Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications 1st

Edition by Mieczyslaw Jurczyk ISBN 9814303844

9789814303842 download

https://ebookball.com/product/bionanomaterials-for-dental-
applications-1st-edition-by-mieczyslaw-jurczyk-
isbn-9814303844-9789814303842-6722/

Instantly Access and Download Textbook at https://ebookball.com

 Get Your Digital Files Instantly: PDF, ePub, MOBI and More
Quick Digital Downloads: PDF, ePub, MOBI and Other Formats

Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications 1st Edition by Mieczyslaw

Jurczyk ISBN 9814303844 9789814303842

https://ebookball.com/product/bionanomaterials-for-dental-
applications-1st-edition-by-mieczyslaw-jurczyk-
isbn-9814303844-9789814303842-6722/

Materials Chemicals and Methods for Dental Applications 1st Edition by

Johannes Karl Fink ISBN 1119510317 9781119510314

https://ebookball.com/product/materials-chemicals-and-methods-
for-dental-applications-1st-edition-by-johannes-karl-fink-
isbn-1119510317-9781119510314-5334/

Polymers for Dental and Orthopedic Applications 1st Edition by Shalaby

W Shalaby, Ulrich Salz ISBN 1040062962 9781040062968

https://ebookball.com/product/polymers-for-dental-and-orthopedic-
applications-1st-edition-by-shalaby-w-shalaby-ulrich-salz-
isbn-1040062962-9781040062968-6680/

Dental Computing and Applications Advanced Techniques for Clinical

Dentistry 1st Edition by Andriani Daskalaki ISBN 1605662925
9781605662923

https://ebookball.com/product/dental-computing-and-applications-
advanced-techniques-for-clinical-dentistry-1st-edition-by-
andriani-daskalaki-isbn-1605662925-9781605662923-7118/
Atlas of Cone Beam Imaging for Dental Applications 2nd Edition by Dale
Miles ISBN 0867155655 9780867155655

https://ebookball.com/product/atlas-of-cone-beam-imaging-for-
dental-applications-2nd-edition-by-dale-miles-
isbn-0867155655-9780867155655-6936/

Atlas of Cone Beam Imaging for Dental Applications 2nd Edition by Dale
Miles ISBN 0867155655 9780867155655

https://ebookball.com/product/atlas-of-cone-beam-imaging-for-
dental-applications-2nd-edition-by-dale-miles-
isbn-0867155655-9780867155655-5560/

Color Atlas of Cone Beam Volumetric Imaging for Dental Applications

1st Edition by Dale Miles ISBN 0867154810 9780867154818

https://ebookball.com/product/color-atlas-of-cone-beam-
volumetric-imaging-for-dental-applications-1st-edition-by-dale-
miles-isbn-0867154810-9780867154818-6930/

Dental Applications of Nanotechnology 1st Edition by Ramesh Chaughule

ISBN 9783319976341 3319976346

https://ebookball.com/product/dental-applications-of-
nanotechnology-1st-edition-by-ramesh-chaughule-
isbn-9783319976341-3319976346-5082/

Clinical Applications of Digital Dental Technology 1st edition by Radi

Masri, Carl Driscoll

https://ebookball.com/product/clinical-applications-of-digital-
dental-technology-1st-edition-by-radi-masri-carl-driscoll-5512/
B ion anom ate ri a I s
for
Dental
Hpplications
edited by

Mieczyslaw Jurczyk

PAN STANFO RD 'rrr PU RU SHI NG

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20121004

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-9-81430-384-2 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reason-
able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.
copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
(CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-
tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been
granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
 Contents

Preface ix
1. Introduction 1
Mieczyslaw Jurczyk and Karolina Jurczyk
1.1 Motivation 1
1.2 Nanomaterials 6
1.3 Nanobiotechnology 9
2. Stomatognathic System 17
Karolina Jurczyk
2.1 Elements of the Stomatognathic System 17
2.2 Implantology Issues in the Stomatognathic System 22
2.3 Characteristics of the Stomatognathic System 25
3. Biomaterials 29
Mieczyslaw Jurczyk and Karolina Jurczyk
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Metallic Biomaterials 33
3.2.1 Stainless Steel 35
3.2.2 Cobalt Alloys 39
3.2.3 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 42
3.2.4 Noble Metal Alloys 50
3.3 Ceramic Biomaterials 50
3.3.1 Bioinert Ceramics 52
3.3.1.1 Alumina 52
3.3.1.2 Zirconia 53
3.3.1.3 Carbon 55
3.3.2 Bioactive Ceramics 56
3.3.3 Bioresorbable Ceramics 59
3.4 Polymers 61
3.4.1 Acrylic Resins 62
3.4.2 Composite Resins 63
3.5 Composite Biomaterials 65
vi Contents

4. Nanotechnology 81
Mieczyslaw Jurczyk and Mieczyslawa U. Jurczyk
4.1 Synthesis of Nanopowders 83
4.1.1 Top-Down Approach 83
4.1.1.1 Milling processes 83
4.1.1.2 Nanoprocessing 85
4.1.1.3 Mechanical alloying 86
4.1.2 Bottom-Up Approach 91
4.1.2.1 Wet chemical processes 91
4.1.2.2 Form in place processes 92
4.1.2.3 Gas phase synthesis 93
4.2 Nanopowder Consolidation 95
4.2.1 Consolidation Methods 96
4.2.2 Nanosintering 97
4.2.3 Pore Effects and Grain Growth 98
4.3 Severe Plastic Deformation 98
4.3.1 Equal Channel Angular Pressing 99
4.3.2 Cyclic Extrusion Compression Method 100
4.3.3 High Pressure Torsion 100
4.3.4 Other Severe Plastic Deformation Methods 101
5. Corrosion of the Metallic Biomaterials and Implants 107
Jaroslaw Jakubowicz
5.1 Corrosion of the Ti-Based Alloys 107
5.2 Corrosion of the Ti-Based Porous Materials 127
5.3 Corrosion of the Hydroxyapatite
Ti-Coated Compounds 132
5.4 Corrosion of the Other Dental Materials 138
6. Nanostructured Stainless Steels 147
Maciej Tulinski
6.1 Nickel Free Stainless Steels 148
6.2 Nanostructured Nickel Free Stainless Steels 153
6.3 Nickel Free Stainless Steels/
Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposites 158
7. Ti-Based Ceramic Nanocomposites 165
Katarzyna Niespodziana and Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
7.1 Introduction 165
7.2 Ti-HA Nanocomposites 167
 Contents vii

7.2.1 Microstructure and Phase Constitution 167

7.2.2 Mechanical Properties 171
7.2.3 Corrosion Properties 174
7.3 Ti-SiO2 Nanocomposites 176
7.4 Ti-45S5 Bioglass Nanocomposites 179
7.5 Ti-Al2O3 Nanocomposites 180
8. Shape Memory NiTi Materials 185
Andrzej Miklaszewski
8.1 Background 185
8.2 Overview of Shape Memory Materials 189
8.2.1 MSMAs — Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys 189
8.2.2 SMPs — Shape Memory Polymers 192
8.3 Brief History of SMAs 194
8.4 SMAs — Introduction to Properties 196
8.4.1 Thermally Induced Transformation 198
8.4.2 Mechanically Induced Transformation 199
8.4.3 SME — Shape Memory Effect 201
8.4.4 TWSME — Two-Way Shape Memory Effect 202
8.5 Receiving of Nickel–Titanium Shape Memory Alloy 204
8.6 Biocompatibility and Corosion Resistance of Nickel
Titanium SMA 211
8.7 Shape Memory Materials Application 213
9. Surface Treatment of the Ti-Based Nanomaterials 221
Jaroslaw Jakubowicz
9.1 Introduction 221
9.2 Electrochemical Anodic Oxidation 224
9.2.1 Electrochemically Grown Porous TiO2 224
9.2.2 TiO2 Nanotubes and Nano ibers 251
9.2.3 Ti-Based Nanocomposites 273
9.2.4 Ti-Based Nanoalloys 276
9.3 Formation of Electrochemically Grown Ca/P Layer 280
10. Carbon Materials 305
Jaroslaw Jakubowicz
10.1 Carbon Thin Films 305
10.2 Carbon Nanotubes 309
10.3 Carbon Nano ibers 317
10.4 Carbon Nanoparticles 324
viii Contents

11. Nanomaterials in Preventive Dentistry 333

Karolina Jurczyk and Mieczyslawa U. Jurczyk
11.1 Nanodentistry 334
11.2 Biomimetic Nanomaterials 334
11.3 Antimicrobial Effect of Nanometric Bioactive
Glass 45S5 337
11.4 Nano-Sized Calcium-De icient Apatite Crystals 340
12. Osteoblast Behavior on Nanostructured
Implant Materials 345
Karolina Jurczyk and Mieczyslawa U. Jurczyk
12.1 Introduction 345
12.2 Biocompatibility 347
12.3 Nanostructured Biomaterials 352
12.3.1 Nanostructured Biointerfaces 354
12.3.2 Osteoblastic Cell Behavior on Nanostructured
Surface of Metal Implants 355
12.3.3 Adhesion of Osteoblast-Like Cells on
Nanostructured Hydroxyapatite 365
12.3.4 Size Effect of Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles
on Proliferation and Apoptosis of
Osteoblast Cells 366
12.3.5 Biocompatibility of Ti-Bioceramic
Nanocomposites 369
12.3.6 Biocompatibility of Ni-Free Stainless Steel 371
13. Applications of Nanostructured Materials
in Dentistry 387
Karolina Jurczyk and Mieczyslawa U. Jurczyk
13.1 Bulk Nanostructured Titanium 388
13.2 Dental Implants with Nanosurface 392
13.3 Nanostructured Materials for Permanent and
Bioresorbable Medical Implants 396
13.4 Nanostructured Dental Composite Restorative
Materials 399
Index 407
 Preface

Nanotechnology involves the precise manipulation and control of

atoms, the building elements of all matter, to create new materials.
It is widely accepted that this technology is developing into a major
driver for commercial success in the 21st century. Over the last
decade, the use of nanostructured metallic and ceramic materials
has already changed the approach to materials design in many
applications, by seeking structural control at the atomic level and
by the tailoring of the mechanical engineering, physico-chemical,
and biological properties. Today, it is possible to prepare metal and
ceramic nanocrystals with nearly monodispersive size distribution.
Nanomaterials demonstrate novel properties compared with
conventional (microcrystalline) materials owing to their nanoscale
features.
Recently, the mechanical alloying method and the powder
metallurgy process for the fabrication of metal/alloy–ceramic
nanocomposites with a unique microstructure have been developed.
The processes permit the control of microstructural properties such
as the size of pore openings, surface properties, and the nature of
the base metal/alloy. The availability of large amounts of speci ically
tailored nanostructured metal/alloy-based powders is crucial for
the successful development of new dental implants.
One of the potential applications of nanostructured materials
is dentistry. Although Ti is widely used for clinical purposes, some
unresolved issues still remain. The clinical failure rate for implant
materials occurs in the range from a few to over 10%.
The lack of suf icient bonding of synthetic implants to
surrounding body tissues has led to the investigations of novel
material formulations. Nanomaterials can be used to synthesize
implants with surface roughness similar to that of natural tissues.
The mechanical properties are improved, and what is more, the book
highlights the enhanced cytocompatibility of the nanomaterials,
leading to increased tissue regeneration.
The present research aims to fabricate porous scaffolds to
promote bone or tissue ingrowth into pores and provide biological
anchorage. Several factors have shown their in luence on bone
x Preface

ingrowth into porous implants, such as porous structure (pore size,

pore shape, porosity, and interconnecting pore size) of the implant,
duration of implantation, biocompatibility, implant stiffness, and
micromotion between the implant and the adjacent bone. The
architecture of a porous implant has been suggested to have a great
effect on implant integration by newly grown bone.
This book is our contribution to this innovative area of
bionanomaterials and bionanocomposites for dental applications.
Wherever possible, we used our own results to illustrate the
discussed subject. The content of this book is classi ied into
13 chapters. The irst chapter emphasizes the motivation for
the transformation to the bionanomaterials and synthesis of
nanomaterials, aiming at describing the principles and approaches
of the synthesis techniques. We provide a comprehensive history of
the development of biomaterials, including the existing fabrication
methods, with special emphasis on ball milling in high-energy
mills. The second chapter focuses on the stomatognathic system. In
Chapters 3 and 4, we review the properties of selected biomaterials
and the application of nanotechnology in dental materials. Chapter 5
presents a thorough review of the corrosion of metallic biomaterials
and implants. The book also describes Ni-free austenitic stainless
steel–hydroxyapatite nanocomposites (Chapter 6), Ti-based ceramic
nanocomposites (Chapter 7), and shape memory Ni–Ti materials
(Chapter 8). Chapters 9 and 10 provide information on the surface
treatment of Ti-based nanocrystalline biomaterials and carbon
materials. The present state of knowledge related to nanomaterials
in preventive dentistry and osteoblast behavior on nanostructured
metal implants are presented in Chapters 11 and 12. Chapter 13,
the last chapter, focuses on the application of bulk nanostructured
materials in dentistry. The objective is to show their unique
properties.
Our goal is to provide comprehensive and complete knowledge
about bionanomaterials for dental applications to graduate students
and researchers, whose background can be in chemistry, physics,
chemical engineering, materials science, biomedical science, or even
dental science.
I express my appreciation to all of the authors for their
contributions.

Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
Chapter 1

Introduction

Mieczyslaw Jurczyka,* and Karolina Jurczykb

aPoznan University of Technology, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering,

M. Sklodowska-Curie Sq. 5, 60-695 Poznan, Poland

bConservative Dentistry and Periodontology Department,

University of Medical Sciences, Bukowska 70 Street, 60-812 Poznan, Poland

*[email protected]

1.1 Motivation
In 1959 Richard Feynman, a Physics Nobel laureate, presented his
famous idea of nanostructure materials production [17]. He stated:
“The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against
the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom.” Feynman
proceeded to describe building with atomic precision, and outlined a
pathway involving a series of increasingly smaller machines. Today,
it is possible to prepare metal, ceramic, and alloy nanocrystals with
nearly monodispersive size distribution. Nanostructures represent
key building blocks for nanoscale science and technology.
Nanotechnology is a technology that owes its name to the pre ix
nano, a Greek word for dwarf, as applied to objects that exhibit
billionth (10–9) meter dimensions. Recently, nanotechnology has led
to a remarkable convergence of disparate ields including biology,

Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications

Edited by Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
Copyright © 2013 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4303-83-5 (Hardcover), 978-981-4303-84-2 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
2 IntroducƟon

applied physics, chemistry, materials science, and computational

modeling [3]. Broadly speaking, nanotechnology is the development
and use of techniques to construct structures in the physical size
range of 1–100 nanometers (nm), as well as the incorporation of
these structures into applications. Now, nanotechnology is entering
many industry sectors including energy, electronics, aerospace as
well as medicine.
Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are not new. Size-dependent
properties have been exploited for centuries. For example, Au and
Ag nanoparticles have been used as colored pigments in stained
glass and ceramics since the 10th century AD. Many chemicals
and chemical processes have nanoscale features and, for example,
chemists have been making polymers (large molecules made up of
nanoscalar subunits) for many decades. But now, due to imaging
techniques like the scanning tunneling microscope and the atomic
force microscope, the understanding of the nanoworld has improved
considerably [14, 16].
During the past few years, interest in the study of bionanostruc-
ture materials has been increasing at an accelerating rate, stimulated
by recent advances in materials synthesis and characterization
techniques and the realization that these materials exhibit many
interesting and unexpected properties with a number of potential
technological applications [6, 18, 40, 52]. Nanotechnology provides
the tools and technology platforms for the investigation and
transformation of biological systems, and biology offers inspiration
models and bio-assembled components to nanotechnology [21].
For example, the London Centre for Nanotechnology has a wide
range of bionanotechnology and health care research programs:
bionanoparticles, bionanosensors, biocompatible nanomaterials,
advanced medical imaging, technologies for diagnosis, self-
assembled biostructures, degenerative disease studies, molecular
simulation, lab on a chip and screening, drug screening technologies,
and molecular simulation.
Application of new materials such as biomaterials and implants
increases steadily. However not all replacement systems have
provided trouble-free service. In dental implants the rate of success
is 96–98%, which, by millions of implants, gives a signi icant number
of patients in trouble [2]. Therefore, in a failure-free replacement
system, no particulate or corrosion debris would be generated and
no loosing of the implant components should occur. The source of
 Motivation 3

debris particles is the wear process and grit blast, which includes
Al2O3, ZrO2, or SiO2 particles on the surfaces of especially treated
implants.
An appropriate surface modi ication would prevent their transfer
into nearby tissues. The absence of debris particle generation is
crucial for the prevention of implant malfunction. The determination
of the mechanisms of debris generation and appreciate modi ication
of implant surface bulk structure and properties is one of the
main aims of current research projects.
The main purpose of current research is to prevent the failures
caused by infection by changing the biomaterial’s properties and
making them highly friendly for surrounding tissues.
Ti and Ti-based alloys are preferred materials in the production
of implants in both medical and dental applications. These
biomaterials have relatively poor tribological properties because
of their low hardness. One of the methods that allow the change
of biological properties of Ti alloys is the modi ication of its
chemical composition. The other way is to produce a composite
that will exhibit the favorable mechanical properties of titanium
and excellent biocompatibility and bioactivity of ceramic. The most
commonly used ceramics employed in medicine are hydroxyapatite
(HA), silica, and bioglass. HA shows good biocompatibility because
of its similar chemical and crystallographic structure to the apatite
of living bone. The ceramic coating on the titanium improves the
surface bioactivity but often lakes off as a result of poor ceramic/
metal interface bonding, which may cause the surgery to fail. For this
reason, composite materials containing titanium and ceramic as a
reinforced phase are expected to have broad practical applications.
Since 1996 a research program was initiated at the Institute of
Materials Science and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology,
in which ine grained, intermetallic compounds were produced
by mechanical alloying, high-energy ball milling, hydrogenation-
disproportionation-desorption-recombination (HDDR), or mechano-
chemical processing (MCP) [22−28, 34−36]. The mechanical synthesis
of nanopowders and their subsequent consolidation is an example
how this idea can be realized in metals by a so-called bottom-up
approach. On the other hand, other methods have been developed,
which are based on the concept of the production of nanomaterials
from conventional bulk materials via the top-down approach. The
investigations by severe plastic deformation (e.g., cyclic extrusion
4 IntroducƟon

compression method (CEC) or equal channel angular extrusion

(ECAE)) [39, 46, 50, 51], show that such a transformation is indeed
possible. Currently, at Poznan University of Technology, we facilitate
the multidisciplinary interaction of physicists, chemists, materials
engineers, biologists, and dentists collaborating on nanoscience, with
the goal of integrating nanoscale materials with biological systems.
The aim of our research is to develop a new generation of titanium
(Ni-free stainless steel)-ceramic bionanocomposites by producing
the porous structures with a strictly speci ied chemical and phase
compositions, porosity and surface morphology and, as such, will
adhere well to the substrate, show high hardness, high resistance to
biological corrosion and good biocompatibility with human tissues.
Nanomaterials can be metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite
materials that demonstrate novel properties compared with
conventional (microcrystalline) materials due to their nanoscale
features. Moreover, researchers have exhibited an increased interest
in exploring numerous biomedical applications of nanomaterials and
nanocomposites [3, 6, 40]. Till now, it has been shown that implants
made from metallic, carbon, or oxide bionanomaterials considerably
improved the prosthesis strength and their biocompatibility. These
nanocrystalline structures can be produced by non-equilibrium
processing techniques such as mechanical alloying [4, 9, 47].
The current projects aim to fabricate Ti-based porous scaffolds to
promote bone or tissue ingrowth into pores and provide biological
anchorage. Generally, porous metallic scaffolds are fabricated using
a variety of processes to provide a high degree of interconnected
porosity to allow bone ingrowth. Fabrication technologies include
chemical vapor in iltration to deposit tantalum onto vitreous
carbon foams, solid freeform fabrication, self-propagating high-
temperature synthesis, and powder metallurgy [13, 20, 29, 34, 45,
48]. While these porous metals have been successful at encouraging
bone ingrowth both in vivo and in clinical trials, the range of materials
and microstructures available is still rather limited. It is important to
use appropriate surface modi ication to increase the anti-corrosive
and biocompatible properties of Ti implants for long-term clinical
applications.
Mechanical alloying, high-energy ball milling, reactive milling,
chemical vapor transport, solid–liquid–vapor growth, solvothermal
synthesis, solid–gas high-temperature reactions, microwave
chemistry, arc furnace techniques, aerosol spray techniques, liquid
 Motivation 5

metals chemistry, and powder metallurgy process for the fabrication

of titanium (Ni-free stainless steel)–ceramic nanocomposites with
a unique microstructure were developed. Those processes permit
the control of microstructural properties such as the size of pore
openings, surfaces properties, and the nature of the base metal/
alloy. A new type of bulk three-dimensional porous Ti (Ni-free
stainless steel)-based nanocomposite biomaterials with desired
size of porous and three-dimensional capillary-porous coatings on
these nanobiocomposites was developed. Materials with nanoscale
grains would offer new structural and functional properties for
innovative products in medical/dental applications.
Various methodologies are being used in an effort to improve
the interfacial properties between the biological tissues and the
existing implants, e.g., Ti and Ti-based alloy. The electrochemical
technique, a simpler and faster method, can be used as a potential
alternative for producing porous Ti-based metals for medical
implants. Good corrosion resistance of the titanium is provided by
the passive titanium oxide ilm on the surface. This layer is important
for the good biocompatibility. The native oxide has thickness of a
few nanometers. In the case of anodic oxidation, the oxide thickness
can be multiplied up to the micrometer range. The structure
and thickness of the grown oxide depend on the electrochemical
etching conditions, for example: current density, voltage, electrolyte
composition. In the electrochemical etching of titanium, electrolytes
containing H3PO4, CH3COOH, and H2SO4 are used. In Ti anodization,
the dissolution is enhanced by HF- or NH4F-containing electrolytes,
which results in pore or nanotube formation. The current density
in this case is much higher than in the electrolyte without HF or
NH4F [22]. Fluoride ions form soluble [TiF6]2– complexes resulting
in the dissolution of the titanium oxides. In this way, the dissolution
process limits the thickness of the porous layer.
Porous implants layer has lower density than respective bulk,
and good mechanical strength is provided by bulk substrate. Hence,
the latter is attractive with respect to bulk titanium alloys. The
porous layer on the Ti substrate is necessary for osseointegration
with bones, which is not normally provided by the native oxide.
On the other hand, Ti and its alloys possess favorable properties,
such as relatively low modulus, low density, and high strength.
Apart from that, these alloys are generally regarded to have good
biocompatibility and high corrosion resistance but cannot directly
6 IntroducƟon

bond to the bone. In addition, metal implants may loosen and even
separate from surrounding tissues during implantation. Titanium-
and titanium-based alloys have relatively poor tribological pro-
perties because of their low hardness. One of the methods that
allow the change of biological properties of Ti alloys is to produce a
nanocomposite that will exhibit the favorable mechanical properties
of titanium and excellent biocompatibility and bioactivity of ceramic.
The most commonly used ceramics in medicine are hydroxyapatite,
bioglass, and Al2O3 [7, 34].
Current research on the synthesis of nanoscale metallic and
composite biomaterials, shows that Ti/(Ni-free stainless steel)–HA
nanocomposites posses better mechanical and corrosion properties
than microcrystalline titanium/Ni-free stainless steel [49]. In the
case of Ti–HA nanocomposities, the Vickers hardness also strongly
increases for Ti-20 vol% HA nanocomposites (1030 HV0.2) and
is four times higher than that of pure microcrystalline Ti metal
(250 HV0.2). The corrosion test results indicated that the
microcrystalline titanium possesses lower corrosion resistance and
thus higher corrosion current density in Ringer’s solutions. The
result indicated that there was no signi icant difference in corrosion
resistance among Ti-3 vol% HA (IC = 9.06 × 10–8 A/cm2, EC = –0.34 V)
and Ti-20 vol% HA (IC = 8.5 × 10–8, A/cm2, EC = –0.55 V) although
there was a signi icant difference in porosity. For this reason, they
are promising biomaterial for use as heavy load-bearing tissue
replacement implants.
The availability of large amounts of speci ically tailored
nanostructure Ti-based powders is crucial for the successful
development of new dental implants. The processing of these
nanomaterials and their upscaling to enable industrial use has many
challenges. Those new approaches are the gateway for traditional
industry to nanotechnology and knowledge-based materials, with
positive effects on health issues [1, 29, 45, 53].

1.2 Nanomaterials
One of the irst scienti ic reports is the colloidal gold particles
synthesized by Michael Faraday as early as 1857 [18]. By the
early 1940s, precipitated and fumed silica nanoparticles were
being manufactured and sold in the United States and Germany as
substitutes for ultra ine carbon black for rubber reinforcements.
 Nanomaterials 7

In the 1960s and 1970s, metallic nanopowders for magnetic

recording tapes were developed. The irst nano-size metallic
materials were produced in 1960 by the application of rapid
quenching process with the cooling rate of 106 K s–1 by Pol Duvez
and coworkers [30]. Using a quench technique capable of cooling
metal/alloy melts to ambient temperatures with such extraordinary
cooling rates, the process of nucleation and growth was kinetically
bypassed to yield a con iguration of frozen liquid or amorphous
metal. The nanoalloys with nanometric grains were processed by
low-temperature annealing of amorphous alloy [12]. Additionally,
in 1972 a new rapid quenching process of melt spinning was used
to spin the irst nonocrystalline ferrous and ferromagnetic metal
ribbons (Fe80B20) [10]. The outstanding physical and chemical
properties of these materials were the direct consequence of the
lack of structural crystalline long-range order and the presence
of short-range order. It is important to mention that many, if not
all of these amorphous alloys, i.e., metallic glasses, when carefully
annealed at low temperatures change to nanostructure alloy phases.
Those were the irst nanomaterials. They were produced in the
form of thin ribbons via rapid solidi ication processing of melt
alloys. They allowed controlled exploration of physical, chemical,
mechanical, and other properties as arising from nanostructures.
At this time, scientists and engineers became refocused from well-
ordered crystalline materials to disordered and nanocrystalline
phases. Gleiter observed that nanometer-size crystalline materials
being polycrystals with very small crystallite sizes of about 2–10 nm
in diameter are composed of randomly oriented high-angle grain
boundaries [18].
The irst such nanocrystalline phases came from Gleiter research
group around 1984 by evaporation of the material in a high-purity
inert gas atmosphere followed by condensation and compaction in
ultrahigh vacuum [5]. The percentage of metal atoms on the surface
of grain increases from a few percent in a 100 nm particle to about
90% in a 1 nm crystallite [19, 43]. As above, these materials should
be attractive for the development of engineering materials with an
outstanding combination of properties or novel properties. In the
meantime, among materials that became studied were nanophases
produced by mechanical alloying [4, 7, 47].
Nanomaterials continue to attract a great deal of attention
because of their potential impact on an incredibly wide range of
8 IntroducƟon

industries and markets. Consequently, the technology is evolving

rapidly and will develop faster over the coming years. Nanomaterials
cross the boundary between nanoscience and nanotechnology
and link the two areas together [37]. Nanoscience is the study of
phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular,
and macromolecular scales, where properties differ signi icantly
from those at a larger scale. Nanotechnologies are the design,
characterization, production, and application of structures, devices,
and systems by controlling shape and size on the nanoscale.
Nanoparticles can come in a wide range of morphologies, from
spheres, through lakes and platelets, to dendritic structures, tubes,
and rods.
It is recognized that the size range that provides the greatest
potential and, hence, the greatest interest is that below 100 nm;
however, there are still many applications for which larger particles
can provide properties of great interest.

1D nanocrystals
0D systems

3D nanocrystals
2D systems

Figure 1.1 Siegel’s classi ication of nanomaterials [43].

According to Siegel, nanostructure materials are classi ied as

zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-
dimensional nanostructures (Fig. 1.1) [43].
The irst industrial production of nanomaterials occurred in
the early 20th century with the production of carbon black and
subsequently, in the 1940s, fumed silica. The real burst in the
commercialization of nanoparticle production has occurred over
the last 10 years or so. One of the main drivers for this has been
the extraordinary growth in the electronics and optoelectronics as
well as in power/energy, healthcare/medical, engineering, consumer
goods, environmental and electronics industries. Table 1.1 identi ies
the key applications in healthcare/medical industries.
 Nanobiotechnology 9

Table 1.1 A selection of current and future applications using nano-

particles in healthcare/medical industries [2]

Under development Being introduced Well established

Nanocrystalline drugs for Molecular tagging Ag-based antibacterial
easier absorption using CdSe quantum wound dressings, ZnO
dots fungicide
Inhalable insulin Drug carriers for Au for biolabeling and
drugs with low water detection
solubility
Nanospheres for inhaling Coatings for Magnetic resonance
drugs currently injected implants such as imaging contrast
using biocompatible Si hydroxyapatite agents using
superparamagnetic
Fe2O3
Bone growth promoters Marker particles for Sunscreens using ZnO
use in assays and TiO2
Virus detection using
quantum dots
Anticancer treatments
Magnetic particles for
the repair of the human
body with prosthetics
or arti icial replacement
parts
Antioxidant drugs based
on fullerenes

1.3 Nanobiotechnology
Nanobiotechnology is de ined as a ield that applies the nanoscale
principles and techniques to understand and transform living or non-
living biosystems and that uses biological principles and materials
to create new devices and systems integrated from the nanoscale
[11, 41, 42]. Recent research on biosystems at the nanoscale has
created one of the most dynamic science and technology domains at
the con luence of physical sciences, molecular engineering, biology,
biotechnology, and medicine [11, 45, 53]. This domain includes
better understanding of living and thinking systems, revolutionary
biotechnology processes, the synthesis of new drugs and their
targeted delivery, regenerative medicine, neuromorphic engineering
10 IntroducƟon

and developing a sustainable environment [42]. Smalley [44]

classi ied nanotechnology into two categories: “wet” nanotechnology
(including living biosystems) and “dry” nanotechnology. Research
on dry nanostructures is now seeking systematic approaches
to engineer man-made objects at the nanoscale and to integrate
nanoscale structures into large-scale structures, as nature does.
The relationship between biomaterials and nanotechnology
was discussed recently by Williams [54]. Three aspects were
considered:
(i) In many medical applications, the form of the biomaterial is
speci ically designed such that it is presented to the human
body as a unit with nanoscale dimensions. It is important
that such material has distinctly different properties from the
bulk material as a consequence of its occurrence as discrete
entities for it to be considered a nanomaterial.
(ii) Biocompatibility phenomena are controlled by nanoscale
topographical features. It is known that interactions between
cells and biomaterial surfaces are mediated by molecules
and structures on cell membranes and within the cytoplasm.
Therefore, the behavior of such cells at the interface
with a biomaterial may be profoundly in luenced by the
nanotopography.
(iii) Nanotechnologies have positively in luenced the quality of life
through advances in medicine and biotechnology; however, it
is also possible that they may be associated with health and
environmental risks [15, 32, 33]. The rapid progress in the
industry causes, for example, huge quantities of nanoparticles
in the air produced by combustion. Small size alone is not the
critical factor in the toxicity of nanoparticles, but the overall
number and thus the total surface area (essentially the dose)
are also important. Therefore, we have to note the increasing
risk due to the development of new materials and wider
applications based on nanotechnology.
A large number of potential applications of nanotechnologies
are now opening up. Some reports give an overview of current and
potential future developments in nanoscience and nanotechnologies
and their health, safety, environmental, social, and ethical
implications. Much of nanoscience and many nanotechnologies
are concerned with producing new or enhanced materials. Some
 References 11

nano-products are already on the market and enjoying commercial

success. For example, nanoparticles are used in some sunscreens
to re lect and absorb ultraviolet (UV) light; the football-shaped
buckminsterfullerene (C60) and its analogs show great promise as
lubricants and, thanks to their cage structures, as drug delivery
systems [8, 31].
Applications of nanotechnologies in medicine are especially
promising in the long term. These can be expected to enable drug
delivery targeted at speci ic sites in the body so that, for example,
chemotherapy is less invasive [8]. Nanotechnology is expected to
lead to stronger, longer-lasting implants; sensors that can be used to
monitor aspects of human health; and improved arti icial cochleae
and retinas. However, many of these applications will not be realized
for at least 10 years, partly because of the rigorous testing and
evaluation that will be required. Antimicrobial wound dressings
are already on the market in the United States. These dressings use
nanocrystalline Ag to provide a steady dose of ionic Ag to protect
against secondary infections and are claimed to be effective against
150 different pathogens.
Little research has been carried out on the toxicity of
manufactured nanoparticles, but we can learn from studies on the
effects of exposure to mineral dusts in some workplaces and to the
nanoparticles in air pollution. Considerable evidence from industrial
exposure to mineral dusts demonstrates that the toxic hazard is
related to the surface area of the inhaled particles and to their surface
activity. Epidemiological studies of urban air pollution support the
conclusion that iner particles cause more harm than coarser ones
— diesel PM10 pollution is implicated in heart and lung disease and
asthma, particularly in susceptible people.
There is practically no information on the environmental impacts
of nanoparticles. More research on their properties and effects is
necessary. It is time to look at the toxicity, epidemiology, persistence,
and bioaccumulation of manufactured nanoparticles, including their
exposure pathways.

References

1. Agheli, H., Malmström, J., Hanarp, P., and Sutherland, D.S. (2006).
Nanostructured biointerfaces, Mater. Sci. Eng., C, 26, pp. 911−917.
12 IntroducƟon

2. Arys, A., Philippart, C., Dourov, N., He, Y., Le, Q.T., and Pireaux, J.J. (1998).
Analysis of titanium dental implants after failure of osseointegration:
combined histological, electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy approach, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 43, pp. 300–312.
3. Baker Jr., J.R. (2005). What is nanomedicine?, Nanomed. Nanotechnol.
Biol. Med., 1, p. 243.
4. Benjamin, J.S. (1976). Mechanical alloying, Sci. Am., 234, pp. 40–57.
5. Birringer, R., Gleiter, H., Klein, H.P., and Marquardt, P. (1984).
Nanocrystalline materials — an approach to a novel solid structure
with gas-like disorder?, Phys. Lett., A, 102, p. 365–369.
6. Bugunia-Kubik, K., and Susisaga, M. (2002). From molecular biology to
nanotechnology and nanomedicine, J. Biosystems., 65, pp. 123–138.
7. Cao, W.P., and Hench, L. (1996). Bioactive materials, Ceramics Int., 22,
pp. 493–507.
8. Ciavarella, S., Milano, A., Dammacco, F., and Silvestris, F. (2010).
Targeted therapies in cancer, BioDrugs., 24, pp. 77–88.
9. Chawla, V., Prakash, S., and Sidhu, B.S. (2007). State of the art:
applications of mechanically alloyed nanomaterials — a review,
Mater. Manuf. Proc., 22, pp. 469–473.
10. Chen, H.S., and Polk, D.E. (1974). US Patent 3,856,513, Allied Chemical
Corporation, USA.
11. Chung, D. (2003). Nanoparticles have health bene its too, New Sci.,
179, pp. 2410–2416.
12. Cohen, M.H., and Turnbull, D. (1961). Composition requirements
for glass formation in metallic and ionic systems, Nature, 189,
pp. 131–132.
13. Costa, V.C., Costa, H.S., Vasconcelos, W.L., Pereira, M.M., Oré ice, R.L.,
and Mansur, H.S. (2007). Preparation of hybrid biomaterials for bone
tissue engineering, Mat. Res., 10, pp. 21–26.
14. Dowling, A.P. (2004). Development of nanotechnologies, Mater. Today,
7, pp. 30–35.
15. European Commission, Scienti ic Committee on Emerging and
Newly Identi ied Health Risks (SCENIHR) (2006). Opinion on ‘the
appropriateness of existing methodologies to assess the potential
risks associated with engineered and adventitious products of
nanotechnologies’, adopted by the SCENIHR during the 10th plenary
meeting, Brussels.
16. Erhardt, D. (2003). Materials conservation: Not-so-new technology,
Nat. Mater., 2, pp. 509–510.
 References 13

17. Feynman, R.P. (1960). There’s plenty of room at the bottom, Eng. Sci.,
23, pp. 22−36.
18. Gleiter, H. (1995). Nanostructured materials: State of the art and
perspectives, Nanostruct. Mat., 6, pp. 3–14.
19. Granqvist, C.J., and Buhrman, R.A. (1976). Ultra ine metal particles,
J. App. Phys., 47, pp. 2200–2219.
20. Guan, L., and Davies, J.E. (2004). Preparation and characterization of
a highly macroporous biodegradable composite tissue engineering
scaffold, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., A71, pp. 480–487.
21. Horton, M.A., and Khan, A. (2006). Medical nanotechnology in the UK:
a perspective from the London Centre for Nanotechnology, Nanomed.
Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 2, pp. 42–48.
22. Jakubowicz, J. (2008). Formation of porous TiOx biomaterials in H3PO4
electrolytes, Electrochem. Commun., 10, pp. 735–739.
23. Jakubowicz, J., Jurczyk, K., Niespodziana, K. and Jurczyk, M. (2009).
Mechanoelectrochemical synthesis of porous Ti-based nanocomposite
biomaterial, Electrochem. Commun., 11, pp. 461–465.
24. Jurczyk, K., Niespodziana, K., and Jurczyk, M. (2006). Preparation and
characterization of nanocomposite Ti-hydroxyapatite materials, Eur. J.
Med. Res., 11, Suppl. II, pp. 133.
25. Jurczyk, K., Niespodziana, K., Stopa, J., and Jurczyk, M. (2007).
Composite Ti-hydroxyapatite bionanomaterials for application in
modern dentistry. Polish J. Environ. Studies, 16, pp. 323–327.
26. Jurczyk, M. (1995). Anisotropic Nd–Fe–Co–Zr–B Powders Prepared by
the HDDR Process, J. Alloys Comp., 228, pp. 172–176.
27. Jurczyk, M., Smardz, L., Smardz, K., Nowak, M., and Jankowska, E.
(2003). Nanocrystalline LaNi5-type electrode materials for Ni-MHx
batteries, J. Solid State Chem., 171, pp. 30–37.
28. Jurczyk, M., and Nowak, M. (2008). Nanomaterials for hydrogen storage
synthesized by mechanical alloying, in Nanostructured Materials in
Electrochemistry (ed. Eftekhari, A.), Wiley-VCH, USA, pp. 349–386.
29. Khang, G., Kim, M.S., and Lee, H.B. (2007). Manual for Biomaterials/
Scaffold Fabrication Technology, World Scienti ic Publishing Co Pte
Ltd., Singapore.
30. Klement, J.W., Willens, R.H., and Duwez, P. (1960). Non-crystalline
structure in solidi ied gold-silicon alloys, Nature, 187, pp. 869–870.
31. Kratschmer, W., and Lamb, L.D. (1990). Solid C60: a new form of carbon,
Nature, 347, pp. 354.
14 IntroducƟon

32. The Royal Academy of Engineering, The Royal Society (2004).

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: Opportunities and uncertainties,
The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering, London.
33. Health and Consumer Protection Directorate General of the European
Commission (2004). Nanotechnologies: a preliminary risk analysis,
based on a workshop on 1–2 March 2004, Health and Consumer
Protection Directorate General of the European Commission, Brussels.
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/document/ev_20040301_en.pdf.
34. Niespodziana, K., Jurczyk, K., and Jurczyk, M. (2006). The manufacturing
of Ti-hydroxyapatite nanocomposites for bone implant applications,
Nanopages, 1, pp. 219–229.
35. Niespodziana, K., Jurczyk, K., and Jurczyk, M. (2007). Titanium-ceramic
nanocomposite materials, Adv. Mat. Science, 7, pp. 103–107.
36. Okonska, I., Iwasieczko, W., Jarzebski, M., Nowak, M., and Jurczyk, M.
(2007). Hydrogenation properties of amorphous 2Mg + Fe/x wt%
Ni materials prepared by mechanical alloying (x = 0, 100, 200), Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp. 4166–4190.
37. Pitkethly, M. J. (2004). Nanomaterials — the driving force, Mater.
Today, 38, 7, pp. 20–29.
39. Richert, J., and Richert, M. (1986). A new method for unlimited.
Deformation of metals and alloys, Aluminium, 62, pp. 604– 607.
40. Roco, M.C. (2001). International strategy for nanotechnology research
and development, J. Nanoparticle Res., 3, pp. 353–360.
41. Roco, M.C. (2003). Nanotechnology: convergence with modern biology
and medicine, Curr. Opin. Biotech., 14, pp. 337–346.
42. Roco, M.C., Williams, R.S., and Alivisatos, P. (eds) (2000). Applications:
Biological, medical and health applications, in Nanotechnology Research
Directions, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 153–172.
43. Siegel, R.W. (1991). Cluster assembled nanophase materials, Annu.
Rev. Mater. Sci., 21, pp. 559–578.
44. Smalley, R. (2002). Nanotechnology: the wet/dry frontier, in
Proceedings of the Small Wonders Workshop, Washington DC.
45. Stylios, G.K., Giannoudis, P., and Wan, T. (2005). Applications of
Nanotechnologies in Medical Practice, Injury, 36, pp. S6–S13.
46. Sun, P.I., Kao, P.W., and Chang, C.P. (2000). Characteristics of submicron
grained structure formed in aluminum by equal channel angular
extrusion, Mater. Sci. Eng., A, 283, pp. 82–85.
 References 15

47. Suryanarayna, C. (2001). Mechanical alloying, Progr. Mater. Sci., 46,

pp. 1–184.
48. Tang, F., Fudouzi, H., Uchikoshi, T., and Sakka, Y. (2004). Preparation of
porous materials with controlled pore size and porosity, J. Eur. Ceram.
Soc., 24, pp. 341–344.
49. Tulinski, M., and Jurczyk, M. (2009). Mechanical and corrosion
properties of Ni-free austenitic stainless steel/hydroxyapatite
nanocomposities, Solid State Phenomena, 151, pp. 213–216.
50. Valiev, R.Z., Korrznikov, A.V., and Mulyukov, R.R. (1993). Structure and
properties of ultra ine-grained materials produced by severe plastic
deformation, Mater. Sci. Eng., A, 168, pp. 141–148.
51. Valiev, R.Z., Zehetbauer, M.J., Estrin, Y., Höppel, H.W., Ivanisenko, Y.,
Hahn, H., Wilde, G., Roven, H.J., Sauvage, X., and Langdon, T.G. (2007).
The innovation potential of bulk nanostructured materials, Adv. Eng.
Mater., 9, pp. 527–533.
52. Wang, Z.L., Liu, Y., and Zhang, Z., eds. (2003). Handbook of nanophase
and nanostructured materials, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,
New York.
53. Ward, B.C., and Webster, T.J. (2007). Increased functions of osteoblasts
on nanophase metals, Mat. Sc. Eng., C, 27, pp. 575–578.
54. Williams, D. (2008). The relationship between biomaterials and
nanotechnology, Biomaterials, 29, pp. 1737–1738.
Chapter 2

Stomatognathic System

Karolina Jurczyk
Conservative Dentistry and Periodontology Department, University of Medical Sciences,
Bukowska 70 Street, 60-812 Poznan, Poland
[email protected]

2.1 Elements of the Stomatognathic System

Stomatognathic system is a part of the human body in luenced
by external factors. Initially considered a relationship between
occlusion and temporomandibular joint, it turned out to be a more
complex morphological and functional unit, consisting of tissues
and organs functionally combined with one another [8]. Apart from
the temporomandibular joint, we have to stress the importance
of the bones of the head, alveolar process, teeth, periodontium,
neuromuscular system, blood and lymph vessels, oral mucosa and
salivary glands, in the functioning of the stomatognathic system.

Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications

Edited by Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
Copyright © 2013 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4303-83-5 (Hardcover), 978-981-4303-84-2 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
18 Stomatognathic System

Figure 2.1 Lateral and front view of human skull.

Precise anatomy of the bones of the head, as a part of the skeletal

system, has been described by many authors [6, 7]. The human skull
is made up of 22 bones, which are, except for the mandible, connected
together by sutures, a rigid connection enabling very little movement
(Fig. 2.1). Eight bones form the neurocranium, including one frontal,
two parietals, one occipital bone, one sphenoid, two temporals, and
one ethmoid, which is a protective vault surrounding the brain.
However, the remaining 14 bones form the splanchnocranium, the
support for the face.
The mandible consists of the horizontal part, from which the body
of the mandible perpendicularly extends on both sides of the rami,
ending with two processes. Condyle is the superior and posterior
projection of the ramus and together with the temporal bone forms
the temporomandibular articulation. The other projection is the
coronoid process, lying more anterior to the latter, and it provides
attachment to the temporalis muscle.
The temporomandibular joint, as a paired articulation, enables
remarkable freedom of motion of the mandible, but still controls
and limits the motions. The anatomy is complex and not the typical
compared with other joints of the body. The articular surface of
the condyle is small compared with the glenoid fossa and articular
eminence on the temporal bone. The capsule of the joint is not as well
organized as the capsules of other joints. Its lateral side is reinforced
by temporomandibular ligament consisting of collagen ibers.
The movement and position of the mandible is in luenced by
many muscles, among them the mastication muscles (Fig. 2.2). This
group consists of eight muscles symmetrically positioned on both
 Elements of the Stomatognathic System 19

sides of the skull. The masseter, temporalis, and medial pterygoid

serve to elevate the mandible when they constrict (Fig. 2.3). As goes
for the lateral pterygoid, when shortening in conjunction with other
muscles, as well as the opposite lateral pterygoid, serves to depress,
protrude, or shift the mandible laterally.

Figure 2.2 Mandibular movement projected on saggital plane.

Figure 2.3 Human skull showing masseter and temporalis muscles.

Moreover, the suprahyoid muscles extending from the skull and

mandible to the hyoid bone serve to depress the mandible, strain
loor of the mouth and cooperate in deglutination. The muscles of
facial expression are too weak to be involved in the movement of
mandible; however, they play a vital role in the esthetics.
20 Stomatognathic System

The teeth lie in the sockets of the maxillary alveolar process and
the alveolar portion of the body of the mandible, forming two arches
[10, 14]. According to the shape of the teeth, their anatomy, function,
and position, they are classi ied as incisors, canines, premolars, and
molars. Their position in the arch is shown in Fig. 2.4. Most teeth have
identi iable features that distinguish them from others. To simplify
the identi ication of teeth, they are classi ied by a numbering system
(Fig. 2.5).

Figure 2.4 View of the lower arch.

Figure 2.5 Numbering system.

 Elements of the Stomatognathic System 21

The knowledge of the anatomical shape of the crowns of the

teeth is the basis of the choice selection of prosthetic reconstructions
of the missing teeth in patients. The position of the teeth in the arch
is in respect to their function, meaning that they are supported
in the alveolar sockets through a connective tissue called the
periodontal ligament to play a distinctive role in the mastication
process. The main function of the periodontium is to attach the
teeth to the bone and to maintain the integrity of the surface of the
masticatory mucosa of the oral cavity [5]. Also called “attachment
apparatus,” it undergoes many changes with age and also due to
functional and oral environment alterations.
Maxillary teeth axes lie oblique to the vertical axis of the cranium.
Roots in the dental arch in the maxilla are more closely spaced than
are the crowns of the teeth, which appear to slightly tilt outward. As
goes for the axes of the mandibular teeth, they are inclined inward
relative to the vertical axis of the cranium, such that their crowns on
the opposite side of the jaw lie closer than the roots.
The anatomical crown of the tooth is covered by enamel, a highly
mineralized tissue, up to the cervical region of the tooth (Fig. 2.6).
Underneath lies the dentin, which forms the main core of the tooth.
This structure contains 70% of inorganic substance, making it
less brittle from the enamel. In the middle of the tooth is the pulp
chamber containing vessels and nerves.

Figure 2.6 The anatomy of the tooth.

22 Stomatognathic System

2.2 Implantology Issues in the

Stomatognathic System
The stomatognathic system, as a morphological and functional
unit, composed of many tissues, such as the teeth, jaws, muscles of
mastication, epithelium, and temporomandibular joints and nerves
that control these structures, takes part in many physiological
processes.
The combination of all the structures enables proper speech and
the reception, mastication, deglutition of food, and respiration. The
basis of proper functioning of the system is the well controlled central
nervous system. All the speci ic elements of the system remain in
mutual synchronization, synergy, and cohesion, enabling the system
to work properly. A disease or trauma occurring in any of the elements
of the system causes the malfunctioning of the whole system, as well
as in the biological aspect and also has its psychological in luence
on the patient. Apart from the health bene its of a proper bite and
speech, are the esthetic bene its, skin and muscle tone of the lips
and cheeks, restoration of symmetry of the lower facial 1/3, and a
radiant smile.
The stomatognathic system is without any doubt a very complex
structure. Its proper functioning is controlled by regulation
mechanisms, in which a mutual relationship exists between
morphology and function and different compensation abilities.
The role of occlusion as a contributing factor in various signs
and symptoms in the stomatognathic system has been discussed in
literature [12]. In simpli ied understanding, occlusion refers to the
arrangement of maxillary and mandibular teeth and to the way the
teeth contact. However, the biological and psychosocial role of this
interference is seen the most in case of missing teeth. A variety of
impairments, such as functional, aesthetic, and psychological, occur
in case of edentulous patients, which have occlusion-free jaws.
Those occlusion deviations lead to further changes in the
structures of the stomatognathic system [3, 13]. A hyperactivity of
the mastication muscles has been notated, which, in consequence,
leads to fatigue and muscle spasm. Moreover, the forces induced by
mastication are also forwarded to the temporomandibular joint,
which usually adapts to the functional demands. Adaptation may
occur through the change in the osseous components of the joint.
However, when the adaptive capacity is exceeded, dysfunction or
 Implantology Issues in the Stomatognathic System 23

generation of the structure may take place, which is signaled by the

patient in the form of pain.
The whole adaptation process is controlled by the central
nervous system due to the well innervated periodontium, muscles,
oral mucosa, articulations, and tooth pulp. All the information
from the peripheral nerves located in the tissues is forwarded later
on to the central nervous system. A vital role in the function of
proprioception encompasses the muscle spindles and Golgi tendon
organs. In a narrow connotation, it can be said that these organs play
an intermediate role, by passing information on the instantaneous
length of the muscle in which they are located to the CNS. They help
in keeping the proportion between muscles tension and stretch and
have a part in the control of muscular contraction. In other words,
the proprioreceptors may change the activity of the masticatory
muscles and adapt the force of the mastication to the physiological
limits of the tissues. This mechanism in physiological circumstances
protects from the negative factors.
However, when the loss or a change in one of the tissues occurs, it
may exceed the adaptive limits of other structures, leading to further
disability and collapse of function of the whole unit. At some point,
the process speeds up and rapid breakdown ensues.
To discuss the therapeutic or reconstructive issues of the
stomatognathic system needs a good knowledge of the morphology
and function of all elements. For this purpose we usually use
materials, which would be capable of reconstructing the disable
tissue, due to aging process, trauma or disease, and taking other its
function. Biomedical engineering has rapidly developed over the past
years, creating analogs of the tissues but is still far from perfection
[9]. Improving the quality of life is a rewarding goal for scientists
and engineers. One of the ields of science is based on understanding
the relationship between the human system and the environment.
Indeed, those ields of research and new technologies in the ield of
rehabilitation improve the quality of life for disabled as well as abled
patients.
Most of the global population, sooner or later, needs a repair or
reconstruction within the craniofacial region [4]. It may be caused by
a minor pathological process, such as a dental caries occurring in a
tooth, or an oncological process leading to a resection of the tissues.
Most of the human tissues are hybrid, such as the tooth composed
of enamel, dentine, cementum, and pulp tissue. Therefore material
24 Stomatognathic System

engineering is focused on developing single tissues, as well as hybrid

organs and interfaces. Understanding the interaction between
molecules of the extracellular matrix and attached cells to the
materials is essential for proper biomaterial design. Applications of
biomaterials need experimental veri ications in different laboratory
models to prove their functional effectiveness [1]. In addition to
the physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological performance,
the clinical performance of the material is also reviewed through
different trials.
Obtaining the same chemical structures as those of the body
tissues, however, does not solve the problem that the arti icially
obtained material is non-vital. For example, new structures of
materials incorporating sensory systems and signal processing are
proposed for the next generation of prostheses. They will help better
tailor the response in stiffness and damping equipment or provide
spectral properties closer to those of natural materials and living.
In the rehabilitation of the oral tissues, the fundamental role is
played by osseointegration, due to its excellent results and great
diversity of planning in the dental clinic. Osseointegration means
a direct connection between bone and implant without interposed
soft tissues layers [5]. However, 100% connection of the bone to
the implant material does not occur. Therefore, a more suitable
approach to understanding this term would be based on stability and
not histological criteria: “A process whereby clinically asymptomatic
rigid ixation of alloplastic materials is achieved, and maintained, in
bone during functional loading” [15].
Although modern implants have improved substantially over
the last 50 years, the general concept has remained unchanged:
replacing a missing tooth with an inert non-biological material.
It can be metal, ceramic, or combination of both. The rate of
technological improvements in implants has reached a plateau and
new developments will require major changes to the basic approach.
The recent researches focused on developing new materials,
designs, and the introduction of new surfaces, although not all those
tendencies were without pitfalls. For example, the ceramic-coated
metal implants turned out to be not so successful in the clinical trial
due to the brittle coating, which tends to lake away.
A great number of investigations are focused on implantology,
but they should be considered with great caution although basic
research is needed to search for new materials and designs. In
vitro studies bring into our knowledge many interesting indings;
 Characteristics of the Stomatognathic System 25

however, we must remember that those trials are conducted on glass

disk with arti icial environment without the in luence of hormones,
nervous system and blood low. It so happens that in vivo studies not
always con irm the in vitro results. Therefore, it is essential to inish
all the in vivo models to initiate the clinical trials.

2.3 Characteristics of the

Stomatognathic System
Within the stomatognathic system, we can distinguish two
environments. One of them is composed of hard and soft tissues
as well as body luids. From the biophysical point of view, tissue
environment has the characteristics of electrochemical membrane.
Moreover, it possesses membranes and membrane potentials, which
are responsible for ionoselective effect and metabolism. Body luids,
on the contrary, are characterized by ion conductivity. Into this
environment, due to a loss of tissue, biomaterials are introduced to
repair and to bring back the function of the system. Mostly, these
are metal implants or screws or bone materials used in maxillo-
facial surgery, implantology, and prosthetics. The osseointegrated
interface depends on the physical and biophysical characteristics of
the surrounding environment and the physicochemical properties of
the surface of the implant.
The second environment is composed of the oral cavity, to which
materials are introduced by preventive dentistry, prosthetics, and
orthodontics. Those implants have hybrid composite structure,
where the core is composed of metal, an electric conductor. However,
the surface of the implant is coated by polymer or bioceramics, which
has the characteristics of an insulator or a semiconductor. Moreover,
the whole structure of the biomaterial forms a complex system,
which is an essential issue for the development of corrosion or
biodegradation of implants. Some of the prosthetic reconstructions
are localized in both environments.
Referring to the complexity of the system, biochemical,
biomechanical, and bioelectronic factors should be considered, which
are undoubtedly connected to the ongoing metabolic, bacteriological,
and immunological processes within the system.
Micro lora of the oral cavity is speci ic: containing unique
molecular, structural, and microbial characteristics, each of the
body sites harboring a normal micro lora, therefore forming an
26 Stomatognathic System

ecosystem [11]. It consists of species which are responsible for

protecting the surrounding tissues against the pathogenic bacteria.
In a physiological state, all bacteria remain in equilibrium. The
change in a pathological state occurs when the in luence of the
negative factors, such as antibiotic administration, fermentation of
food, and a dysfunction of the immunological system, is stronger
than the protective ability of the system. The physical and chemical
nature of the oral cavity is not uniform and changes depending on
the localization. For example, anaerobes can be found in gingival
sulcus, whereas aerobes exist on supragingival surfaces, due to
presence of oxygen. Also, the presence of food changes the oxygen
concentration, pH, the metabolites, which in consequence also has
its impact on the bacteria species existing in the oral cavity.
The biocompatibility of biomaterials depends on many factors,
mainly on composition, location, and interaction with surrounding
tissues within the oral cavity [2]. Due to differences in composition
of materials, we encounter different biological responses. However,
the reaction of the host body depends on whether the implanted
material releases any of its components, which may be toxic,
mutagenic, or immunogenic to the tissues. Not without any in luence
is also the location of the implant. Some materials that may be
toxic in contact with oral mucosa are biocompatible with the hard
tissues and vice versa. We have to take into consideration the fact
that the stomatognathic system is variable, taking for instance the
pH, the effects of body luids, which also have their effect on the
biocompatibility of materials. The morphology of the biomaterial
surface should be designed so, or to elicit the growth of cells, or to
prevent the attachment of other cells or retention of plaque.

References
1. Bayne, S.C. (2007). Dental restorations for oral rehabilitation — testing
of laboratory properties versus clinical performance for clinical
decision making, J. Oral Rehab., 34, pp. 921−932.
2. Craig, R.G., and Ward, M.L. (1997). Restorative Dental Materials, 10th
ed., Mosby, St. Louis.
3. Farantalz, G.J., Beckler, I.M., Gremilion, H., and Pink, F. (1998). The
effectiveness of equilibration in the improvement of signs and
symptoms in the stomatognathic system, Intern. J. Periodontics
Restorative Dent., 18, pp. 595−599.
 References 27

4. Ferreira, C.F., Magini, R.S., and Sharpe, P.T. (2007). Biological tooth
replacement and repair, J. Oral Rehab., 34, pp. 933−939.
5. Lindhe, J., Karring, T., and Lang, N.P., (2003). Clinical Periodontology
and Implant Dentistry, Blackwell Munksgaard, Oxford.
6. Lippert, H. (2004). Lehrbuch Anatomie, Urban & Schwarzenberg,
München.
7. Moore, K.L. (1985). Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 3rd ed., William &
Wilkins, Baltimore.
8. Panek, H. (2004). Holistic concept of stomatognathic system, Dent.
Med. Probl., 41, pp. 277−280.
9. Scheller, E.L., Krebsbach, P.H., and Kohn, D.H. (2009). Tissue engineering:
state of the art in oral rehabilitation, J. Oral Rehabil., 36, pp. 368−389.
10. Schroeder, A., Sutler, F., Buser, D., and Krekeler, G. (1996). Oral
Implantology, Thieme Medical Publishers Inc., New York.
11. Tannock, G.W. (1995). Normal Micro lora: An Introduction to Microbes
Inhabiting the Human Body, Chapman & Hall, London.
12. Turp, J.C., Greene, C.S., and Strub, J.B. (2008). Dental occlusion: a critical
re lection on past, present and future concepts, J. Oral Rehabil., 35,
pp. 446−453.
13. Tylman, S.D., Malone W.F. (1978). Tylman’s Theory and Practice of Fixed
Prosthodontics, Mosby Company, St. Louis.
14. Woelfel, J.B., and Scheid, R.C. (1997). Dental Anatomy, Its relevant to
Dentistry, 5th ed., Williams & Wilkins, USA.
15. Zarb, G.A., and Albrektsson, T. (1991). Osseointegration: A requiem
for the periodontal ligament? Int. J. Periodontics Restorative Dent., 11,
pp. 88−91.
Chapter 3

Biomaterials

Mieczyslaw Jurczyka,* and Karolina Jurczykb

aPoznan University of Technology, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering,

M. Sklodowska-Curie Sq. 5, 60-695 Poznan, Poland

bConservative Dentistry and Periodontology Department,

University of Medical Sciences, Bukowska 70 Street, 60-812 Poznan, Poland

*[email protected]

3.1 Introduction
Biomaterials are de ined as “materials intended to interface with
biological systems to evaluate, treat, augment, or replace any tissue,
organ or function of the body” [139]. The range of applications is vast
and includes things such as joint and limb replacements, arti icial
arteries, and skin, contact lenses, and dentures. This increasing
demand arises from an ageing population with higher quality of
life expectations. The use of arti icial biomaterials for the treatment
of diseased tissues traces back to more than 2000 years ago, when
heavy metals such as gold were extensively used in dentistry [111].
Other early examples of biomaterials include wooden teeth, but
generally, the irst generation of biomaterials developed before 1960
had low success rates due to a poor osseointegration.
An entirely new ield of research was initiated in the 1952
[121]. Professor Per-Ingvar Brånemark’s serendipitous discovery

Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications

Edited by Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
Copyright © 2013 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4303-83-5 (Hardcover), 978-981-4303-84-2 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
30 Biomaterials

of osseointegration occurred during vital microscopy studies in

rabbits. He and his team found that titanium oculars placed into the
femurs of rabbits could not be removed from the bone after a period
of healing. The irst practical application of osseointegration was
the implantation of new titanium roots in an edentulous patient in
1965. Brånemark implant methods and materials are one of the most
signi icant scienti ic breakthroughs in dentistry since the late 1970s.
Table 3.1 gives examples of material properties and their rel-
evance to biomaterials [5, 15, 16]. In general, the physical properties
play an important role only in the case of special functional
applications such as heart pacemaker electrodes. Good chemical
and biological properties are a prerequisite for application as a
biomaterial as mentioned above. The most important mechanical
properties for highly loaded implants such as hip endoprostheses are
fatigue strength and Young’s modulus, which leads to the de inition
of the biofunctionality BF as the ratio of the fatigue strength σf to
Young’s modulus E [5]:
BF = σf/E (3.1)
Biomedical materials can be divided roughly into three main
types governed by the tissue response: (i) inert (more strictly, nearly
inert) materials illicit no or minimal tissue response, (ii) active materials
encourage bonding to surrounding tissue with, (iii) degradable, or
resorbable materials are incorporated into the surrounding tissue, or
may even dissolve completely over a period of time. Metals are typically
inert, ceramics may be inert, active or resorbable and polymers
may be inert or resorbable. Table 3.2 provided some examples of
biomaterials. A comparison of the biofunctionality of various alloys
shows the exceptional properties of titanium and titanium alloys due
to their low Young’s modulus (Fig. 3.1).

Figure 3.1 Biofunctionality of metallic biomaterials [5].

 Introduction 31

Table 3.1 Speci ic requirements for metallic biomaterials

Material properties Important for application

Mechanical properties
Ultimate tensile strength, tensile Endosseous implants like
yield strength elongation at fracture, orthopedic implants, dental
reduction in area fracture implants, nails, plates, screws
Toughness
Young’s modulus
Fatigue strength
Wear resistance

Physical properties
Density Ultrasonic examinations
Acoustic properties Pacemaker electrodes
Electrical resistance heart NMR-examinations
Magnetism Composite materials
Thermal expansion

Chemical Properties
Oxidation Prerequisite for all biomaterials
Corrosion, degradation
Fretting corrosion

Biological Properties
Bioadhesion (osseoconductivity, Prerequisite for all biomaterials
osseointegration)
Immune reaction (allergic, toxic,
mutogenic, carcinogenic)

The range of applications for biomaterials is large (see

Table 3.3). The number of different biomaterials is also
signi icant. However, in general, metallic biomaterials are used
for load bearing applications and must have suf icient fatigue
strength; ceramic biomaterials are generally used for their
hardness and wear resistance for applications such as articulating
surfaces in joints and in teeth as well as bone bonding surfaces in
implants; polymeric materials are usually used for their lexibility
and stability, but have also been used for low friction articulating
surfaces.
32 Biomaterials

Table 3.2 Some accepted biomaterials

Metals Ceramics Polymers

316L stainless steel Alumina Ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene
Co–Cr Alloys Zirconia Polyurethane
Titanium Carbon
Ti–6Al–4V Hydroxyapatite
Noble metal alloys

Table 3.3 Dental applications of some biomaterials

Metals Ceramics Polymers

Implants Tooth implants Orthodontic devices
(plates, dentures)
Parts of orthodontic Dental porcelains
devices
Pins for anchoring Hydroxyapatite
tooth (coatings on metallic pins)
( ill large bone voids)

Interestingly, the separation between the three traditional

material classes (i.e., metals, ceramics, and polymers) is gradually
being replaced by keywords such as scaffolds and composite
biomaterials. This might be explained by the realization that a single
material class does not re lect the complexity of highly structured
human tissues, and necessitates the use of advanced biomimetic
processing techniques to create intelligent biomaterials of similar
functionality [29, 119].
Recently, increasing interest has been shown in ceramic–polymer
composites as potential illers of bone defects [65, 143]. Three of
the most commonly used composites — calcium phosphate ceramics,
tricalcium phosphate, and hydroxyapatite — have demonstrated
adequate biocompatibility and suitable osteoconduction and
osseointegration [8]. Bioceramic glasses such as 45S5 Bioglass®
have also exhibited the capacity to induce bone-bonding, and even
vascularization. However, these ceramics are considered too stiff and
brittle to be used alone. The addition of a ceramic to a polymer scaffold
has several advantages including combining the osteoconductivity
and bone-bonding potential of the inorganic phase with the porosity
and interconnectivity of the three-dimensional construct. The most
prominent natural polymer used to fabricate matrices in composites
is collagen type I, probably due to its prevalence in bone’s extracellular
 Metallic Biomaterials 33

matrix and its ability to promote mineral deposition and provide

binding sites for osteogenic proteins [115, 135]. Although collagen
itself is an inadequate bone graft, when combined with ceramics and
growth factors, it becomes a powerful inducer of bone regeneration
[137].
Scaffolds comprised of synthetic polymers offer many advantages
over natural polymers including reproducibility, unlimited supply,
relative lack of immunologic concerns, and tailorable properties
such as degradation rates and mechanical strength [8, 63]. Synthetic
polymers used for bone regeneration include poly(lactic acid)
(PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic-coglycolic) acid (PLGA),
polypropylene fumarate (PPF), and the polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs) [73]. Combining polymers with ceramics creates bioactive
scaffolds that enhance tissue formation with greater initial strength
[40].
Recently, titanium–hydroxyapatite [94] and Ni-free austenitic
stainless steel/hydroxyapatite [128] nanocomposite biomaterials
were synthesized. These composites could be medically bene icial
in applications such as better biomedical implants with improved
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility.

3.2 Metallic Biomaterials

Metallic materials are used in biomedical devices for various parts
of the human body (Table 3.4, Fig. 3.2). Metals and its alloys such
as stainless steel, Co–Cr–Mo alloy, commercially pure titanium, and
titanium alloys are widely used as biomedical materials and are
important in medicine and they cannot be replaced with ceramics
or polymers at present mainly because of their high strength and
toughness (Table 3.5).
Table 3.4 Biometallic devices and metallic biomaterials used for them
Biometallic devices Metallic biomaterials
Arti icial join Ti–6Al–4V alloy, Co–Cr alloy, 316 stainless steel
Bone plate Ti–6Al–4V alloy, 316 stainless steel, Ti–6Al–4V alloy
Clip Ti–6Al–4V alloy, Co–Cr alloy
Crown, bridge Au–Cu–Ag alloy, Au–Cu–Ag–Pt–Pd alloy, Ti, Ti–6Al–4V
alloy
Dental implant Ti, Ti–6Al–4V alloy, Ti–6Al–7Nb alloy
Pacemaker electrode: Pt–Ir alloy, Ti; case: Ti, Ti–6Al–4V alloy
Stent 316 stainless steel, Ni–Ti alloy
34 Biomaterials

Figure 3.2 Implant alloys.

Table 3.5 Mechanical properties of metallic biomaterials [15, 16]

Ultimate tensile Fatigue Elongation at BF E

Metals strength [MPa] strength* [MPa] fracture [%] [*10–3] [GPa]
CrNi-steels 490–690 200–250 >40 1–12 210
CoCr-alloys 800–1200 550–650 8–40 1.5–2.3 200
CP–Ti 390–450 150–200 22–30 1.4–1.9 100
Ti–6Al–4V 930–1140 350–650 8–15 3.0–5.6 115

* Rotating bending fatigue.

Unfortunately, these materials have exhibited tendencies to fail

after long-term use due to various reasons such as high modulus
compared to that of bone, low wear and corrosion resistance, and
lack of biocompatibility. The various causes for revision surgery are
depicted in Fig. 3.3 [46].
From the biomechanical point of view, it is desirable to have
a Young’s modulus of metallic biomaterials comparable to that
of the cortical bone in order to achieve a good load transfer from
the implant into the bone, leading to a continuous stimulation of
new bone formation (isoelastic material). In order to provide an E
modulus comparable to that of compact bone (10−15 GPa), porous
sintered implants are required. The reduction of Young's modulus
as a function of the porosity can be calculated by means of equation
(3.2) [5]:
 Metallic Biomaterials 35

Figure 3.3 Various causes for failure of implants that leads to revision
surgery (adopted from [46]).

Ep = E0 (1 – (1.21 · p2/3)) (3.2)

where Ep is the Young’s modulus of the porous sintered material, E0

the modulus of the bulk material and p the porosity.

3.2.1 Stainless Steel

In 1913, English metallurgist Harry Brearly discovered that adding
chromium to low carbon steel gives it stain resistance. In addition to
iron, carbon, and chromium, modern stainless steel may also contain
other elements, such as nickel, niobium, molybdenum, and titanium.
These elements enhance the corrosion resistance of stainless steel.
It is the addition of a minimum of 12% chromium to the steel that
makes it resist rust, or stain “less” than other types of steel. The
chromium in the steel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to
36 Biomaterials

form a thin, invisible layer of chrome-containing oxide, called the

passive ilm.
Stainless steel is usually divided into ive types: ferritic, austenitic,
martensitic, precipitation-hardened, and duplex. Only austenitic
and martensitic stainless steels are used in medical applications.
Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels make up over 70% of
total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15%
carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and suf icient nickel and/or
manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from
the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. Superaustenitic
stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great
resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion due to high
molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher
nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic
steels makes them more expensive. They are nominally non-
magnetic but usually exhibit some magnetic response depending on
the composition and the work hardening of the steel.
On the other hand, martensitic steels are similar to ferritic steels
in being based on chromium but have higher carbon levels up as
high as 1%. This allows them to be hardened and tempered much
like carbon and low-alloy steels. They are used where high strength
and moderate corrosion resistance is required. They have generally
low weldability and formability and are magnetic.
These types of steel are well-suited for making surgical
instruments: they are easy to clean and sterilize, strong and corrosion-
resistant. The nickel/chrome/molybdenum alloys are also used for
orthopedic implants as aids in bone repair, as a structural part of
arti icial heart valves, and other implants. Immune system reaction
to nickel is a potential complication. Most surgical equipment is
made out of martensite steel. It is much harder than austenitic steel,
and it is easier to keep it sharp.
Implants are made out of austenitic steel, often 316L and
316LVM, because it is less brittle (see Tables 3.6 and 3.7). Grade 316
is the standard molybdenum-bearing grade, second in importance to
304 amongst the austenitic stainless steels. The molybdenum gives
316 better overall corrosion resistant properties than Grade 304,
particularly higher resistance to pit and crevice corrosion in chloride
environments. Grade 316L, the low carbon version of 316 and is
immune from sensitization (grain boundary carbide precipitation).
 Metallic Biomaterials 37

The austenitic structure also gives these grades excellent toughness,

even down to cryogenic temperatures. Additionally, grade 316
surgical steel is used in the manufacture and handling of food and
pharmaceutical products where it is often required in order to
minimize metallic contamination.

Table 3.6 Comparison of standardized some 300-type stainless steels

EN-standard EN-standard
steel no. k.h.s DIN steel name SAE grade UNS
1.4408 G-X 6 CrNizMo 18-10 316
1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403
1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453
1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603
1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600
1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 316LN S31653
1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603
1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L S31603
1.4436 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 316 S31600
1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653
UNS, uni ied numbering system.

Table 3.7 Characteristics of some 300 grade stainless steels (austenitic

chromium–nickel alloys)

Type Characteristics
304 the most common grade; the classic 18/8 stainless steel
304L same as the 304 grade but contains less carbon to increase
weldability; is slightly weaker than 304
304LN same as 304L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much
higher yield and tensile strength than 304L
316 the second most common grade (after 304); for surgical
stainless steel uses; alloy addition of molybdenum prevents
speci ic forms of corrosion
316L extra low carbon grade of 316
316LN same as 316L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much
higher yield and tensile strength than 316L

Grade 316LVM austenitic stainless steel is initially electric-arc

melted and as a re inement to the purity and homogeneity of the
38 Biomaterials

metal, 316LVM is Vacuum Arc Remelted (VAR). This process yields

a more uniform chemistry with minimal voids and contaminants. A
reducing atmosphere is preferred for thermal treatment, but inert
gas can be used. 316LVM will fully anneal at 1010−1121°C in just a
few minutes. The precipitation of carbides that decreases corrosion
resistance in other 300 series alloys is controlled by reduced carbon
content in 316LVM. This steel has been used for permanent implants
for many years. The corrosion resistance in the annealed condition
is good. This stainless steel has good ductility in the cold worked
condition. Applications include: suture wire, orthopedic cables,
skin closure staples, catheters, stylets, bone pins, and many small
machined parts.
Nowadays, stainless steel is a frequently used biomaterial for
internal ixation devices because of a favorable combination of
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and cost effectiveness
when compared to other metallic implant materials (Tables 3.8
and 3.9). The biocompatibility of stainless steel has been proven
by successful human implantation for decades. Metallurgical
requirements are stringent to ensure suf icient corrosion resistance,
non-magnetic response and satisfactory mechanical properties [64].

Table 3.8 Typical physical properties for 316L grade stainless steel

Thermal
Mean coef icient of conductivity Speci ic
Elastic thermal expansion (W/ m . K) heat Electric
Density modulus (μm/m/°C) at at 0–100°C resistivity
(kg/m3) (GPa) 0–100°C 0–315°C 100oC 500oC (J/kg K) (nΩ . m)
.

8000 193 15.9 16.2 16.3 21,5 500 740

Table 3.9 Mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel

Yield str. Elong. Hardness Hardness

Tensile str. 0.2% proof (% in 50 rockwell B brinell
(MPa) min (MPa) min mm) min (HR B) max (HB) max
485 170 40 95 217

In orthopedic and trauma surgery, stainless steel is mainly used

when stiffness is required. The ductility of stainless steel is higher
than that of cp titanium, because of its hexagonal crystal structure.
This makes contouring of stainless steel plates easier, compared to
titanium plates. Therefore, reconstruction plates made of stainless
 Metallic Biomaterials 39

steel are favored in acetabular and pelvic surgery and at other

anatomical locations.
Due to their high nickel content (10–14%), stainless steel
implants can cause negative tissue reactions and dermatitis
(Table 3.10) [24, 76]. Moreover, the nickel ions released during
corrosion of the device are reported to cause allergies and even
cancer [76]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that
a content of less than 0.2% of nickel is congruous with medical
requirements [24]. Therefore the development of materials with
improved corrosion resistance and without nickel is absolutely
imperative. One of the most promising austenitizing elements to
replace nickel is nitrogen [103]. Nitrogen increases the stability
of austenite, enhances corrosion resistance, and prevents the
formation of sigma phase [124]. By this method, small devices with
the ferritic structure can be precisely machined and subjected to
nitrogenization of their surfaces in nitrogen gas at temperature of
about 1200oC. They are then nickel-free austenitic stainless steels
with improved mechanical properties and corrosion resistance
[128]. It is expected, that these new stainless steel alloys may have a
similar biocompatibility as cp titanium implants.

Table 3.10 Chemical composition of some 300 grade austenitic stainless

steels

SAE
designation % Cr % Ni %C % Mn % Si % P %S %N Other
304 18–20 8–10.50 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.1 —
304L 18–20 8–12 0.03 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.1 —
304N 18–20 8–10.50 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10–0.16
—
316 16–18 10–14 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.102.0–3.0
Mo
316L 16–18 10–14 0.03 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10 2.0–3.0
Mo
316N 16–18 10–14 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10–0.16 2.0–3.0
Mo
316LVM 17.57 14.68 0,023 1.84 0.37 0.014 0.01 0.03 2.79 Mo
0.03 Cu

3.2.2 Cobalt Alloys

Co–Cr–Mo alloys are well used for biomedical applications such as
dental and orthopedic implants owing to their excellent mechanical
Other documents randomly have
different content
have some lessons in thrift on this score still in store for us. There is
this consolation, that if our heads have been turned in this respect
also, and we are supplying more food for our human furnaces than
they need, the force of any reaction will not fall on us, but on the
market-men, who are such a privileged class that our candidates for
public office commonly provide a rally for their special edification just
before election-day, and whose white smock-frocks are commonly a
cloak for fat though greasy purses. Yet Providence seems to smile on
the market-man in that it has given him the telephone, through
which the modern mistress can order her dinner, or command chops
or birds, when unexpected guests are foreshadowed. Owing to the
multiplicity of the demands upon the time of both men and women,
the custom of going to market in person has largely fallen into
decay. The butcher and grocer send assistants to the house for
orders, and the daily personal encounter with the smug man in
white, which used to be as inevitable as the dinner, has now mainly
been relegated to the blushing bride of from one week to two years’
standing, and the people who pay cash for everything. Very likely we
are assessed for the privilege of not being obliged to nose our
turkeys and see our chops weighed in advance, and it is difficult to
answer the strictures of those who sigh for what they call the good
old times, when it was every man’s duty, before he went to his
office, to look over his butcher’s entire stock and select the fattest
and juiciest edibles for the consumption of himself and family. As for
paying cash for everything, my wife Barbara says that, unless people
are obliged to be extremely economical, no woman in this age of
nervous prostration ought to run the risk of bringing on that dire
malady by any such imprudence, and that to save five dollars a
month on a butcher’s bill, and pay twenty-five to a physician for
ruined nerves, is false political economy.
“I agree with you,” she added, “that we Americans live
extravagantly in the matter of daily food—especially meat—as
compared with the general run of people in other countries; but far
more serious than our appetites and liberal habits, in my opinion, is
the horrible waste which goes on in our kitchens, due to the fact
that our cooks are totally ignorant of the art of making the most of
things. Abroad, particularly on the Continent, they understand how
to utilize every scrap, so that many a comfortable meal is provided
from what our servants habitually cast into the swill-tub. Here there
is perpetual waste—waste—waste, and no one seems to understand
how to prevent it. There you have one never-failing reason for the
size of our butchers’ and grocers’ bills.”
I assume that my wife, who is an intelligent person, must be
correct in this accusation of general wastefulness which she makes
against the American kitchen. If so, here we are confronted again
with the question of domestic service from another point of view.
How long can we afford to throw our substance into the swill-tub? If
our emigrant cooks do not understand the art of utilizing scraps and
remnants, are we to continue to enrich our butchers without let or
hindrance? It would seem that if the American housewife does not
take this matter in hand promptly, the cruel laws of political
economy will soon convince her by grisly experience that neither
poetry nor philanthropy can flourish in a land where there is
perpetual waste below stairs.
 Education.
I.

n occasions of oratory in this country, nothing will arouse

an audience more quickly than an allusion to our public
school system, and any speaker who sees fit to
apostrophize it is certain to be fervidly applauded.
Moreover, in private conversation, whether with our
countrymen or with foreigners, every citizen is prone to indulge in
the statement, commonly uttered with some degree of emotion, that
our public schools are the great bulwarks of progressive democracy.
Why, then, is the American parent, as soon as he becomes well-to-
do, apt to send his children elsewhere?
I was walking down town with a friend the other day, and he
asked me casually where I sent my boys to school. When I told him
that they attended a public school he said, promptly, “Good enough.
I like to see a man do it. It’s the right thing.” I acquiesced modestly;
then, as I knew that he had a boy of his own, I asked him the same
question.
“My son,” he replied slowly, “goes to Mr. Bingham’s”—indicating a
private school for boys in the neighborhood. “He is a little delicate—
that is, he had measles last summer, and has never quite recovered
his strength. I had almost made up my mind to send him to a public
school, so that he might mix with all kinds of boys, but his mother
seemed to think that the chances of his catching scarlet fever or
diphtheria would be greater, and she has an idea that he would
make undesirable acquaintances and learn things which he
shouldn’t. So, on the whole, we decided to send him to Bingham’s.
But I agree that you are right.”
 There are many men in the community who, like my friend,
believe thoroughly that every one would do well to send his boys to
a public school—that is, every one but themselves. When it comes to
the case of their own flesh and blood they hesitate, and in nine
instances out of ten, on some plea or other, turn their backs on the
principles they profess. This is especially true in our cities, and it has
been more or less true ever since the Declaration of Independence;
and as a proof of the flourishing condition of the tendency at
present, it is necessary merely to instance the numerous private
schools all over the country. The pupils at these private schools are
the children of our people of means and social prominence, the
people who ought to be the most patriotic citizens of the Republic.
I frankly state that I, for one, would not send my boys to a public
school unless I believed the school to be a good one. Whatever
other motives may influence parents, there is no doubt that many
are finally deterred from sending their boys to a public school by the
conviction that the education offered to their sons in return for taxes
is inferior to what can be obtained by private contract. Though a
father may be desirous to have his boys understand early the theory
of democratic equality, he may well hesitate to let them remain
comparatively ignorant in order to impress upon them this doctrine.
In this age, when so much stress is laid on the importance of giving
one’s children the best education possible, it seems too large a price
to pay. Why, after all, should a citizen send his boys to a school
provided by the State, if better schools exist in the neighborhood
which he can afford to have them attend?
This conviction on the part of parents is certainly justified in many
sections of the country, and when justifiable, disarms the critic who
is prepared to take a father to task for sending his children to a
private school. Also, it is the only argument which the well-to-do
aristocrat can successfully protect himself behind. It is a full suit of
armor in itself, but it is all he has. Every other excuse which he can
give is flimsy as tissue-paper, and exposes him utterly. Therefore, if
the State is desirous to educate the sons of its leading citizens, it
ought to make sure that the public schools are second to none in the
land. If it does not, it has only itself to blame if they are educated
apart from the sons of the masses of the population. Nor is it an
answer to quote the Fourth of July orator, that our public schools are
second to none in the world; for one has only to investigate to be
convinced that, both as regards the methods of teaching and as
regards ventilation, many of them all over the country are signally
inferior to the school as it should be, and the school, both public and
private, as it is in certain localities. So long as school boards and
committees, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, are composed mainly of
political aspirants without experience in educational matters, and
who seek to serve as a first or second step toward the White House,
our public schools are likely to remain only pretty good. So long as
people with axes to grind, or, more plainly speaking, text-books to
circulate, are chosen to office, our public schools are not likely to
improve. So long—and here is the most serious factor of all—so long
as the well-to-do American father and mother continue to be
sublimely indifferent to the condition of the public schools, the public
schools will never be so good as they ought to be.
It must certainly be a source of constant discouragement to the
earnest-minded people in this country, who are interested in
education, and are at the same time believers in our professed
national hostility to class distinctions, that the well-to-do American
parent so calmly turns his back on the public schools, and regards
them very much from the lofty standpoint from which certain
persons are wont to regard religion—as an excellent thing for the
masses, but superfluous for themselves. Of course, if we are going,
in this respect also, to model ourselves on and imitate the older
civilizations, there is nothing to be said. If the public schools are to
be merely a semi-charitable institution for children whose parents
cannot afford to separate them from the common herd, the
discussion ceases. But what becomes, then, of our cherished and
Fourth of July sanctified theories of equality and common school
education? And what do we mean when we prate of a common
humanity, and no upper class?
 It is in the city or town, where the public school is equal or
superior to the private school, that the real test comes. Yet in these
places well-to-do parents seem almost as indifferent as when they
have the righteous defence that their children would be imperfectly
educated, or breathe foul air, were they to be sent to a public
school. They take no interest, and they fairly bristle with polite and
ingenious excuses for evading compliance with the institutions of
their country. This is true, probably, of three-fifths of those parents,
who can afford, if necessary, to pay for private instruction. And
having once made the decision that, for some reason, a public
school education is not desirable for their children, they feel
absolved from further responsibility and practically wash their hands
of the matter. It is notorious that a very large proportion of the
children of the leading bankers, merchants, professional men, and
other influential citizens, who reside in the so-called court end of our
large cities, do not attend the public schools, and it is equally
notorious that the existence of a well-conducted and satisfactory
school in the district affects the attendance comparatively little. If
only this element of the population, which is now so indifferent,
would interest itself actively, what a vast improvement could be
effected in our public school system! If the parents in the
community, whose standards of life are the highest, and whose ideas
are the most enlightened, would as a class co-operate in the
advancement of common education, the charge that our public
schools produce on the whole second-rate acquirements, and
second-rate morals and manners, would soon be refuted, and the
cause of popular education would cease to be handicapped, as it is
at present, by the coolness of the well-to-do class. If the public
schools, in those sections of our cities where our most intelligent and
influential citizens have their homes, are unsatisfactory, they could
speedily be made as good as any private school, were the same
interest manifested by the tax-payers as is shown when an
undesirable pavement is laid, or a company threatens to provide
rapid transit before their doors. Unfortunately, that same spirit of
aloofness, which has in the past operated largely to exclude this
element in the nation from participation in the affairs of popular
government, seems to be at the bottom of this matter. Certainly
much progress has been made in the last twenty years in remedying
the political evil, and the public good appears to demand a change
of front from the same class of people on the subject of common
education, unless we are prepared to advocate the existence and
growth of a favored, special class, out of touch with, and at heart
disdainful of, the average citizen.
The most serious enemies of the public schools among well-to-do
people appear to be women. Many a man, alive to the importance of
educating his sons in conformity with the spirit of our Constitution,
would like to send his boys to a public school, but is deterred by his
wife. A mother accustomed to the refinements of modern civilization
is apt to shrink from sending her fleckless darling to consort, and
possibly become the boon companion or bosom friend, of a street
waif.
She urges the danger of contamination, both physical and moral,
and is only too glad to discover an excuse for refusing to yield.
“Would you like to have your precious boy sit side by side with a
little negro?” I was asked one day, in horrified accents, by a well-to-
do American mother; and I have heard many fears expressed by
others that their offspring would learn vice, or contract disease,
through daily association with the children of the mass. It is not
unjust to state that the average well-to-do mother is gratified when
the public school, to which her sons would otherwise be sent, is so
unsatisfactory that their father’s patriotism is overborne by other
considerations. All theories of government or humanity are lost sight
of in her desire to shelter her boys, and the simplest way to her
seems to be to set them apart from the rest of creation, instead of
taking pains to make sure that they are suitably taught and
protected side by side with the other children of the community.
Excellent as many of our private schools are, it is doubtful if either
the morals are better, or the liability to disease is less, among the
children who attend them than at a public school of the best class.
To begin with, the private schools in our cities are eagerly patronized
by that not inconsiderable class of parents who hope or imagine that
the social position of their children is to be established by association
with the children of influential people. Falsehood, meanness, and
unworthy ambitions are quite as dangerous to character, when the
little man who suggests them has no patches on his breeches, as
when he has, and unfortunately there are no outward signs on the
moral nature, like holes in trousers, to serve as danger signals to our
darlings. Then again, those of us who occupy comfortable houses in
desirable localities, will generally find on investigation that the
average of the class of children which attend the public school in
such a district is much superior to what paternal or maternal fancy
has painted. In such a district the children of the ignorant emigrant
class are not to be found in large numbers. The pupils consist mainly
of the rank and file of the native American population, whose
tendencies and capacities for good have always been, and continue
to be, the basis of our strength as a people. There is no need that a
mother with delicate sensibilities should send her son into the slums
in order to obtain for him a common school education; she has
merely to consent that he take his chances with the rest of the
children of the district in which he lives, and bend her own energies
to make the standards of that school as high as possible. In that way
she will best help to raise the tone of the community as a whole,
and best aid to obliterate those class distinctions which, in spite of
Fourth of July negations, are beginning to expose us to the charge
of insincerity.
When a boy has reached the age of eleven or twelve, another
consideration presents itself which is a source of serious perplexity
to parents. Shall he be educated at home—that is, attend school in
his own city or town—or be sent to one of the boarding-schools or
academies which are ready to open their doors to him and fit him for
college? Here again we are met by the suggestion that the boarding-
school of this type is not a native growth, but an exotic. England has
supplied us with a precedent. The great boarding-schools, Rugby,
Eton, and Harrow, are the resort of the gentlemen of England.
Though termed public schools, they are class schools, reserved and
intended for the education of only the highly respectable. The sons
of the butcher, the baker, and candlestick-maker are not formally
barred, but they are tacitly excluded. The pupils are the sons of the
upper and well-to-do middle classes. A few boarding-schools for
boys have been in existence here for many years, but in the last
twenty there has been a notable increase in their number and
importance. These, too, are essentially class schools, for though
ostensibly open to everybody, the charges for tuition and living are
beyond the means of parents with a small income. Most of them are
schools of a religious denomination, though commonly a belief in the
creed for which the institution stands is not made a formal requisite
for admission. The most successful profess the Episcopalian faith,
and in other essential respects are modelled deliberately on the
English public schools.
The strongest argument for sending a boy to one of these schools
is the fresh-air plea. Undeniably, the growing boy in a large city is at
a disadvantage. He can rarely, if ever, obtain opportunities for
healthful exercise and recreation equal to those afforded by a well-
conducted boarding-school. He is likely to become a little man too
early, or else to sit in the house because there is nowhere to play. At
a boarding-school he will, under firm but gentle discipline, keep
regular hours, eat simple food, and between study times be
stimulated to cultivate athletic or other outdoor pursuits. It is not
strange that parents should be attracted by the comparison, and
decide that, on the whole, their boys will fare better away from
home. Obviously the aristocratic mother will point out to her
husband that his predilection for the public school system is
answered by the fact that the State does not supply schools away
from the city, where abundant fresh air and a famous foot-ball field
are appurtenant to the institution. Tom Brown at Rugby recurs to
them both, and they conclude that what has been good enough for
generations of English boys will be best for their own son and heir.
On the other hand, have we Americans ever quite reconciled
ourselves to, and sympathized with, the traditional attitude of
English parents toward their sons as portrayed in veracious fiction?
The day of parting comes; the mother, red-eyed from secret
weeping, tries not to break down; the blubbering sisters throw their
arms around the neck of the hero of the hour, and slip pen-wipers of
their own precious making into his pockets; the father, abnormally
stern to hide his emotion, says, bluffly, “Good-by, Tom; it’s time to
be off, and we’ll see you again at Christmas.” And out goes Tom, a
tender fledgeling, into the great world of the public school, and that
is the last of home. His holidays arrive, but there is no more
weeping. He is practically out of his parents’ lives, and the sweet
influence of a good mother is exercised only through fairly regular
correspondence. And Tom is said to be getting manly, and that the
nonsense has nearly been knocked out of him. He has been bullied
and has learned to bully; he has been a fag and is now a cock.
Perhaps he is first scholar, if not a hero of the cricket or foot-ball
field. Then off he goes to college, half a stranger to those who love
him best.
This is fine and manly perhaps, in the Anglo-Saxon sense, but
does it not seem just a little brutal? Are we well-to-do Americans
prepared to give up to others, however exemplary, the conduct of
our children’s lives? Granting that the American private boarding-
school is a delightful institution, where bullying and fags and cocks
are not known, can it ever take the place of home, or supply the
stimulus to individual life which is exercised by wise parental love
and precept? Of course, it is easier, in a certain sense, to send one’s
boy to a select boarding-school, where the conditions are known to
be highly satisfactory. It shifts the responsibility on to other
shoulders, and yet leaves one who is not sensitive, in the pleasing
frame of mind that the very best thing has been done for the young
idea. In our busy American life—more feverish than that of our
English kinsfolk whose institution we have copied—many doubtless
are induced to seek this solution of a perplexing problem by the
consciousness of their own lack of efficiency, and their own lack of
leisure to provide a continuous home influence superior or equal to
what can be supplied by headmasters and their assistants, who are
both churchmen and athletes. Many, too, especially fathers, are firm
believers in that other English doctrine, that most boys need to have
the nonsense knocked out of them, and that the best means of
accomplishing this result is to cut them loose from their mothers’
apron-strings.
It is to be borne in mind in this connection that the great English
public schools are a national cult. That is, everybody above a certain
class sends his sons to one of them. On the other hand, the private
boarding-schools on this side of the water, fashioned after them,
have thus far attracted the patronage of a very small element of the
population. It is their misfortune, rather than their fault, that they
are chiefly the resort of the sons of rich or fashionable people, and
consequently are the most conspicuously class schools in the
country. Doubtless the earnest men who conduct most of them
regret that this is so, but it is one of the factors of the case which
the American parent with sons must face at present. It may be that
this is to be the type of school which is to become predominant
here, and that, as in England, the nation will recognize it as a
national force, even though here, as there, only the sons of the
upper classes enjoy its advantages. That will depend partly on the
extent to which we shall decide, as a society, to promote further
class education. At present these schools are essentially private
institutions. They are small; they do not, like our American colleges,
offer scholarships, and thus invite the attendance of ambitious
students without means. Moreover, they are almost universally
conducted on a sectarian basis, or with a sectarian leaning, which is
apt to proselytize, at least indirectly.
While those in charge of them indisputably strive to inculcate
every virtue, the well-to-do American father must remember that his
sons will associate intimately there with many boys whose parents
belong to that frivolous class which is to-day chiefly absorbed in
beautiful establishments, elaborate cookery, and the wholly material
vanities of life, and are out of sympathy with, or are indifferent to,
the earnest temper and views of that already large and intelligent
portion of the community, which views with horror the development
among us of an aristocracy of wealth, which apes and is striving to
outdo the heartless inanities of the Old World. He must remember
that a taste for luxury and sensuous, material aims, even though
they be held in check by youthful devotion to the rites of the church,
will prove no less disastrous, in the long run, to manhood and
patriotism, than the lack of fresh air or a famous foot-ball field.
If, however, the American father chooses to keep his sons at
home, he is bound to do all he can to overcome the physical
disadvantages of city life. Fresh air and suitable exercise can be
obtained in the suburbs of most cities by a little energy and co-
operation on the part of parents. As an instance, in one or two of
our leading cities, clubs of twelve to fifteen boys are sent out three
or four afternoons a week under the charge of an older youth—
usually a college or other student—who, without interfering with
their liberty, supervises their sports, and sees that they are well
occupied. On days when the weather is unsuitable for any kind of
game, he will take them to museums, manufactories, or other places
of interest in the vicinity. In this way some of the watchfulness and
discipline which are constantly operative at a boarding-school, are
exercised without injury to home ties. There is no doubt that, unless
parents are vigilant and interest themselves unremittingly in
providing necessary physical advantages, the boys in a crowded city
are likely to be less healthy and vigorous in body, and perhaps in
mind, than those educated at a first-class boarding-school. It may
be, as our cities increase in size, and suburbs become more difficult
of access, that the boarding-school will become more generally
popular; but there is reason to believe that, before it is recognized
as a national institution, sectarian religion will have ceased to control
it, and it will be less imitative of England in its tone and social
attitude. Until then, at least, many a parent will prefer to keep his
boys at home.
 Education.
II.

upposing you had four daughters, like Mr. Perkins, what

would you do with them, educationally speaking?” I said
to my wife Barbara, by way of turning my attention to
the other sex.
“You mean what would they do with me? They would drive me
into my grave, I think,” she answered. “Woman’s horizon has
become so enlarged that no mother can tell what her next daughter
may not wish to do. I understand, though, that you are referring
simply to schools. To begin with, I take for granted you will agree
that American parents, who insist on sending their boys to a public
school, very often hesitate or decline point-blank to send their girls.”
“Precisely. And we are forthwith confronted by the question
whether they are justified in so doing.”
Barbara looked meditative for a moment, then she said: “I am
quite aware there is no logical reason why girls should not be
treated in the same way, and yet as a matter of fact I am not at all
sure, patriotism and logic to the contrary notwithstanding, I should
send a daughter to a public school unless I were convinced, from
personal examination, that she would have neither a vulgar teacher
nor vulgar associates. Manners mean so much to a woman, and by
manners I refer chiefly to those nice perceptions of everything which
stamp a lady, and which you can no more describe than you can
describe the perfume of the violet. The objection to the public
schools for a girl is that the unwritten constitution of this country
declared years ago that every woman was a born lady, and that
manners and nice perceptions were in the national blood, and
required no cultivation for their production. Latterly, a good many
people interested in educational matters have discovered the fallacy
of this point of view; so that when the name of a woman to act as
the head of a college or other first-class institution for girls is
brought forward to-day, the first question asked is, ‘Is she a lady?’
Ten years ago mental acquirements would have been regarded as
sufficient, and the questioner silenced with the severe answer that
every American woman is a lady. The public school authorities are
still harping too much on the original fallacy, or rather the new point
of view has not spread sufficiently to cause the average American
school-teacher to suspect that her manners might be improved and
her sensibilities refined. There, that sounds like treason to the
principles of democracy, yet you know I am at heart a patriot.”
“And yet to bring up boys on a common basis and separate the
girls by class education seems like a contradiction of terms,” I said.
“I am confident—at least if we as a nation really do believe in
obliterating class distinctions—that it won’t be long before those who
control the public schools recognize more universally the value of
manners, and of the other traits which distinguish the woman of
breeding from the woman who has none,” said Barbara. “When that
time comes the well-to-do American mother will have no more
reason for not sending her daughters to a public school than her
sons. As it is, they should send them oftener than they do.”
“Of course,” continued Barbara, presently, “the best private
schools are in the East, and a very much larger percentage, both of
girls and boys, attends the public schools in the West than in the
East. Indeed, I am inclined to think that comparatively few people
west of Chicago do not send their children to public schools. But, on
the other hand, there are boarding-schools for girls all over the East
which are mainly supported by girls from the West, whose mothers
wish to have them finished. They go to the public schools at home
until they are thirteen or fourteen, and then are packed off to school
for three or four years in order to teach them how to move, and
wear their hair, and spell, and control their voices—for the proper
modulation of the voice has at last been recognized as a necessary
attribute of the well-bred American woman. As for the Eastern girl
who is not sent to the public school, she usually attends a private
day-school in her native city, the resources of which are
supplemented by special instruction of various kinds, in order to
produce the same finished specimen. But it isn’t the finished
specimen who is really interesting from the educational point of view
to-day; that is, the conventional, cosmopolitan, finished specimen
such as is turned out with deportment and accomplishments from
the hands of the English governess, the French Mother Superior, or
the American private school-mistress.
“After making due allowance for the national point of view, I don’t
see very much difference in principle between the means adopted to
finish the young lady of society here and elsewhere. There are
thousands of daughters of well-to-do mothers in this country who
are brought up on the old aristocratic theory that a woman should
study moderately hard until she is eighteen, then look as pretty as
she can, and devote herself until she is married to having what is
called on this side of the Atlantic a good time. To be sure, in France
the good time does not come until after marriage, and there are
other differences, but the well-bred lady of social graces is the well-
bred lady, whether it be in London, Paris, Vienna, or New York, and
a ball-room in one capital is essentially the same as in all the others,
unless it be that over here the very young people are allowed to
crowd out everybody else. There are thousands of mothers who are
content that this should be the limit of their daughter’s experience, a
reasonably good education and perfect manners, four years of whirl,
and then a husband, or no husband and a conservative afternoon
tea-drinking spinsterhood—and they are thankful on the whole when
their girls put their necks meekly beneath the yoke of convention
and do as past generations of women all over the civilized world
have done. For the reign of the unconventional society young
woman is over. She shocks now her own countrywoman even more
than foreigners; and though, like the buffalo, she is still extant, she
is disappearing even more rapidly than that illustrious quadruped.”
 “Are you not wandering slightly from the topic?” I ventured to
inquire.
“Not at all,” said Barbara. “I was stating merely that the Old-
World, New-World young lady, with all her originality and piquancy,
however charming, and however delightfully inevitable she may be,
is not interesting from the educational point of view. Or rather I will
put it in this way: the thoughtful, well-to-do American mother is
wondering hard whether she has a right to be content with the
ancient programme for her daughters, and is watching with eager
interest the experiments which some of her neighbors are trying
with theirs. We cannot claim as an exclusive national invention
collegiate education for women, and there’s no doubt that my sex in
England is no less completely on the war-path than the female world
here; but is there a question that the peculiar qualities of American
womanhood are largely responsible for the awakening wherever it
has taken place? My dear, you asked me just now what a man like
Mr. Perkins should do with his four daughters. Probably Mrs. Perkins
is trying to make up her mind whether she ought to send them to
college. Very likely she is arguing with Mr. Perkins as to whether, all
things considered, it wouldn’t be advisable to have one or two of
them study a profession, or learn to do something bread-winning, so
that in case he, poor man—for he does look overworked—should not
succeed in leaving them the five thousand dollars a year he hopes,
they need not swell the category of the decayed gentlewoman of the
day. I dare say they discuss the subject assiduously, in spite of the
views Mr. Perkins has expressed to you regarding the sacredness of
unemployed feminine gentility; for it costs so much to live that he
can’t lay up a great deal, and there are certainly strong arguments in
favor of giving such girls the opportunity to make the most of
themselves, or at least to look at life from the self-supporting point
of view. At first, of course, the students at the colleges for women
were chiefly girls who hoped to utilize, as workers in various lines,
the higher knowledge they acquired there; but every year sees more
and more girls, who expect to be married sooner or later—the
daughters of lawyers, physicians, merchants—apply for admission,
on the theory that what is requisite for a man is none too good for
them; and it is the example of these girls which is agitating the
serenity of so many mothers, and suggesting to so many daughters
the idea of doing likewise. Even the ranks of the most fashionable
are being invaded, though undeniably it is still the fashion to stay at
home, and I am inclined to think that it is only the lack of the seal of
fashion that restrains many conservative people, like the Perkinses,
from educating their daughters as though they probably would not
be married, instead of as though they were almost certain to be.”
“You may remember that Perkins assured me not long ago, that
marriage did not run in the Perkins female line,” said I.
“All the more reason, then, that his girls should be encouraged to
equip themselves thoroughly in some direction or other, instead of
waiting disconsolately to be chosen in marriage, keeping up their
courage as the years slip away, with a few cold drops of Associated
Charity. Of course the majority of us will continue to be wives and
mothers—there is nothing equal to that when it is a success—but
will not marriage become still more desirable if the choicest girls are
educated to be the intellectual companions of men, and taught to
familiarize themselves with the real conditions of life, instead of
being limited to the rose garden of a harem, over the hedges of
which they are expected only to peep at the busy world—the world
of men, the world of action and toil and struggle and sin—the world
into which their sons are graduated when cut loose from the
maternal apron-strings? We intend to learn what to teach our sons,
so that we may no longer be silenced with the plea that women do
not know, and be put off with a secretive conjugal smile. And as for
the girls who do not marry, the world is open to them—the world of
art and song and charity and healing and brave endeavor in a
hundred fields. Become just like men? Never. If there is one thing
which the educated woman of the present is seeking to preserve and
foster, it is the subtle delicacy of nature, it is the engaging charm of
womanhood which distinguishes us from men. Who are the pupils at
the colleges for women to-day? The dowdy, sexless, unattractive,
masculine-minded beings who have served to typify for nine men
out of ten the crowning joke of the age—the emancipation of
women? No; but lovely, graceful, sympathetic, earnest, pure-minded
girls in the flower of attractive maidenhood. And that is why the
well-to-do American mother is asking herself whether she would be
doing the best thing for her daughter if she were to encourage her
to become merely a New-World, Old-World young lady of the ancient
order of things. For centuries the women of civilization have
worshipped chastity, suffering resignation and elegance as the ideals
of femininity; now we mean to be intelligent besides, or at least as
nearly so as possible.”
“In truth a philippic, Barbara,” I said. “It would seem as though
Mrs. Grundy would not be able to hold out much longer. Will you tell
me, by the way, what you women intend to do after you are fully
emancipated?”
“One thing at a time,” she answered. “We have been talking of
education, and I have simply been suggesting that no conscientious
mother can afford to ignore or pass by with scorn the claims of
higher education for girls—experimental and faulty as many of the
present methods to attain it doubtless are. As to what women are
going to do when our preliminary perplexities are solved and our
sails are set before a favorable wind, I have my ideas on that score
also, and some day I will discuss them with you. But just now I
should like you to answer me a question. What are the best
occupations for sons to follow when they have left school or
college?”
Pertinent and interesting as was this inquiry of Barbara’s, I felt the
necessity of drawing a long breath before I answered it.
 Occupation.
I.

he American young man, in the selection of a vocation, is

practically cut off from two callings which are dear to his
contemporaries in other civilized countries—the Army
and the Navy. The possibility of war, with all its horrors
and its opportunities for personal renown, is always
looming up before the English, French, German, or Russian youth,
who is well content to live a life of gilded martial inactivity in the
hope of sooner or later winning the cross for conspicuous service, if
he escapes a soldier’s grave. We have endured one war, and we
profoundly hope never to undergo another. Those of us who are
ethically opposed to the slaughter of thousands of human beings in
a single day by cannon, feel that we have geography on our side.
Even the bloodthirsty are forced to acknowledge that the prospects
here for a genuine contest of any kind are not favorable.
Consequently, the ardor of the son and heir, who would like to be a
great soldier or a sea captain, is very apt to be cooled by the
representation that his days would be spent in watching Indians or
cattle thieves on the Western plains, or in cruising uneventfully in
the Mediterranean or the Gulf of Mexico. At all events our standing,
or, more accurately speaking, sitting Army, and our Navy are so
small, that the demand for generals and captains is very limited.
Therefore, though we commend to our sons the prowess of Cæsar,
Napoleon, Nelson, Von Moltke, and Grant, we are able to
demonstrate to them, even without recourse to modern ethical
arguments, that the opportunities for distinction on this side of the
water are likely to be very meagre.
 Also, we Americans, unlike English parents, hesitate to hold out as
offerings to the Church a younger son in every large family. We have
no national Church; moreover, the calling of a clergyman in this
country lacks the social picturesqueness which goes far, or did go far,
to reconcile the British younger son to accept the living which fell to
his lot through family influence. Then again, would the American
mother, like the conventional mother of the older civilizations, as
represented in biography and fiction, if asked which of all vocations
she would prefer to have her son adopt, reply promptly and fervidly,
“the ministry?”
I put this question to my wife by way of obtaining an answer. She
reflected a moment, then she said, “If one of my boys really felt
called to be a clergyman, I should be a very happy woman; but I
wouldn’t on any account have one of them enter the ministry unless
he did.” This reply seems to me to express not merely the attitude of
the American mother, but also the point of view from which the
American young man of to-day is apt to look at the question. He no
longer regards the ministry as a profession which he is free to prefer,
merely because he needs to earn his daily bread; and he
understands, when he becomes a clergyman, that lukewarm or
merely conventional service will be utterly worthless in a community
which is thirsty for inspirational suggestion, but which is soul-sick of
cant and the perfervid reiteration of outworn delusions. The
consciousness that he has no closer insight into the mysteries of the
universe than his fellow-men, and the fear that he may be able to
solace their doubts only by skilful concealment of his own, is
tending, here and all over the civilized world, to deter many a young
man from embracing that profession, which once seemed to offer a
safe and legitimate niche for any pious youth who was uncertain
what he wished to do for a living. Happy he who feels so closely in
touch with the infinite that he is certain of his mission to his brother-
man! But is any one more out of place than the priest who seems to
know no more than we do of what we desire to know most? We
demand that a poet should be heaven-born; why should we not
require equivalent evidence of fitness from our spiritual advisers?
 And yet, on the other hand, when the conviction of fitness or
mission exists, what calling is there which offers to-day more
opportunities for usefulness than the ministry? The growing
tendency of the Church is toward wider issues and a broader scope.
Clergymen are now encouraged and expected to aid in the solution
of problems of living no less than those of dying, and to lead in the
discussion of matters regarding which they could not have ventured
to express opinions fifty years ago without exposing themselves to
the charge of being meddlesome or unclerical. The whole field of
practical charity, economics, hygiene, and the relations of human
beings to each other on this earth, are fast becoming the legitimate
domain of the Church, and the general interest in this new phase of
usefulness is serving to convince many of the clergy themselves that
the existence of so many creeds, differing but slightly and
unimportantly from one another, is a waste of vital force and
machinery. In this age of trusts, a trust of all religious denominations
for the common good of humanity would be a monopoly which could
pay large dividends without fear of hostile legislation.
In this matter of the choice of a vocation, the case of the
ambitious, promising young man is the one which commends itself
most to our sympathies; and next to it stands that of the general
utility man—the youth who has no definite tastes or talents, and
who selects his life occupation from considerations other than a
consciousness of fitness or of natural inclination. There are here, as
elsewhere, born merchants, lawyers, doctors, clergymen, architects,
engineers, inventors, and poets, who promptly follow their natural
bents without suggestion and in the teeth of difficulties. But the
promising young man in search of a brilliant career, and the general
utility man, are perhaps the best exponents of a nation’s temper and
inclination.
In every civilization many promising youths and the general run of
utility men are apt to turn to business, for trade seems to offer the
largest return in the way of money with the least amount of special
knowledge. In this new country of ours the number of young men
who have selected a business career during the last fifty years, from
personal inclination, has been very much greater than elsewhere,
and the tone and temper of the community has swept the general
utility man into mere money making almost as a matter of course.
The reasons for this up to this time have been obvious: The
resources and industries of a vast and comparatively sparsely settled
continent have been developed in the last fifty years, and the great
prizes in the shape of large fortunes resulting from the process have
naturally captivated the imagination of ambitious youth. We have
unjustly been styled a nation of shopkeepers; but it may in all
fairness be alleged that, until the last fifteen years, we have been
under the spell of the commercial and industrial spirit, and that the
intellectual faculties of the nation have been mainly absorbed in the
introduction and maintenance of railroads and factories, in the
raising and marketing of grain, in the development of real estate
enterprises, and in trading in the commodities or securities which
these various undertakings have produced.
The resources of the country are by no means exhausted; there
are doubtless more mines to open which will make their owners
superbly rich; new discoveries in the mechanical or electrical field
will afford fresh opportunities to discerning men of means; and
individual or combined capital will continue to reap the reward of
both legitimate and over-reaching commercial acumen. But it would
seem as though the day of enormous fortunes, for men of average
brains and luck, in this country were nearly over, and that the great
pecuniary prizes of the business world would henceforth be gleaned
only by extraordinary or exceptional individuals. The country is no
longer sparsely settled; fierce competition speedily cuts the
abnormal profit out of new enterprises which are not protected by a
patent; and in order to be conspicuously successful in any branch of
trade, one will have more and more need of unusual ability and
untiring application.
In other words, though ours is still a new country, it will not be
very long before the opportunities and conditions of a business life
resemble closely those which confront young men elsewhere. As in
every civilized country, trade in some form will necessarily engage
the attention of a large portion of the population. From physical
causes, a vast majority of the citizens of the United States must
continue to derive their support from agriculture and the callings
which large crops of cereals, cotton, and sugar make occasion for.
Consequently business will always furnish occupation for a vast army
of young men in every generation, and few successes will seem
more enviable than those of the powerful and scrupulous banker, or
the broad-minded and capable railroad president. But, on the other
hand, will the well-to-do American father and mother, eager to see
their promising sons make the most of themselves, continue to
advise them to go into business in preference to other callings? And
will the general utility man still be encouraged to regard some form
of trade as the most promising outlook, for one who does not know
what he wishes to do, to adopt? He who hopes to become a great
banker or illustrious railway man, must remember that the streets of
all our large cities teem with young men whose breasts harbor
similar ambitions.
Doubtless, it was the expectation of our forefathers that our
American civilization would add new occupations to the callings
inherited from the old world, which would be alluring both to the
promising young man and the youth without predilections, and no
less valuable to society and elevating to the individual than the best
of those by which men have earned their daily bread since
civilization first was. As a matter of fact, we Americans have added
just one, that of the modern stock-broker. To be sure, I am not
including the ranchman. It did seem at one time as though we were
going to add another in him—a sort of gentleman shepherd. But be
it that the cattle have become too scarce or too numerous, be it that
the demon of competition has planted his hoofs on the farthest
prairie, one by one the brave youths who went West in search of
fortune, have returned East for the last time, and abandoned the
field to the cowboys and the native settler. The pioneers in this form
of occupation made snug fortunes, but after them came a deluge of
promising or unpromising youths who branded every animal within a
radius of hundreds of miles with a letter of the alphabet. Their only
living monument is the polo pony.
Our single and signal contribution to the callings of the world has
been the apotheosis of the stock-broker. For the last twenty-five
years, the well-to-do father and mother and their sons, in our large
cities, have been under the spell of a craze for the brokerage
business. The consciousness that the refinements of modern living
cannot adequately be supplied in a large city to a family whose
income does not approximate ten thousand dollars a year, is a
cogent argument in favor of trying to grow rich rapidly, and both the
promising young man and the general utility man welcomed the new
calling with open arms. Impelled by the notion that here was a
vocation which required no special knowledge or attainments, and
very little capital, which was pleasant, gentlemanly, and not unduly
confining, and which promised large returns almost in the twinkling
of an eye, hundreds and thousands of young men became brokers—
chiefly stock-brokers, but also cotton-brokers, note-brokers, real-
estate-brokers, insurance-brokers, and brokers in nearly everything.
The field was undoubtedly a rich one for those who first entered it.
There was a need for the broker, and he was speedily recognized as
a valuable addition to the machinery of trade. Many huge fortunes
were made, and we have learned to associate the word broker with
the possession of large means, an imposing house on a fashionable
street, and diverse docked and stylish horses.
Of course, the king of all brokers has been the stock-broker, for to
him was given the opportunity to buy and sell securities on his own
account, though he held himself out to his customers as merely a
poor thing who worked for a commission. No wonder that the young
man, just out of college, listened open-mouthed to the tales of how
many thousands of dollars a year so and so, who had been
graduated only five years before, was making, and resolved to try
his luck with the same Aladdin’s lamp. Nor was it strange that the
sight of men scarcely out of their teens, driving down town in fur
coats, in their own equipages, with the benison of successful
capitalists in their salutations, settled the question of choice for the
youth who was wavering or did not know what he wished to do.
It is scarcely an extreme statement that the so-called aristocracy
of our principal cities to-day is largely made up of men who are, or
once were, stock-brokers, or who have made their millions by some
of the forms of gambling which our easy-going euphemism styles
modern commercial aggressiveness. Certainly, a very considerable
number of our most splendid private residences have been built out
of the proceeds of successful ventures in the stock market, or the
wheat pit, or by some other purely speculative operations. Many
stars have shone brilliantly for a season, and then plunged
precipitately from the zenith to the horizon; and much has been
wisely said as to the dangers of speculation; but the fact remains
that a great many vast fortunes owe their existence to the broker’s
office; fortunes which have been salted down, as the phrase is, and
now furnish support and titillation for a leisurely, green old age, or
enable the sons and daughters of the original maker to live in luxury.
Whatever the American mother may feel as to her son becoming a
clergyman, there is no doubt that many a mother to-day would say
“God grant that no son of mine become a stock-broker.” I know
stock-brokers—many indeed—who are whole-souled, noble-natured
men, free from undue worldliness, and with refined instincts. But the
stock-broker, as he exists in the every-day life of our community,
typifies signally the gambler’s yearning to gain wealth by short cuts,
and the monomania which regards as pitiable those who do not
possess and display the gewgaws of feverish, fashionable
materialism. There are stock-brokers in all the great capitals of the
world, but nowhere has the vocation swallowed up the sons of the
best people to the extent that it has done here during the last thirty
years. And yet, apart from the opportunity it affords to grow rich
rapidly, what one good reason is there why a promising young man
should decide to buy and sell stocks for a living? Indeed, not merely
decide, but select, that occupation as the most desirable calling open
to him? Does it tend either to ennoble the nature or enrich the
mental faculties? It is one of the formal occupations made necessary
by the exigencies of the business world, and as such is legitimate
and may be highly respectable; but surely it does not, from the
nature of the services required, deserve to rank high; and really
there would seem to be almost as much occasion for conferring the
accolade of social distinction on a dealer in excellent fish as on a
successful stock-broker.
However, alas! it is easy enough to assign the reason why the
business has been so popular. It appears that, even under the flag of
our aspiring nationality, human nature is still so weak that the
opportunity to grow rich quickly, when presented, is apt to over-ride
all noble considerations. Foreign censors have ventured not
infrequently to declare that there was never yet a race so hungry for
money as we free-born Americans; and not even the pious
ejaculation of one of our United States Senators, “What have we to
do with abroad?” is conclusive proof that the accusation is not well
founded. In fact: there seems to be ample proof that we, who
sneered so austerely at the Faubourg St. Germain and the
aristocracies of the Old World, and made Fourth of July protestations
of poverty and chastity, have fallen down and worshipped the golden
calf merely because it was made of gold. Because it seemed to be
easier to make money as stock-brokers than in any other way, men
have hastened to become stock-brokers. To be sure it may be
answered that this is only human nature and the way of the world.
True, perhaps; except that we started on the assumption that we
were going to improve on the rest of the world, and that its human
nature was not to be our human nature. Would not the Faubourg St.
Germain be preferable to an aristocracy of stock-brokers?
At all events, the law of supply and demand is beginning to
redeem the situation, and, if not to restore our moral credit, at least
to save the rising generation from falling into the same slough. The
stock-broker industry has been overstocked, and the late young
capitalists in fur overcoats, with benedictory manners, wear anxious
countenances under the stress of that Old World demon, excessive
competition. Youth can no longer wake up in the morning and find
itself the proprietor of a rattling business justifying a steam-yacht
and a four-in-hand. The good old days have gone forever, and there
is weeping and gnashing of teeth where of late there was joy and
much accumulation. There is not business enough for all the
promising young men who are stock-brokers already, and the youth
of promise must turn elsewhere.
 Occupation.
II.

ut though the occupation of broker has become less

tempting, the promising youth has not ceased to look
askance at any calling which does not seem to
foreshadow a fortune in a short time. He is only just
beginning to appreciate that we are getting down to
hard pan, so to speak, and are nearly on a level, as regards the
hardships of individual progress, with our old friends the effete
civilizations. He finds it difficult to rid himself of the “Arabian Nights’”
notion that he has merely to clap his hands to change ten dollars
into a thousand in a single year, and to transform his bachelor
apartments into a palace beautiful, with a wife, yacht, and horses,
before he is thirty-five. He shrinks from the idea of being obliged to
take seriously into account anything less than a hundred-dollar bill,
and of earning a livelihood by slow yet persistent acceptance of tens
and fives. His present ruling ambition is to be a promoter; that is, to
be an organizer of schemes, and to let others do the real work and
attend to the disgusting details. There are a great many gentry of
this kind in the field just at present. Among them is, or rather was,
Lewis Pell, as I will call him for the occasion. I don’t know exactly
what he is doing now. But he was, until lately, a promoter.
A handsome fellow was Lewis Pell. Tall, gentlemanly, and athletic-
looking, with a gracious, imposing presence and manner, which
made his rather commonplace conversation seem almost wisdom.
He went into a broker’s office after leaving college, like many other
promising young men of his time, but he was clever enough either
to realize that he was a little late, or that the promoter business
offered a more promising scope for his genius, for he soon
disappeared from the purlieus of the Stock Exchange, and the next
thing we heard of him was as the tenant of an exceedingly elaborate
set of offices on the third floor of a most expensive modern monster
building. Shortly after I read in the financial columns of the daily
press that Mr. Lewis Pell had sold to a syndicate of bankers the first
mortgage and the debenture bonds of the Light and Power Traction
Company, an electrical corporation organized under the laws of the
State of New Jersey. Thirty days later I saw again that he had sailed
for Europe in order to interest London capital in a large enterprise,
the nature of which was still withheld from the public.
During the next two or three years I ran across Pell on several
occasions. He seemed always to be living at the highest pressure,
but the brilliancy of his career had not impaired his good manners or
attractiveness. I refer to his career as brilliant at this time because
both his operations and the consequent style of living which he
pursued, as described by him on two different evenings when I
dined with him, seemed to me in my capacity of ordinary citizen to
savor of the marvellous, if not the supernatural. He frankly gave me
to understand that it seemed to him a waste of time for an
ambitious man to pay attention to details, and that his business was
to originate vast undertakings, made possible only by large
combinations of corporate or private capital. The word combination,
which was frequently on his lips, seemed to be the corner-stone of
his system. I gathered that the part which he sought to play in the
battle of life was to breathe the breath, or the apparent breath, of
existence into huge schemes, and after having given them a quick
but comprehensive squeeze or two for his own pecuniary benefit, to
hand them over to syndicates, or other aggregations of capitalists,
for the benefit of whom they might concern. He confided to me that
he employed eleven typewriters; that he had visited London seven,
and Paris three times, in the last three years, on flying trips to
accomplish brilliant deals; that though his headquarters were in New
York, scarcely a week passed in which he was not obliged to run
over to Chicago, Boston, Washington, Denver, Duluth, or Cincinnati,
as the case might be. Without being boastful as to his profits, he did
not hesitate to acknowledge to me that if he should do as well in the
next three years as in the last, he would be able to retire from
business with a million or so.
Apart from this confession, his personal extravagance left no room
for doubt that he must be very rich. Champagne flowed for him as
Croton or Cochituate for most of us, and it was evident from his
language that the hiring of special trains from time to time was a
rather less serious matter than it would be for the ordinary citizen to
take a cab. The account that he gave of three separate
entertainments he had tendered to syndicates—of ten, twelve, and
seventeen covers respectively, at twenty dollars a cover—fairly made
my mouth water and my eyes stick out, so that I felt constrained to
murmur, “Your profits must certainly be very large, if you can afford
that sort of thing.”
Pell smiled complacently and a little condescendingly. “I could tell
you of things which I have done which would make that seem a
bagatelle,” he answered, with engaging mystery. Then after a
moment’s pause he said, “Do you know, my dear fellow, that when I
was graduated I came very near going into the office of a pious old
uncle of mine who has been a commission merchant all his life, and
is as poor as Job’s turkey in spite of it all—that is, poor as men are
rated nowadays. He offered to take me as a clerk at one thousand
dollars a year, with the promise of a partnership before I was bald-
headed in case I did well. Supposing I had accepted his offer, where
should I be to-day? Grubbing at an office-desk and earning barely
enough for board and lodging. I remember my dear mother took it
terribly to heart because I went into a broker’s office instead. By the
way, between ourselves, I’m building a steam-yacht—nothing very
wonderful, but a neat, comfortable craft—and I’m looking forward
next summer to inviting my pious old uncle to cruise on her just to
see him open his eyes.”
That was three years ago, and to-day I have every reason to
believe that Lewis Pell is without a dollar in the world, or rather, that
every dollar which he has belongs to his creditors. I had heard
before his failure was announced that he was short of money, for the
reason that several enterprises with which his name was connected
had been left on his hands—neither the syndicates nor the public
would touch them—so his suspension was scarcely a surprise. He at
present, poor fellow, is only one of an army of young men
wandering dejectedly through the streets of New York or Chicago in
these days of financial depression, vainly seeking for something to
promote.
When the promising youth and the general utility man do get rid
of the “Arabian Nights’” notion, and recognize that signal success
here, in any form, is likely to become more and more difficult to
attain, and will be the legitimate reward only of men of real might,
of unusual abilities, originality, or dauntless industry, some of the
callings which have fallen, as it were, into disrepute through their
lack of gambling facilities, are likely to loom up again socially. It may
be, however, that modern business methods and devices have had
the effect of killing for all time that highly respectable pillar of
society of fifty years ago, the old-fashioned merchant, who bought
and sold on his own behalf, or on commission, real cargoes of
merchandise, and real consignments of cotton, wheat, and corn. The
telegraph and the warehouse certificate have worked such havoc
that almost everything now is bought and sold over and over again
before it is grown or manufactured, and by the time it is on the
market there is not a shred of profit in it for anybody but the retail
dealer. It remains to be seen whether, as the speculative spirit
subsides, the merchant is going to reinstate himself and regain his
former prestige. It may already be said that the promising youth
does not regard him with quite so much contempt as he did.
We have always professed in this country great theoretical respect
for the schoolmaster, but we have been careful, as the nation waxed
in material prosperity, to keep his pay down and to shove him into
the social background more and more. The promising youth could
not afford to spend his manhood in this wise, and we have all really
been too busy making money to think very much about those who
are doing the teaching. Have we not always heard it stated that our
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookball.com