.
 It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as single
words.
Types of collocation
There are several different types of collocation made from combinations of verb, noun, adjective etc. Some
of the most common types are:
 adverb + adjective: completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied)
 adjective + noun: excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy)
 noun + noun: a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger)
 noun + verb: lions roar (NOT lions shout)
 verb + noun: commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide)
 verb + expression with preposition: burst into tears (NOT blow up in tears)
 verb + adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)
Sample Collocations
There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective + adverb, noun + noun, verb +
noun and so on. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample sentences.
1. Adverb + adjective
 Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.
 We entered a richly decorated room.
 Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?
2. Adjective + noun
 The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
 The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
 He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. Noun + noun
 Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.
 The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
 I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. Noun + verb
 The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.
  Snow was falling as our plane took off.
 The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
5. Verb + noun
 The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.
 I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
 He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.
6. Verb + expression with preposition
 We had to return home because we had run out of money.
 At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
 Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.
7. Verb + adverb
 She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
 Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
 I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
 IRREGULAR VERB
Irregular Verbs contains over 370 irregular verbs used in modern English.
 Alternate forms are separated by /. The first form listed is the most commonly used
 Forms which are primarily used in British English are in italics.
 To view a definition of the verb, click on the infinitive form.
Base form Past Simple Past Participle
A
arise arose arisen
awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken
B
backslide backslid backslidden / backslid
be was, were been
bear bore born / borne
beat beat beaten / beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet / betted [?] bet / betted [?]
bid (farewell) bid / bade bidden
bid (offer amount) bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast / broadcasted broadcast / broadcasted
browbeat browbeat browbeaten / browbeat
build built built
burn burned / burnt [?] burned / burnt [?]
burst burst burst
bust busted / bust busted / bust
buy bought bought
C
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
crossbreed crossbred crossbred
cut cut cut
D
daydream daydreamed / daydreamt [?] daydreamed / daydreamt [?]
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
disprove disproved disproved / disproven
dive (jump head-first) dove / dived dived
dive (scuba diving) dived / dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed / dreamt [?] dreamed / dreamt [?]
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt / dwelled [?] dwelt / dwelled [?]
E
eat ate eaten
F
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit (tailor, change size) fitted / fit [?] fitted / fit [?]
fit (be right size) fit / fitted [?] fit / fitted [?]
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast forecast
forego (also forgo) forewent foregone
foresee foresaw foreseen
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten / forgot [?]
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
frostbite frostbit frostbitten
G
get got gotten / got [?]
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
H
hand-feed hand-fed hand-fed
handwrite handwrote handwritten
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn / hewed
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
I
inbreed inbred inbred
inlay inlaid inlaid
input input / inputted input / inputted
interbreed interbred interbred
interweave interwove / interweaved interwoven / interweaved
interwind interwound interwound
J
jerry-build jerry-built jerry-built

K
keep kept kept
kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled
knit knitted / knit knitted / knit
know knew known
L
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned / leant [?] leaned / leant [?]
leap leaped / leapt [?] leaped / leapt [?]
learn learned / learnt [?] learned / learnt [?]
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
lie (not tell truth) REGULAR lied lied
light lit / lighted lit / lighted
lip-read lip-read lip-read
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
miscast miscast miscast
misdeal misdealt misdealt
misdo misdid misdone
mishear misheard misheard
mislay mislaid mislaid
mislead misled misled
mislearn mislearned / mislearnt [?] mislearned / mislearnt [?]
misread misread misread
misset misset misset
misspeak misspoke misspoken
misspell misspelled / misspelt [?] misspelled / misspelt [?]
misspend misspent misspent
mistake mistook mistaken
misteach mistaught mistaught
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
miswrite miswrote miswritten
mow mowed mowed / mown
N
No irregular verbs beginning with "N."
O
offset offset offset
outbid outbid outbid
outbreed outbred outbred
outdo outdid outdone
outdraw outdrew outdrawn
outdrink outdrank outdrunk
outdrive outdrove outdriven
outfight outfought outfought
outfly outflew outflown
outgrow outgrew outgrown
outleap outleaped / outleapt [?] outleaped / outleapt [?]
outlie (not tell truth) REGULAR outlied outlied
outride outrode outridden
outrun outran outrun
outsell outsold outsold
outshine outshined / outshone [?] outshined / outshone [?]
outshoot outshot outshot
outsing outsang outsung
outsit outsat outsat
outsleep outslept outslept
outsmell outsmelled / outsmelt [?] outsmelled / outsmelt [?]
outspeak outspoke outspoken
outspeed outsped outsped
outspend outspent outspent
outswear outswore outsworn
outswim outswam outswum
outthink outthought outthought
outthrow outthrew outthrown
outwrite outwrote outwritten
overbid overbid overbid
overbreed overbred overbred
overbuild overbuilt overbuilt
overbuy overbought overbought
overcome overcame overcome
overdo overdid overdone
overdraw overdrew overdrawn
overdrink overdrank overdrunk
overeat overate overeaten
overfeed overfed overfed
overhang overhung overhung
overhear overheard overheard
overlay overlaid overlaid
overpay overpaid overpaid
override overrode overridden
overrun overran overrun
oversee oversaw overseen
oversell oversold oversold
oversew oversewed oversewn / oversewed
overshoot overshot overshot
oversleep overslept overslept
overspeak overspoke overspoken
overspend overspent overspent
overspill overspilled / overspilt [?] overspilled / overspilt [?]
overtake overtook overtaken
overthink overthought overthought
overthrow overthrew overthrown
overwind overwound overwound
overwrite overwrote overwritten
P
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled
prebuild prebuilt prebuilt
predo predid predone
premake premade premade
prepay prepaid prepaid
presell presold presold
preset preset preset
preshrink preshrank preshrunk
proofread proofread proofread
prove proved proven / proved
put put put
Q
quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen
quit quit / quitted [?] quit / quitted [?]
R
read read (sounds like "red") read (sounds like "red")
reawake reawoke reawaken
rebid rebid rebid
rebind rebound rebound
rebroadcast rebroadcast / rebroadcasted rebroadcast / rebroadcasted
rebuild rebuilt rebuilt
recast recast recast
recut recut recut
redeal redealt redealt
redo redid redone
redraw redrew redrawn
refit (replace parts) refit / refitted [?] refit / refitted [?]
refit (retailor) refitted / refit [?] refitted / refit [?]
regrind reground reground
regrow regrew regrown
rehang rehung rehung
rehear reheard reheard
reknit reknitted / reknit reknitted / reknit
relay (for example tiles) relaid relaid
relay (pass along) REGULAR relayed relayed
relearn relearned / relearnt [?] relearned / relearnt [?]
relight relit / relighted relit / relighted
remake remade remade
repay repaid repaid
reread reread reread
rerun reran rerun
resell resold resold
resend resent resent
reset reset reset
resew resewed resewn / resewed
retake retook retaken
reteach retaught retaught
retear retore retorn
retell retold retold
rethink rethought rethought
retread retread retread
retrofit retrofitted / retrofit [?] retrofitted / retrofit [?]
rewake rewoke / rewaked rewaken / rewaked
rewear rewore reworn
reweave rewove / reweaved rewoven / reweaved
rewed rewed / rewedded rewed / rewedded
rewet rewet / rewetted [?] rewet / rewetted [?]
rewin rewon rewon
rewind rewound rewound
rewrite rewrote rewritten
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
roughcast roughcast roughcast
run ran run
S
sand-cast sand-cast sand-cast
saw sawed sawed / sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn / sewed
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved / shaven
shear sheared sheared / shorn
shed shed shed
shine shined / shone [?] shined / shone [?]
shit shit / shat / shitted shit/ shat / shitted
shoot shot shot
show showed shown / showed
shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk
shut shut shut
sight-read sight-read sight-read
sing sang sung
sink sank / sunk sunk
sit sat sat
slay (kill) slew / slayed slain / slayed
slay (amuse) REGULAR slayed slayed
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk
slit slit slit
smell smelled / smelt [?] smelled / smelt [?]
sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck
sow sowed sown / sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped / speeded sped / speeded
spell spelled / spelt [?] spelled / spelt [?]
spend spent spent
spill spilled / spilt [?] spilled / spilt [?]
spin spun spun
spit spit / spat spit / spat
split split split
spoil spoiled / spoilt [?] spoiled / spoilt [?]
spoon-feed spoon-fed spoon-fed
spread spread spread
spring sprang / sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk / stank stunk
strew strewed strewn / strewed
stride strode stridden
strike (delete) struck stricken
strike (hit) struck struck / stricken
string strung strung
strive strove / strived striven / strived
sublet sublet sublet
sunburn sunburned / sunburnt [?] sunburned / sunburnt [?]
swear swore sworn
sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen / swelled
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
T
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
telecast telecast telecast
tell told told
test-drive test-drove test-driven
test-fly test-flew test-flown
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden / trod
typecast typecast typecast
typeset typeset typeset
typewrite typewrote typewritten
U
unbend unbent unbent
unbind unbound unbound
unclothe unclothed / unclad [?] unclothed / unclad [?]
underbid underbid underbid
undercut undercut undercut
underfeed underfed underfed
undergo underwent undergone
underlie underlay underlain
undersell undersold undersold
underspend underspent underspent
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
underwrite underwrote underwritten
undo undid undone
unfreeze unfroze unfrozen
unhang unhung unhung
unhide unhid unhidden
unknit unknitted / unknit unknitted / unknit
unlearn unlearned / unlearnt [?] unlearned / unlearnt [?]
unsew unsewed unsewn / unsewed
unsling unslung unslung
unspin unspun unspun
unstick unstuck unstuck
unstring unstrung unstrung
unweave unwove / unweaved unwoven / unweaved
unwind unwound unwound
uphold upheld upheld
upset upset upset
V
No commonly used irregular verbs beginning with "V."
To view our extended dictionary including rare and antiquated forms, Click Here.
W
wake woke / waked woken / waked
waylay waylaid waylaid
wear wore worn
weave wove / weaved woven / weaved
wed wed / wedded wed / wedded
weep wept wept
wet wet / wetted [?] wet / wetted [?]
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written