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Principles and Concepts of
Social Research
A Critical Examination of Methodology,
Methods and Analysis for Emerging
Researchers
Simon Hayhoe
Designed cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
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© 2023 Simon Hayhoe
The right of Simon Hayhoe to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hayhoe, Simon, author.
Title: Principles and concepts of social research : a critical examination
of methodology, methods and analysis for emerging researchers / Simon Hayhoe.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2022035775 (print) | LCCN 2022035776 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032149660 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032149677 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003241997 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences–Research. | Social sciences–History.
Classification: LCC H62 .H347 2023 (print) | LCC H62 (ebook) |
DDC 300.72–dc23/eng/20220809
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022035775
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022035776
ISBN: 9781032149660 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032149677 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003241997 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003241997
Typeset in Bembo
by Newgen Publishing UK
Dedicated to the memory of Anthony Hayhoe and
Margaret Hayhoe.
Contents
List of Illustrations x
Acknowledgments xi
1 Introduction 1
Introduction 1
Terms and Phrases Used Throughout this Book 2
General Scientific Terms Examined in this Book 4
Chapter Summaries 12
SECTION I
Principles 15
2 Historical Principles of Science 1: From Ancient Greece
Through to the Enlightenment 17
Introduction 17
Principles Introduced Through this Chapter 18
Ancient Greece, Philosophy, and Methodology 22
The Medieval Period and the Renaissance 28
The Enlightenment, and an Understanding of Consciousness 33
Summary 39
3 Historical Principles of Science 2: The Modern History of
Western Science 40
Introduction 40
Principles Introduced Through this Chapter 41
The Era of Modern Western Science 44
Power, History, and the Development of Methodology 51
Summary 60
viii Contents
4 Contemporary Principles and Defining Science 61
Introduction 61
Key Principles in this Chapter 61
General Statements on Western Science and Social Science 65
The Problem with Developing a Unified Understanding of Science 68
Summary 75
5 From Principles to Practice 76
Introduction 76
Key Principles in this Chapter 76
The Construction of Objective Knowledge from Subjective Knowledge 79
Taxonomy and Reductionism in Western Social Science 84
The Effect of Western Social Scientific Classification on Society 90
Summary 93
SECTION II
Concepts 95
6 The Concept and Collection of Data 97
Introduction 97
Concepts Introduced Through this Chapter 98
What Is Data Generation, and Where Does It Fit Within the
Testing of Theories? 100
Classifications of Data in the Social Sciences and Social Research 101
Case Study of a Data Collection Technique–Observation 108
Summary 111
7 Analysis in the Social Sciences 113
Introduction 113
Concepts Introduced Through this Chapter 113
The Concept of Analysis 115
Taxonomies of Analysis 119
The Process of Analysis 122
Summary 128
8 The Role of Ethics in Western Social Research 129
Introduction 129
Concepts Introduced Through this Chapter 129
Critical Issues in Western Ethics 131
The Contemporary Study of Western Ethics 134
Summary 140
Contents ix
9 Writing and Recording Research Outputs 142
Introduction 142
Concepts Introduced Through this Chapter 142
The Concept of Western Scientific Outputs 146
Developing Research Outputs Using Standard Protocols 150
Publishing a Research Output 154
Summary 158
10 Developing Impact and Public Involvement in
Social Science 159
Introduction 159
Concepts Introduced Through this Chapter 159
Impact Through Public Engagement 163
A Case Study of Developing Participatory Impact Through the
Three-Ws Model 169
Summary 173
11 Conclusion 175
What Is Social Science, and How Is It Derived from a Broader
Conceptualization of Science? 175
What Is Scientific Knowledge? 176
What Is the Way Forward for Social Science? 178
References 179
Index 186
Illustrations
Figures
1.1 Agricultural Science in Relation to the Natural and Human
or Social Sciences 6
2.1 Two Images of Scientific Progress 21
3.1 Split in the Debate on Western Science and Methodology 44
4.1 Statements on Science and Social Science as an Axis 73
4.2 The Development of a Research Positionality 74
6.1 The DIKW Model of Wisdom Hierarchy as a Pyramid 101
7.1 The Components of Analysis—What Is the Difference
Between Finding Things Out and Researching Systematically? 116
9.1 The Peer Review Process 146
9.2 A Typical Conference Structure 157
10.1 The Traditional Model of Academic Impact Development 163
10.2 The Impact-Driven Model of Research Development 164
10.3 The Three-Ws Model of Developing Public Engagement 166
10.4 Who to Engage 167
10.5 Where to Engage 167
10.6 Virtual Engagement 167
10.7 Physical Engagement 168
10.8 When to Engage 168
10.9 ARCHES—Inclusive Technology in Museums 170
Table
4.1 Example Statements on Science by Scientists and Scientific
Institutions, and Statements for Social Use by Users of Science 69
Acknowledgments
Most of all, I would like to acknowledge my very hard-working editor, Hannah
Shakespeare, at Routledge. I would also like to acknowledge the MRes students
and staff at the University of Bath, and those from the GW4 (including the
universities of Bristol, Exeter, and Bath) for their constructive and helpful
discussions that stimulated and informed the contents of this book. Lastly,
I would like to acknowledge the Centre for the Philosophy of Natural and
Social Science at the London School of Economics for supporting my study of
methodological theory over the past 12 years.
The case study in chapter 10 received funding from the European Union’s
Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement
Nº 693229.
newgenprepdf
1 Introduction
Introduction
This book introduces a critical examination of the historical and contemporary
principles and concepts of Western social science, including: the history of
beliefs, knowledge systems and the logic of science; the definition of science
and the process by which science evolves; the process of classifying humans,
their thinking and their behavior through scientific methodologies; the nature
of data and analysis; the social scientific understanding of ethics; the develop-
ment of research outputs to share methodologies and research findings; and, the
nature of public engagement, knowledge exchange and impact.
The book has three aims. The first aim is to develop the reader’s knowledge
and understanding of social research through an exposition of the significance
and rationales of alternative epistemological paradigms and modes of its social
scientific enquiry and to evaluate the corresponding techniques of the social,
cultural, and political context of its processes. The second aim is to increase
readers’ intellectual competence through an examination of the social, cultural,
and historical character of research traditions, how these traditions became
established, the dimensions of research problems and the parameters, value and
appropriateness of its techniques. The third aim is to improve the professional
and practical competence of social researchers through a critical evaluation of
research strategies, the problematization of research data, the issues posed by
social research and the competence needed to formulate research proposals for
external funding or theses.
The intellectual position that this book takes is that science is not a natural
activity, and so the principles of science are neither natural nor based in what is
customarily termed natural logic. Thus, the principles and subsequent concepts
of Western social science have evolved from the academic heritage of Western
societies. Consequently, our understanding of the human world is social-cultural
and based on a biased intellectual development, which is founded in subjective
social and cultural traditions and should be observed, analyzed, and understood
as such before approaching and planning a research project.
The text of this book is developed largely from research training programs
taught on two continents and has evolved from teaching on core research
DOI: 10.4324/9781003241997-1
2 Introduction
units at postgraduate, undergraduate and doctoral level, and through providing
training for early career researchers. Thus, the contents of this book are like
numerous core units that universities teach at postgraduate and doctoral level,
and occasionally introduce at final year undergraduate level. In addition to
its theory, the contents of the book will include questions for discussion in
seminars and small group work, as well as exercises within and between lectures,
seminars, tutorials, or classes.
This book was also developed to add to a debate on the cultural characteristics
of Western social science, based on the following three questions:
1. What is Social Science, and how is it derived from a broader conceptual-
ization of science?
2. What is scientific knowledge? It is “truthful” knowledge, how reliable is it
really?
3. What is the way forward for social science?
The objective of this book is unusual, in that it is the hope by the end of reading
it you will realize that you know less about social science than you did when
you started reading it. In other words, I would like you to realize that there
is no simple understanding of social science and that social research cannot
fit neatly into a box. Subsequently, at a minimum, after reading this book the
reader should be able to understand a unique social scientific study published in
a conference paper, journal article, book or thesis, and critically understand its
value to society. At a minimum, the reader should also be able to: recognize the
structure of a study; see where its methodology and its data collection methods
fit into its outputs; understand why these methods and methodologies were
chosen; consider whether it is a reliable study; and evaluate the nature of the
analysis and findings of the study. Most of all, at the end of reading this book
you should be able to critically analyze the process of Western social science
as a whole and see where studies fit into the cannon of knowledge on human
societies, cultures, and psychologies.
Terms and Phrases Used Throughout this Book
One of the key features of this book is the definitions of principles in Section
I and concepts in Section II, and these definitions are included near the top
of each chapter. This series of definitions begins with the following gen-
eral principles that go beyond science, but relate to the subject of this book.
Importantly, this initial set of definitons attempts to unpick a number of
important terms, and for greater ease of use splits them into two families: terms
that are used in all sciences and social sciences; and those terms that are relevant
to the social sciences in particular.
In this initial set of terms and phrases, it is important to note that the
definitions are only a starting point rather than a definitive understanding of
general principles. Although at first defining these principles seems to be a
Introduction 3
straightforward activity, unpicking definitions of words or phrases used in the
context of a social scientific text is more difficult than it first appears. In par-
ticular, the nature of basic terms has a messy history, and what are held as being
general assumptions to be taught as definitive answers often have ambiguities
and logical contradictions when examined closely.
For example, in Western science there is a delineation between various forms
of topic or subject, and it is assumed that each term is a discrete unit of analysis
that can be rationalized on its own. This practice is arguably less logical than
it is a habit that scientists have developed from their cultural traditions, and
the needs of university departments, libraries, and publishing houses. However,
even closely examining broad units of study, such as the human sciences, the
borders of what exists within this unit is fuzzy and contradictory in many ways.
In the human sciences, are scientists studying the body or the mind, and if we
are talking about the mind, where is the line between the two? As the study of
neurology shows, the human brain’s cells effect memory, conscious thought, and
cognition, and therefore behavior, and by the same logic behavior will similarly
influence the human body too.
To take a single instance of this cycle, according to tradition most people
who live in the cultural West remember to eat meals two or three times a day,
remember what their favorite meals are and prefer some foods over others.
Some people may also be adverse to some foods over others, or the food
that they eat may be directly regulated by social trends, such as the use or
overuse of sugar in foods; personal choices such as vegetarianism; or religious
rites, such as the eating of fish on Friday by some Christians, the abstinence
from pork by almost all Jews and Muslims, or the abstinence from any form
of animal flesh or product by some Hindus or Buddhists. Subsequently, this
food will change human bodies, as the proteins created in our body to create
muscles, bones, and organs, such as the brain itself, are made of this food and
the food choices that we make. The brain thus becomes an organ that both
regulates and is regulated by the body. Scientists also face a dilemma when
they study cultural traditions of food as a branch of anthropology, when this
issue is also related to the study of the reaction of food on human bodies
based on these traditions.
Thus, this book starts with a contradiction, as scientists do not know
whether to just study the body, the mind or culture when they study human
diet, or whether they should work according to the protocols of natural, med-
ical or social science, as they all relate to this topic. The issue of the study of
the human diet becomes fuzzier and more complex when the questions, what
is a human, and what is human nutrition, are asked. The latter question—and
it is now possible to spot a theme arising—is also an issue for study, as in many
societies, food is not simply nutrition and many of us eat beyond our dietary
needs, many people eat to enhance social interaction, and of course people eat
for pleasure. Thus, food is not necessarily seen by people as nutrition in the
strictest biological sense, and nutrition, unlike oxygen and water, is not neces-
sarily consumed to maintain life.
4 Introduction
Consequently, it can be asked, what are humans as they are often seen by
scientists as not just another species of animal. Yet, humans, like all other living
organisms, are a united and cohesive unit of chemicals that can be studied by
chemists; humans are atoms and molecules and can be studied by physicists; and,
of course, for us as social scientists, humans are psychological, social and cultural
beasts and again can be studied as such. Does that mean that when we study
culture, we are ultimately studying atoms and molecules, or are we inventing
something new as a unit of study, just as atoms and molecules have themselves
been invented to explain a natural occurrence? Ultimately, we are our own
invention, and anything we study is simply a convoluted development of this
idea for the purpose of analysis and communication. Thus, any definition in
the study of anything in science or other academic disciplines overlaps, tears at
itself and other definitions, and develops more questions and problems than it
answers, much as Popper (1979) states that science itself does.
With this ambiguity of meaning in mind, the following definitions should
be seen as being part of the context of social science and the broader study of
the Western principles of science. If this book is being used as a source text
for a class, these definitions should also be seen as starting points for further
debates, debates that it is hoped will take these definitions and develop a better
understanding or reject them as useful instruments for analyzing and evaluating
the practice of science. Practically, when the definitions of words and phrases
were being composed, a number of caveats and important notes were made that
show issues that need further study or cannot be usefully defined at present.
Importantly, these notes and caveats are issues that show anomalies in the
logic of these definitions, show that there are ambiguities in the philosophical
development of the principles and concepts of science and show that more
work needs to be done to develop a cohesive narrative on what Western science
is. Where these issues occur, they are highlighted by the word “CAVEAT” or
“NOTE” in capitals, to allow the reader to understand that such an issue either
exists or more needs to be examined on this topic. It should also be seen as a
door that needs opening, rather than a problem that undermines what this book
argues is being part of the culture of Western science.
General Scientific Terms Examined in this Book
Nature/the Natural World: In the context of this book, nature, natural
science, and the natural world is defined as the perception, comprehension or
understanding of everything that exists outside the realm of human control,
or the parts of the world that humans did not invent. In this sense, the word
“world” refers to elements of Planet Earth or the human population of the
earth, depending on the context being referred to. This realm of the world
includes plants and animals, atoms and energy, mountains and bodies of water,
and the internal layers of the planet; or the term “world” refers to the human
population of Planet Earth and where they exist in space, and the sum of its
individual societies, civilizations, and cultures.
