Data Structures & Algorithms all topics cover deep expliantion with exmples

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Data Structures and Algorithms

Data Structures are specialized formats for organizing, processing, and storing data, while Algorithms
are step-by-step instructions for solving computational problems efficiently. Below is a detailed
explanation of all major topics.

Part 1: Data Structures

1. Arrays

 Definition: A collection of elements stored at contiguous memory locations.

 Operations:

o Access: O(1)O(1)O(1)

o Search: O(n)O(n)O(n)

o Insertion/Deletion: O(n)O(n)O(n) (in case of shifting)

 Examples:

python

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arr = [10, 20, 30, 40]

arr[2] = 99 # Update index 2 to 99

print(arr) # [10, 20, 99, 40]

2. Linked Lists

 Definition: A linear data structure where elements (nodes) are linked using pointers.

 Types:

o Singly Linked List: Each node points to the next.

o Doubly Linked List: Each node has pointers to both previous and next nodes.

o Circular Linked List: Last node points back to the first node.

 Operations:
 o Insertion/Deletion: O(1)O(1)O(1) at head, O(n)O(n)O(n) at tail or specific position.

 Examples:

python

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class Node:

def __init__(self, data):

self.data = data

self.next = None

head = Node(1)

head.next = Node(2)

print(head.next.data) # Output: 2

3. Stacks

 Definition: A linear data structure following LIFO (Last In, First Out).

 Operations:

o Push: Add an element to the top.

o Pop: Remove the top element.

o Peek: Retrieve the top element.

 Applications:

o Undo operations in editors.

o Backtracking in algorithms (e.g., DFS).

 Examples:

python

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stack = []

stack.append(10) # Push

stack.append(20)

print(stack.pop()) # Output: 20 (Pop)

 Definition: A linear data structure following FIFO (First In, First Out).

 Types:

o Simple Queue, Circular Queue, Priority Queue, Deque.

 Operations:

o Enqueue: Add an element.

o Dequeue: Remove an element.

 Examples:

python

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from collections import deque

queue = deque()

queue.append(10) # Enqueue

queue.append(20)

print(queue.popleft()) # Output: 10 (Dequeue)

5. Trees

 Definition: A hierarchical data structure with nodes connected by edges.

 Key Types:

o Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree (BST), AVL Tree, B-Trees.

 Properties:

o Binary Tree: Each node has at most two children.

o BST: Left child < Parent < Right child.

 Examples:

python

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class TreeNode:

def __init__(self, value):

self.left = None

self.right = None

root = TreeNode(10)

root.left = TreeNode(5)

root.right = TreeNode(15)

6. Graphs

 Definition: A set of vertices connected by edges.

 Types:

o Directed, Undirected, Weighted, Unweighted.

 Representations:

o Adjacency Matrix: O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2).

o Adjacency List: O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E).

 Examples:

python

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graph = {0: [1, 2], 1: [0, 3], 2: [0], 3: [1]}

7. Hash Tables

 Definition: Stores key-value pairs with a hash function for efficient lookup.

 Operations:

o Insert/Search/Delete: O(1)O(1)O(1) average case.

 Examples:

python

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hash_table = {}

hash_table['key1'] = 'value1'
print(hash_table['key1']) # Output: value1

Part 2: Algorithms

1. Sorting Algorithms

 Types:

1. Bubble Sort: Repeatedly swap adjacent elements if they are in the wrong order.
O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2).

2. Insertion Sort: Builds the sorted array one element at a time. O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2).

3. Merge Sort: Divides the array into halves, sorts each half, and merges them.
O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn).

4. Quick Sort: Picks a pivot, partitions the array around it, and recursively sorts.
O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn) average.

o Examples:

python

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arr = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5]

arr.sort() # Output: [1, 1, 3, 4, 5]

2. Searching Algorithms

 Linear Search: Sequentially checks each element. O(n)O(n)O(n).

 Binary Search: Works on sorted arrays, repeatedly dividing the search range. O(log⁡n)O(\log
n)O(logn).

 Examples:

python

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arr = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]

target = 5

# Binary search example

3. Recursion
  Definition: A function calls itself to solve a smaller subproblem.

 Examples:

python

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def factorial(n):

if n == 0:

return 1

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

4. Divide and Conquer

 Definition: Divide the problem, conquer subproblems, and combine results.

 Applications: Merge Sort, Quick Sort.

 Examples:

python

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def merge_sort(arr):

# Divide, Conquer, Combine logic here

5. Dynamic Programming

 Definition: Solves problems by breaking them into overlapping subproblems.

 Examples:

o Fibonacci:

python

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dp = [0, 1]

for i in range(2, n+1):

dp.append(dp[i-1] + dp[i-2])
6. Greedy Algorithms

 Definition: Make the locally optimal choice at each step.

 Examples:

o Activity Selection Problem.

o Huffman Coding.

7. Backtracking

 Definition: Explores all possibilities by trying and backtracking on failure.

 Examples:

o N-Queens Problem.

o Maze Solver.

8. Graph Algorithms

 Key Algorithms:

o DFS (Depth-First Search): Explores as far as possible along branches.

o BFS (Breadth-First Search): Explores all neighbors before moving deeper.

o Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Shortest path in a weighted graph.

o Kruskal’s Algorithm: Minimum Spanning Tree.

9. String Matching Algorithms

 Algorithms:

o Naive String Matching: O(nm)O(nm)O(nm).

o Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP): O(n+m)O(n + m)O(n+m).