International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences

May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5

ISSN: 2222-6990

Theoretical and Practical Linguistic Shifting from

Product/Guided Writing to Process Writing and
Recently to the Innovated Writing Process Approach
in Teaching Writing for Second/Foreign Language
Learners
Dr. Anwar Mourssi
Faculty of Arts, Creative Industries and Education, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
E-mails: [email protected] [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract

Writing is a complex cognitive activity in which foreign language learners are required to pay
attention simultaneously to content, sentence structure, vocabulary, punctuation, spelling and
letter formation. Therefore, there can be no guarantee that an effective teaching method in
one context would result in effective student learning in another. It is proved that
Product/Guided Writing resulting in poor writers, and Process Writing dos not provide much
care for metalinguistic feedback or enough time for negotiation as well. Following the stages of
Innovated Writing Process (IWP), the instructor may be able to teach students many skills that
may improve the quality of their writing as well as speaking. This paper presents the theoretical
and practical linguistic shifting from Product/Guided Writing to Process Writing and recently to
the Innovated Writing Process Approach in teaching writing for Second/Foreign Language
Learners. It is indicated that metalinguistic feedback, error/contrastive analysis and the
communicative interaction negotiating of meaning and form provided by the teacher lead to
remarkable improve in second/foreign language learners’ written accuracy and fluency as well.

Key words: Product/guided writing, Process writing, Innovated writing process, Metalinguistic
feedback, Interaction, and Negotiation.

1. Introduction

Writing skill has been considered as the most difficult skill to be taught and acquired as well.
The common concept between linguists and pedagogical specialists is that it is easier for
second/foreign language learners to speak, listen and read L2 than writing it, since writing
requires much more effort from language learners to be acquired. Writing teaching methods
were developed matching with the development occurred in English teaching methods and
approaches.

In the current article, three types of teaching methods are presented chronologically. The first
type is the Traditional Product Writing (TPW), followed by the Process Writing (PW), and the

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third type is the Innovated Writing Process (IWP). The aim is to show and identify theoretical
and practical linguistic shifting from Product/Guided Writing to Process Writing and recently to
the Innovated Writing Process Approach in teaching writing for Second/Foreign Language
Learners. This paper consists of five sections; the first section is the introduction, the second
section is describing the Traditional Product Writing, section three presents the Process Writing
approach, while section four presents the Innovated Writing process, and finally, conclusion is
presented in section five. In the following, describing the Traditional Product Writing is
presented.

2. Describing the Traditional Product Writing (TPW)

The TPW is a method of teaching writing, which emphases the students’ finished written
product. It is termed a product-oriented approach which focuses on what to write and the rules
for writing; the teacher is the only one who evaluates the final product. Mourssi (2006)
indicated that product writing is a teacher-centered method, in which there is no role/space for
the students to interact, discuss, negotiate, or get concrete feedback. Although some students
can imitate certain styles of writing, the majority of the students produce weak written pieces
which are full of non-target-like forms. The teacher’s evaluation is provided by putting a tick or
writing “good, very good, well done or bad” and there is no space for interaction or enough
feedback.

The product approach has been evaluated by a number of linguists who have shown the
weaknesses of the product approach in language acquisition: Pincas (1962) commented that in
the product approach, the use of language is the manipulation of fixed patterns, these patterns
are learnt by imitation; Eschholz (1980) mentioned that the product approach merely results in
mindless copies of particular organizational plan or style; Prodromou (1995) criticized that the
product approach for devaluing “the learners’ potential” both linguistic and personal; Jordan
(1997) commented that the product approach has no practical applications; Nunan (1999)
similarly mentioned that the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner
imitates, copies and transforms models supplied by the teacher. I think that the product
approach does not teach how to write independently or teach learners how to think, and most
of the students feel bored during the writing task.

Traditional methods of teaching writing have focused upon the final written product and it is
the role of a teacher to assess and rate the finished product, an approach otherwise known as
the product-oriented approach. Cross (1991) suggested that ESL writing classes with particularly
lower levels of proficiency may successfully use controlled, guided and independent writing
techniques to facilitate vocabulary, sentence structure knowledge and self-confidence.
According to Zamel (1987, p. 67):

The teacher’s role in the product-oriented approach is often criticized for being too teacher-
centred resulting either in an over-controlled or judgmental environment. The process
approach on the other hand could be a more effective way of teaching writing since it provides
the avenue for students to build up their confidence and thus increase their motivation.

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Similar to my evaluation of the product writing approach, Ting (2010, p. 623) compared the
product approach and the process approach. He mentions that the product approach is based
on behaviourism theory, while the process approach is based on the communicating theory
which changes the centre of the class from the teacher to the learners. He adds that the
product approach developed from Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov’s “conditioned reflex”. Pavlov
thought that the learning process consists of the formation of associations between stimuli and
reflexive responses. In the following, describing the Process Writing Approach is presented.

3. Process Writing Approach

This section consists of seven sub-sections. The first sub-section 3.1 provides a review of
previous research works on the process writing approach covering a decade from 1980 to 1990.
The second sub-section 3.2 explains the stages of process writing. Sub-section 3.3 deals with
recent research on writing processes and developments in the implementation of writing sub-
processes, namely: revising and (re)drafting in the second millennium (21st century). This is
followed by sub-section 3.4 which is a review on group work and motivating learners to write.
Techniques of revising and using modern technology tools in revising will be presented in sub-
section 3.5, while research on drafting/redrafting and think-aloud protocols will be presented in
sub-section 3.6. First, I will talk about the research on process writing between 1980s and
1990s.

3.1 The Birth of Process Writing (1980s-1990s)

There is an assumption suggesting that, when teachers teach students how to write target-like
forms, the process helps the latter to learn the underlying structures of the language as well.
Raimes (1983, p. 3) posited that the use of writing as a medium for communication reinforces
grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary. Thus, teaching writing provides a unique way
to reinforce learning.

Another important consideration is the tendency for students to venture with the language, as
they write beyond their speech abilities. When writing, Foreign Language Learners (FLLs) are
better motivated and more confident as they are not confined to their own limitations but
instead freed from inhibitions. As this facilitates confidence in thinking and execution, there is a
corresponding probability that the better students think the better they write (Hedge, 1997).
Thus, there could be a relationship between writing and thinking that makes writing a valuable
part in any language course.

According to Reid (1993, p. 21), in the 1970s, many ESL composition teachers in intensive
language programs used writing mainly as a support skill in language learning. Some of the
activities in writing included: doing grammar exercises, answering reading comprehension
questions, and writing dictation. Furthermore, writing was viewed as one technique used to
add interest to a lesson or even perhaps, as a testing device to diagnose grammar or
comprehension errors.

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In the 1980s, linguists and teachers of EFL/ESL observed that traditional writing exercises were
“product” orientated, meaning that they were more concerned with the final result than with
the process of learning which can occur through the writing activity.

Richards et al. (1999, p. 290) defined process writing as an approach that puts emphasis on the
composing process, wherein the writer makes use of tools such as planning, drafting and
revising. These tools are used to help students improve their writing skills and possibly achieve
target-like procedures in composing. Sometimes, process writing is comparable with the
product approach or the prose model approach that focuses on producing different kinds of
written products by imitating model paragraphs or essays. Atwell (1984, cited in Schroder and
Lovett, 1993, p. 3) introduced a five-step writing process system that involves: prewriting,
drafting, revising, editing and publishing. This was successfully implemented in a middle school
classroom in Hong Kong. Similarly, Stewart and Cheung (1989, p. 42-4) have shown that process
writing can be implemented in secondary schools effectively if it is introduced gradually and
certain modifications/adaptations are implemented. One important aspect that needs to be
addressed strongly pertains to the constraints of the writing processes in relation to the
educational environment of L2 learners or FLLs. In other words, time constraints make process
writing more difficult.

Pennington et al. (1996) conducted a study on the introduction of process writing among
secondary school students in Hong Kong. The outcome of the survey suggests the presence of a
complex pattern of cause and effect relationships between students' attitudes and teachers'
behaviours. Results also revealed that the student group that had positive experiences with
process writing are those who demonstrated positive attitudes at the beginning of the project.
This group was supervised by a teacher who integrated elements of process writing into his/her
teaching routine. On the other hand, the group that evaluated the experience negatively was
taught by a teacher who focused on traditional language exercises and grammatical accuracy,
and did so with very little integration of elements of process writing. These findings underline
the importance of the role of the teacher in teaching writing processes inside the classroom.

Fulcher (1997, p. 17) maintained that the process approach often emphasizes the development
of thinking skills along with the writing process. Raimes (1983, p. 3) also underscored the strong
relationship between writing and thinking that makes writing a valuable part of any language
course. Therefore, it can be surmised that writing holds an important role in the development
of language skills.

Walvoord and Fassler (1985, p. 1) conceded that writing is the vital foundation-block on which
education and culture depends. Thus, writing becomes an essential tool for discovery and
thinking. Such a standpoint underscores the importance of teaching students how to write in a
target-like way by motivating them to know, to read, to listen and to write. They could be
encouraged to apply different but useful learning strategies to produce good writing such as
mastering the language as well as they can (Mourssi, 2006). With regard to some difficulties
encountered in the teaching of writing, Tribble (1997, p. 3) conceded that the ability to write
appropriately and effectively evades many of us, either in our mother tongue or in any other

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language one is wishing to learn. This phenomenon is relatively evident, despite the many years
one may devote to developing such a skill.

According to Walvoord and Fassler (1985, p. 1), there are two important paths to effective
writing: (1) knowing what effective writing looks like and (2) knowing how to plan and carry out
a writing task. Hedge (1997, p. 9) asserted that students need opportunities to practise various
forms and functions in writing, for these might subsequently lead to the development of other
skills needed in producing written texts. Part of these opportunities can be acquired by
spending classroom time on writing, as this will allow students to work together on writing in
different ways. As Raimes (1983, p. 18-19) pointed out, group work in the classroom proves to
be a valuable exercise for native speakers who are learning to write. For L2 learners – who
would need ample time and opportunity, group work is particularly beneficial as they can
practise speaking a foreign language with their peers. Now, I will present the stages of process
writing.

3.2 Stages of Process Writing

A number of recent works support the use of process approaches in teaching writing and these
are reviewed below:

White and Arndt (1991, p. 7) provided a list of the possible stages of producing a piece of full-
scale writing as part of a process writing course. The stages are as follows:

• discussion (class, small, group, pair);

• brainstorming / making notes / asking questions;
• fast writing / selecting ideas / establishing a view point;
• rough draft;
• preliminary self-evaluation;
• arranging information / structuring the text;
• first draft;
• group / peer evaluation and responding;
• conference;
• second draft;
• self-evaluation / editing / proof-reading;
• finished draft;
• response to final draft.
(White and Arndt, 1991, p. 7)

In addition, Hedge (1997, p. 21) explained that the process of writing contains a number of
stages as represented in the following table.

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Table 1.1: Stages of Process Writing

being getting Planning making Making revising editing and
motivated ► ideas ► and ► notes ► a first ► Re-planning ► getting ready ►
to write Together Outlining Draft redrafting for publication

To emphasize clearly the importance of the teacher’s role during the writing class, Nunan
(1989, p. 13) asserted that English as Second Language (ESL) courses must be carefully planned
for each class is a single piece of a complex design. Likewise, teachers should determine the
materials in order to arrive at a specific performance level by setting some goals that a teacher
aspires to achieve.

Reid (1993, p. 73) argued if the ESL writing class is one of the areas in a writing program, it is
necessary to know not only the performance objectives of a single course but also the overall
goals of a writing program involving other classes. Teachers may also experience difficulties in
teaching speaking, listening and reading. But more often, it is more difficult to teach writing
because it requires greater effort and a larger amount of time from both teachers and students
(Hedge, 2005).
Pressley and Yokoi (1997) examined certain instructional practices and procedures in teaching
writing developed by fifth-grade teachers, nominated as outstanding teachers in the U.S. An
analysis of the survey returns shows that these teachers have prioritized the development of
word-level comprehension, and critical thinking skills. As they believed that the development of
background knowledge is essential to the process, students were consistently reminded about
the importance of planning, drafting, and revising.

On the aspect of interaction between students and teachers, Hamp-Lyons and Liz (1994)
proposed the inclusion of writing assessments available for instructional methods in college
level ESL writing classes. The authors defined the term “writing assessment” as a process which
is inherent in nearly every interaction teachers would have with their students in a writing class.
Their proposal was based on empirical findings suggesting that most models of writing process
regard evaluation as the final stage in the instructional cycle, hence excluding other stages such
as prewriting, drafting and revising in the final assessment.

In an attempt to implement previously known categories of process writing, Schroder and

Lovett (1993) put Atwell’s (1984) theories into practice in a third grade classroom. The authors
noticed that there were concerns expressed during the early stages of the writing sub-
processes. Although the lack of student interest in writing has shown to decrease when
students were allowed to choose their own topics, this did not eliminate the problem; it was
learnt that the teachers were having more serious difficulties in managing the process. The
above case was one illustration stressing the importance of the relationship between teachers
and students in the implementation of writing processes. In the following, I will talk about
research on writing processes in the 21st century.

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3.3 Developing Writing Processes in the 21st Century and the Birth of the IWP

Due to the dramatic changes in the process of teaching writing in the 1990s, there has been an
increasing awareness amongst L2 writing researchers and teachers that classroom-based
instruction plays a significant role in helping L2 learners improve the accuracy of their written
texts (Bitchener, 2005; Ferris, 2002, 2004). To ensure improvements in writing skills, additional
exercises now include discussions and exercises in marking strategies encompassing further
activities such as revision in the planning and drafting stages (Hedge, 2005, p. 5). These
exercises are expected to increase teachers’ interest to find intervening measures using
feedback in a variety of ways.

Concerning difficulties and challenges in the teaching process of writing, Hedge (2005:7) argued
that compared to speech, effective writing requires a number of things, such as: (1) a high
degree of organization in the development of information; (2) ideas or arguments; (3) a high
degree of accuracy; (4) the use of complex grammatical devices for focus and emphasis; and (5)
a careful choice of vocabulary, grammatical patterns and sentence structures. These five items
may explain why writing can be a difficult task for most ESL/L2 students. From this point of
view, Mourssi, (2013) tried to activate the writing sub-processes which are drafting, revising
and redrafting and increasing the role of the teacher inside the classroom in teaching writing
skills. The IWP approach integrates noticing, active interaction, feedback and error analysis
aiming at improving foreign learners’ writing as well as speaking. The framework of the IWP is
presented in Appendix A.

Hedge (2005, p. 10-15) developed several assumptions which could motivate students and
teachers. Four of these assumptions are as follows: (1) students need opportunities to practise
various forms and functions of writing, and from within these develop different skills; (2) the
need to encourage students to go through the processes of planning, organizing, composing,
and revising; (3) the process of marking needs constant review and modification, and (4) giving
students more time in the classroom to generate discussions and activities that encourage
effective writing processes.

Based on these assumptions provided by Hedge, Mourssi (2013) investigated the role of
revising and (re)drafting in improving foreign language learners’ writing as well as speaking in
which error analysis and error correction in addition to contrastive analysis will be involved to
motivate students to participate with their teacher. I think that the integration of different
teaching methods and approaches –the grammar translation method combined with a
communicative approach within the general framework of the task-based approach revised and
designed by Nunan (2009), might lead to a practical means to improve foreign language
learners’ writing as well as speaking.

Shin (2008, p. 3) made a critical review of the usefulness of grammar correction in second
language writing. The author concluded with a discussion on the necessity and importance of
proper grammar correction for L2 writers. Similarly, Rahimi (2009) investigated the impact of

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feedback which includes reference to the students’ L1. Both indirect feedback and no feedback
approaches were studied. He concluded that feedback is effective.

A number of linguists have divided the composing processes of a writer into three components:
“the composing processor, the task environment and writer’s long term memory” (Flower and
Hayes 1980 cited in Grabe and Kaplan 1996, p. 92). The writing process model that was
elaborated by Flower and Hayes (1980) views writing as a recursive process which requires a
number of processes such as: planning, organizing, editing, evaluating and so on. Bowen (2004)
supports the suggestions given by Flower and Hayes (1980) and asserted that focusing on the
process of writing by introducing skills such as generating ideas, structuring information,
drafting and redrafting, reformulating and reviewing can make teaching writing skills a
communicative and not a silent or a solitary activity that can be often viewed as a waste of
valuable classroom time. In fact, the methods of teaching writing in the Arab world in general
neglect such classroom activities in learning writing.

O’Brien (2000, p. 40) set out four principles which presumably govern the teaching of writing.
These are: (a) teachers should be aware of the difficulties involved in writing and should take
into account the assessment methods they use; (b) teachers should expose students to a
variety of models of effective writing; (c) teachers should be careful in selecting topics; and (d)
teachers should bear in mind that the production of the whole text must be encouraged
otherwise the teacher will lose the opportunity to proceed with the teaching of the sub-
processes. Students in most of the Arab countries in many cases are asked to write a final draft
of their work from the beginning not only in secondary schools, but in the foundation course
provided to Higher Education Students in many different universities. Qatar University EFL
Students are typical of university students from the Gulf countries which are considered as the
richest countries in the Arab world. These students need to use modern technology and
methods in teaching as well as in the business and banking fields. In order to examine the
effects of this practice, Al-Buainain, (2006) conducted survey of language instructors at the
Department of Foreign Languages in the University of Qatar. The majority were in agreement
that most EFL students were weak in three writing courses namely: writing 1, writing 2 and
advanced writing. With this finding, Al-Buainain (2006) recommended further research that will
investigate this problem and develop remedial procedures that will help students overcome
their weakness and therefore lessen the number of them failing every semester.

Al-Buainain (2006) gathered forty exam scripts in the first writing course and used them as
data. The subjects in the first writing course were 18-20 year-old females. A ten-point scale was
developed to rate each item as the method for scoring. The analysis of the data involved the
separation and classification of errors to identify their types. This study discovered that
sentence-level grammatical errors committed by the learners involve syntactic features and the
samples present the commonest Arabic (Qatari) errors in English. Al-Buainain (2006) explains
that most of these errors are common to all non-native users of English and concluded that
there could be no definite answer to the question of how to teach writing in ESL/EFL classes
since these are many different approaches for teaching writing.

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Hedge (2005) argued that, although developing writing skills is essential for all students, it is still
considered to be less significant than reading and speaking skills. Hinkal (2004) criticized the
over-emphasis given to teaching the process of writing in ESL courses instead of teaching
practical skills that students would really need.

Al-Buainian (2006) enquired whether it was possible to acquire syntax through writing. In a
similar vein, Weissberg (1998) tested the hypothesis that SL learners may acquire syntax in part
by writing in class and the result indicates that classroom writing has a positive effect in Second
Language Acquisition (SLA). On the other hand, Liu (2000, p. 33) argued that “insufficient use of
lexical cohesive ties by ESL students contributes to the lack of cohesion in their writing”. In Iran,
Kiany and Khazrineshed (2001) carried out a study to explore the relationship between English
proficiency, writing ability and the use of conjunctions. Part of the conclusion the authors were
able to draw suggests the creation of innovative materials since these can insert particular
types of conjunctions for every level.

Due to the need to improve high schools students’ writing, De la Paz, et al. (2002) made a study
on the writing instruction used in middle school classrooms and developed an experiment
requiring the development of a variety of cognitive resources. De la Paz et al. (2002) concluded
that the students in the experimental group wrote longer essays containing more mature
vocabulary and were qualitatively better than those in the non-target groups. In the following, I
will present how group work motivates L2 learners to write.

3.4 Group Work and Motivating Learners to Write: a step towards the IWP

On the importance of group work activities related to revising and drafting, Kowszyk and
Vazquez (2004) examined the effectiveness of group learning along with the pedagogical
rationale for implementing a group learning approach in written language instruction. Analyses
were made of experimental data and on the learning theories proposed. Results show that peer
interaction in groups and between the teacher and students is a very productive strategy in
writing and revising written material.

Mason and Christine (2006) also used group-work and examined what undergraduate students
have learned from a process approach to writing and the aspects they have actually internalized
at the completion of First Year Composition (FYC). As a result, recommended encouraging
teachers to give students ample space to reflect on, write about, and discuss their own
composing processes. That way, students will be empowered to harness their skills and develop
their abilities to adapt to different writing tasks and conditions.

With regard to motivating students to perform classroom tasks, Scheidecker and Freeman
(1999, p. 116) are convinced that motivation without a doubt is the most complex and
challenging issue that teachers face today. According to Dörnyei (2001, p. 1), motivation is a key
issue in language learning posited upon the ability of a teacher to motivate a student. And
language learning can become even more fragile if teachers are not skilled in motivating

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learners. In what follows the author will cast light on techniques of revising and using modern
technology tools in revising which have been implemented recently.

3.5 Techniques of Revising and the Absence of Using Modern Technology Tools in the ALEs’
Context

Butcher and Kintsch (2001) examined the effects of content and rhetorical prompts in writing
process activities and the quality of the output in the form of written products. They also
examined the usefulness of Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) developed by Landauer and Dumais
(1997) which is a computational technique for representing the content of documents as a tool
for assessing texts. In evaluating the computer-grading system, Butcher and Kintsch (2001)
measured the time spent in three writing activities (planning, drafting, and revising) and
reached the conclusion that the LSA had generated consistent judgments of writing quality
resembling a human grading system with the help of professional writing instructors.

Lee et al. (2009) made both quantitative and qualitative evaluations critiquing the Latent
Semantic Analysis (LSA) designed by Landauer and Dumais (1997), which was subsequently
used by Butcher and Kintsch (2001) with the intention of providing students with immediate
content and organizational feedback online. The authors claim that there were no statistical
and significant differences found between LSA users and the traditional feedback users.

With the objective to know how Text-To- Speech technology (TTS) could support English
Language Learners (ELLs) in process writing with the use of computers, Kirstein (2006)
developed a six-case study of ELLs applying Text-to-Speech (TTS) technology to the process of
drafting and revising essays. Kirstein (2006) collected data using questionnaires, literature
interviews and observations. The study respondents comprised students developing writing
processes with and without the aid of the TTS. The author concluded that, with the use of the
TTS, learners tend to write more drafts, spent more time on each draft, and detected more
errors, giving them increased capability to revise meaning-level features.

Using a self-designed Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) software to provide instant

computer-generated scores for a submitted essay along with diagnostic feedback, Chen and
Cheng (2008) examined the practices and perceived learning effectiveness in writing classes in
Taiwan. Setting a naturalistic classroom-based task to investigate the interaction between the
AWE program and EFL College students, they discovered that the implementation of the AWE
was generally not perceived positively by the Taiwanese students. However, the perception
shifted to a more favourable rating when the program was used to facilitate students’ early
drafting and revising process, although it was noted there was human intervention and
feedback from both the teacher and peers during this supposed “man and machine”
interaction. Results also suggest that the rate of success with the use of the AWE would depend
on attitudes by both teachers and the students towards the technology.

Although the use of computer technology is no longer a novelty, tapping E-technology

resources as a means of instruction is still in its infancy in many developing countries (Shana,

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2009). Therefore, insofar as pre-university education is concerned, the modes for teaching and
learning are still reliant on rote learning and memorization-based assessment methods. Such a
system, however, can easily result in lesser creativity and individuality amongst students,
particularly in teacher-centered environments or with the traditional behaviourist stimulus-
response learning model.

The study by Shana (2009) is based on a sample of students in the Information Technology
Department in Ajman University of Science and Technology, (AUST), Fujairah, United Arab
Emirates. The main ideology behind that research was to experiment with a shift from the
traditional learning/teaching model to the constructivist information processing model and
learn from the outcomes. She concluded that students should have a course on computer skills
before joining the foundation course.

In an attempt to evaluate techno-constructivism and other creative devices in foreign language

classrooms, Spodark (2008) suggested that the blending of pedagogical practices advocated by
social constructivism with educational technologies may only result in further and in-depth
research on drafting/redrafting and on other think-aloud protocols.

Personally, the author agrees with these findings but wonders how it can be implemented in an
educational environment that still teaches English Language based on classroom-oriented, and
student-teacher oriented approaches. In other words, learners do not access computers inside
the classroom while learning writing. This guided me to design the IWP. In the following, I will
present research on drafting/redrafting and think-aloud protocols as a step towards shifting
from Process Writing to Innovated Writing Process Approach.

3.6 Research on Drafting/Redrafting and Thinking-Aloud Protocols: shifting from Process

Writing to Innovated Writing Process Approach

The writing process, if it is implemented with Arab learners of English, is usually achieved by
students individually outside the classroom. Previous research work has generally focused on
classroom activities. There is a tendency for data to overlap between writing sub-processes
acquired inside and outside of the classroom (Lopez, 2005). Therefore, any success rate
predictions could become very unreliable if such a critical aspect is overlooked. Hedge (2005, p.
13) mentions that it is not surprising that writing often tends to be an out-of-class activity,
because many teachers feel the class time is best devoted to oral/aural work and homework to
writing, which can then be done at the student’s own pace.

Mourssi (2013a, 2013b) indicated that if the low level students experience some measure of
success in the supportive learning environment of the classroom, they will develop their
confidence and this will result in writing more in the classroom after getting the opportunity
and enough space to interact, negotiate, and receive the teacher’s metalinguistic feedback.
Hedge (2005, p. 13) mentioned that many students benefit greatly from classroom practice in
writing because the teacher can then prepare more with carefully planned stages covering
Planning, Drafting, and Revising.

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With regard to practice speaking when drafting, Lopez (2005) reiterated that the classroom
equivalent of the think-aloud research technique is collaborative talk focused on various stages
of the writing process, particularly on feedback by either the teacher or peers. Flower (1994)
argued however, that such an activity might only be explicitly expressed in non-threatening
environments between the teacher and the learners, whereby engaging in dialogues with
substantial and rhetorical concerns could further take place (Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987).

A study by Baroudy (2008) that focused on identifying both successful and unsuccessful
learning/teaching strategies suggests that student-writers improve when asked to attend to the
following five components: (1) rehearsing, (2) drafting, (3) revising, (4) student-writers’ role
and, (5) instructional materials. With respect to giving learners freedom in selecting a writing
topic, Bonzo (2008) observed the presence of both fluency and complexity in intermediate
foreign language writing in Germany. Study results indicate that topic control had an influence
in promoting written fluency whereas overall fluency increases when participants are allowed
to choose their topics.

Gutierrez (2008, p. 86) asked what meta-linguistic activity in learners’ interaction during a
collaborative L2 writing task looks like. The author found that:

The meta-linguistic activity that arose comprised three types of oral production: comment,
speech actions, and text reformulations. Text reformulations and comments were the most
common types.
In the following section, it is noticed how the IWP encourages peer-interaction and argues for
the role of metalinguistic feedback in improving learners’ internalized grammatical system
(Mourssi, 2012d).

The author thinks that when these activities are conducted in the classroom, this may allow
linguistic knowledge, which might not be available to the foreign language learners outside the
classroom in general and in the context of ALEs in particular, to be attained. Hence, the author
in designing the IWP aims at evaluating the role of teacher correction and his/her feedback.

The literature on process writing has guided the researcher to design the IWP concentrating on
group work, noticing, interaction, feedback, error analysis and motivating teachers as well as
learners to be involved in writing processes and consider writing as a starting point to improve
their other language skills (Mourssi, 2012d, 2013b). In other words, there are a number of
potentially conflicting issues; students need grammar rules in order to be accurate, but
traditional grammar teaching has proved to be demotivating for them. Mourssi (2012d)
investigated that if students are given a motivating topic to write about (rather than just being
given grammar exercises to do), they will engage with it, and investigated that in the process of
revising and redrafting, their grammatical accuracy can be improved. The result might be that
this can lead to long-term gains which are reflected in the spoken language as well as in the
written language (Mourssi, 2013). The impact of improving writing on improving speaking will

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be discussed in section four. In the following, describing the Innovated Writing Process is
presented.

4. The Innovated Writing Process (IWP)

Mourssi (2012d) indicated that the IWP and the Communicative Grammar Language Teaching
Approach (CGLTA) were designed to be a bridge to apply recent SLA and applied linguistic
theories in pedagogical settings; the aim was for the IWP to create a relationship between
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and pedagogical settings in the classroom, while the CGLTA aimed to
draw on error/contrastive analyses with metalinguistic feedback within a communicative
framework.

4.1 Rationale for the design of the IWP

Mourssi (2012a, 2012c) analyzed interlanguage writing and interlanguage grammar in L2 as well
and contrasted the errors which appear to originate in L1 and L2 linguistic items, he discovered
that this contrastive analysis sheds considerable light on errors related to forming target-like
sentences in L2. He thought that there should be a method which could be implemented to
narrow the gap between the L1 and the L2 learners' internalized grammar system and which
takes into consideration the big differences between the Arabic and English language. The
researcher thought that this might be achieved by increasing the role of the teacher’s
interactions and instructions while concentrating on analyzing L2 learners’ interlanguage
grammar. The explanation and analysis of the learners’ non-target-like forms should be
performed using Ex-implicit grammar learning (Mourssi, 2013a) following Meaning negotiation
and Form negotiation when it is needed and using corrective feedback. Implementing these
stages might motivate L2 learners and give them the opportunity to revise and redraft their
writing - most of them feel that writing activity is a boring task and they do not have desire to
revise and redraft as well - to develop their internalized grammar which will be reflected in
their writing. After implementing the IWP for a period of about four months, the researcher
concluded that Ex-implicit grammar learning with teacher’s instructions and interactions
alongside metalinguistic feedback and L2 learners’ communication with each other and with
the teacher might be more effective and more useful for acquiring the target-like forms in
English, which would result in improving the second language learners’ internalized
grammatical system.

The design of the IWP method is primarily based on the definition of method as it is essentially
the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about particular
skills, content and the order in which the content is presented. Therefore the IWP method is
defined as a suggested method of teaching writing which involves both speaking and writing
processes based on the learners’ level. It aims at improving learners’ accuracy as well as
fluency. One of the assumptions was that the implementation of the IWP method with ALEs
would help learners improve their writing and speaking skills. What distinguish the IWP method
from others are the procedures and tasks involved while teaching writing. These procedures
include: the processes of contrastive analysis and error analysis (metalinguistic feedback) based
on the learners' mistakes; explicit grammar teaching; negotiation of meaning and form based

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on the learners’ level of interlanguage grammar; interaction between teacher-students and

students-students in a form of communicative grammar language teaching approach; and
finally, feedback which is either direct or indirect (Mourssi, 2012b).

4.2 The differences between the TPW and the IWP

The contents and procedures implemented in each method may give us a picture of how the
teachers dealt with the learners’ errors/mistakes. As a tutor following the IWP, I encouraged
the learners to get involved and participate in the task, discuss, interact, and negotiate, which
in turn helped learners develop their internalized grammatical system and acquire the target-
like forms more rapidly compared with what happened in implementing the TPW with
Second/Foreign Language learners as it is mentioned previously in section2.

4.3 The importance of moving from speech to writing in the IWP

As can be seen from the model –presented in Appendix A- the IWP not only aims to improve
Second/Foreign Language learners’ writing skills, but also to improve their speaking skills. It is
worth mentioning that improvements in their speaking skills occur before some improvements
in writing can be observed. Allowing students to self-correct while speaking - by giving a space
for the learners to reformulate what they want to say - generally led to an improvement in
learners' speaking level, at the same time as it helped them improve their writing skills. When
learners started to narrate (a picture-story), they used a variety of non-target-like forms. From
that point, Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis can be introduced by the teacher in the form
of metalinguistic feedback and by interacting with the learners. Learners’ mistakes/errors can
be classified into three categories: (1) interlingual errors which originate in L1; (2) intralingual
errors which originate in L2; and (3) in-between errors which originate in both L1and in L2,
Mourssi (2013d)

Narrating a picture-story orally is considered as a primary stage in the implementation of the

IWP. It has its own advantages in shifting learners' declarative/implicit knowledge into
procedural/explicit knowledge - they start to use their implicit knowledge to form sentences
about each picture using the simple past tense forms - as well as shifting their competence of
how to form target-like sentences in L2 into performance of L2 when trying to produce the
target language even though this may be with some or many non-target-like forms.

When the ALEs produced sentences using L2 during speaking, they produced a variety of non-
target-like forms. Therefore, the following question arose: will Ex-implicit grammar teaching
here be the proper method of dealing with these mistakes? An analysis of the learners' level in
the second writing suggested that the answer was positive, (Mourssi, 2013a). The author
noticed that the process of Ex-implicit Grammar Teaching and provided metalinguistic feedback
in dealing with learners' mistakes/errors, while it was noticed that the teacher following the
TWP/ Process Writing only marked and corrected the students' mistakes/errors without
explaining them. However, we cannot say for certain whether it is the spoken interaction only
in the classroom or focus on form which may lead to greater improvement.

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4.4 How language is learnt in interaction implementing the IWP

The question arising here is whether the first output can be reused in a more comprehensive
way and improves language learners’ level of proficiency? Mourssi (2013) concluded that based
on the results of his empirical study, it can be reused and becomes “intake”. During
implementing the first stages in the IWP, the learners are not allowed to write down any
sentences related to the writing task; they are given the opportunity to write down only the
new forms which they do not know, following which they are given the opportunity to write
down the forms that they have doubts about in terms of their ability to perform correctly. That
is because the first stages in the suggested method of teaching are devoted to improving
learners’ speaking skills which are based on a writing task.

Another question to be raised is whether Long's (1983) Interaction Hypothesis has any bearing
on the way that foreign language learners write their first draft? Long (1983) suggested that, if
conversational adjustments in interaction help make input more comprehensible (and this is
facilitative of L2 learning), then the linguistic and conversational adjustments that occur during
interaction may promote language learning.

The question that researchers have been investigating is how interaction creates opportunities
for learning. Mackey (1995, 1999) investigated the link between interaction and L2 learning,
and studied the development of question formation in English. Pienemann and Johnston (1986)
analyzed learners' production of question forms in pre-and post-tests. They put forward the
idea that most of the developmentally –ready learners who had engaged in active interactions
progressed more quickly than the other group which did not engage in active interaction.

In an attempt to answer the question of how interaction creates opportunities for learning,
evidence from an empirical study was carried out (Mourssi,2013) suggested that an approach
designed for foreign language learners termed the Communicative Grammar Language
Teaching Approach (CGLTA) can help students develop their internal grammatical systems and
improve accuracy in both spoken and written work. The CGLTA emphasizes the connection
between the internalized grammar system, and the output – these connections occur during
interactions which take place in four forms: student-student, students-teacher, teacher-
students and student-teacher, (Mourssi, 2012d).

Based on the language learners' level and individual differences, the important role of
interaction in acquiring second language grammatical rules was highlighted along with the
impact of metalinguistic feedback on L2 learners’ written accuracy. The Communicative
Grammar Language Teaching Approach integrated in the IWP method for teaching writing
seemed to help second language learners acquire both the simple and complex rules related to
forming the target-like sentences in English, see appendix A.

Ellis (N) (2002) prefers instruction to be in the form of explicit knowledge but the main aim is to
build implicit knowledge. This means that explicit acquired knowledge is proceduralized to be

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implicit knowledge. He mentions in his study that this could be done through engaging students
in communication activities. This view was supported by Lantolf’s (2008:44) claims in order to
enhance the acquisition of implicit knowledge, explicit knowledge should be associated with
engaging students with communicative activities and that explicit grammar teaching and
metalinguistic feedback are appropriate because learners will be motivated to analyze rules for
themselves. These activities were taken into consideration in designing the IWP. In the
following, the conclusion is presented.

5. Conclusion

The researcher believes that reflection and feedback are important stages in the writing
processes that each learner will be involved in and a key component of a learner’s
development. Furthermore, a teacher’s feedback on grammatical errors serves as a means of
encouraging students to critically study their own written performance. In addition, engaging
students in problem solving could further lead to greater cognitive and reflective engagement
with linguistic forms that in turn promote effective language acquisition.

This article shows how the IWP addresses the gaps learners face while writing and the goal is to
help Second/Foreign Language learners improve not only their writing and speaking skills, but
the other language skills as well. In addition, the IWP attempts to take writing activity as a
starting point to teach the other language skills by implementing the writing sub-processes
inside the classroom properly and effectively. This should include focus on error patterns and
pair and group interaction and students-teacher interaction. This is the result of the shifting
from Product/Guided Writing to Process Writing and recently to the Innovated Writing Process
Approach in Teaching Writing for Second/Foreign Language Learners. Finally, it is worth
mentioning that the teacher plays a crucial role in the methods and approaches of teaching in
general and in developing writing skills in particular.

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7. Appendix A Framework of the Innovated Writing Process

Interlanguage n+

Motivated to perform the writing task

Innovated Writing Process

Comprehensive Intakes based on learners' level of proficiency & language development

Number of IL stages based on learners' level of proficiency and language development

Speaking (first draft)

Input - - - - Output - - - - Intake - - - - Output - - - - Intake - - - - Output

ERRORS
Interlingual Error In between Error Intralingual Error
Interlanguage ILn+1 - - - -ILn+2 - - - - ILn+3 - - - ILn+4 - - - -

(L1) (L1+L2) (L2)

Contrastive Analysis Error Analysis

Consciousness
Explicit Grammar Teaching
Raising Noticing

Transfer Universal L A
st
Writing 1 draft

Interaction

Communicative Grammar Language Teaching Approach

S+S Ss+T T+Ss S+T

nd
Focus- on-Form Feedback 2 draft writing

Negotiation of Meaning & Form

Revise and Redraft Writing

Final Draft Writing

Improved proficiency level in the target language

ILn + 1, 2, 3 …n

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