MOI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
ACADEMIC YEAR 2024/2025
COURSE CODE: ABT 415
COURSE TITLE: SOIL MORPHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
(3 UNITS)

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION

Soil Morphology
Soil morphology is the branch of soil science that deals with the form, structure and organization
of the soil material, observed, describe, studied in the field and investigation in the laboratory. It
is a technical description of soil particularly physical properties including texture, color,
structure, and consistence etc. Many land management decisions for both agricultural and
nonagricultural are based on soil conditions that can be determined by examining soil
morphology. However, the quality of field description and sampling ultimately defines the utility
of any subsequent laboratory analyses. Soil morphology is divided into field morphology and
micromorphology.

Field morphology is the study of soil morphological features in the field by thorough
observation, description and interpretation. Observations may be refined with the aid of a hand
lens. Simple tests are also used in the field to record salient chemical properties (e.g. pH,
presence or carbonates). In addition, field observations and measurement may be refined through
a range of laboratory analytical procedures that include more sophisticated evaluation of
chemical, biological and physical attributes.

Micromorphology is a study that uses micro-morphological techniques and measurements in the

laboratory.

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WEEK 2: SOIL SURVEY
Soil Survey:
Soil survey is a definite study of soil morphology in the field, corroboration of
diagnostic soil properties in the laboratory, classification of soils of the area
in well-defined units, plotting their extent and boundaries on a map, and
prediction of the adaptability of these soils to various uses.

Objectives of Soil Survey:

Since the initiation of surveys in 1899 the principal objectives were to predict
whether new crops could be grown on soils where they were never grown
before and to learn enough about certain soils to predict how they would
respond when irrigated with a known quality and quantity of irrigation water.

These objectives have been refined and expanded to include a rational

means of transferring technology from one soil to another, interpretations for
predicting land use for every soil mapped and to serve as a scientific base
for taxation and zoning laws. In a broad sense the objective of soil survey
and both fundamental and applied.

Fundamental soil survey includes in expanding knowledge and

understanding of different types of soils in relation to their genesis,
development, classification and nomenclature. Applied soil survey includes
soil maps in addition to fundamental objective of soil survey.

Soil survey and mapping help in:

(i) The transfer of technology under different soil conditions and
management practices.

(ii) Providing information needed for developing optimum land use plans and
for bringing new areas under agricultural uses. Farmers and researchers use
soil survey and mapping to determine whether a particular soil type is suited
for crops and what type of crops, livestock and the type of management
required.

(iii) Delineating the problematic soils, such as saline-sodic, waterlogged,

eroded and waste lands and in suggesting soil and water conservation
measures.

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(iv) Land settlement, rehabilitation, tax appraisal, locating air-ports and other
engineering structures etc. and in public sanitation works.

(v) Demarcating disease infested and nutrient deficient areas which may
indirectly help in controlling diseases and correction of particular nutrient
deficiency.

Use of Soil Survey:

 Soil survey bulletins and maps are useful in rural land classification,
classification of social units of land (cropping, grazing, forestry,
recreation, mining, urban and public service i.e. highways, railroads
etc)
 Land evaluation and appraisal, tax assessment, appraisal for loans,
settlement of new land, guidance to prospective land buyers, land use
planning for irrigation, drainage, land acquisition, dams etc
 Nutrient index coupled with soil survey may be used for assessing
fertilizers requirement and potential productivity of an area. Thus,
assessing potentials for special crops, forestry management and
international coordination is made possible
 The extension specialists and agricultural agents find the survey maps
and bulletin a guide in making suggestions and recommendations.
 Predictions can be made of hydrologic changes in relation to
modification in land-use patterns.
 Non-agricultural uses of soil survey include; road engineering,
foundation engineering for buildings, site layout of buildings, waste
disposal, general aspects of regional planning and location of urban
planning
 Estimates of water runoff and infiltration can be made on the basis of
soil characteristics enumerated in soil survey bulletins.

Types of Soil Survey and scale of soil maps

Depending upon the objective, method, type of base map available and the
intensity of observations, types of soil survey recognized are given below:

(i) Exploratory surveys

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These are rapid road traverses made to provide information about unknown
regions. Scale vary from 1: 2,000,000 to 5,000,000

(ii)Reconnaissance Soil Survey:

This type of soil survey is undertaken to prepare resource inventory of large
areas. It identifies broadly the kinds of soils and their extent of distribution. It
enables to assess broad potentialities of soils and recognition of areas of
promise that are suitable for intensive and modern agriculture and those
requiring priority for amelioration.

In these surveys the soil boundaries are not totally traversed, but drawn
partly by extrapolation. The scale of mapping is 1: 500,000 to 1: 120,000 are
included, using topographical maps of the survey as base material or aerial
photographs of similar scale wherever available.

Purpose: Reconnaissance soil surveys give information for detailed soil

surveys and broad land use planning and agricultural development.

(iii) Semi-Detailed Soil Survey:

This kind of soil survey comprises very detailed study of some selected strips
cutting across many aerial-photo-interpretation (API) units for developing
correlation between API units and soils. Aerial photo interpretation combined
with substantial amount of field study.

The scale of semi-detailed survey - base maps use (aerial photographs or

satellite imagery) is 1: 50,000 but a range between 1: 100,000 to 1: 25,000
is allowed. The final soil map has the same scale of 1: 50,000.

Purpose - This type of soil survey provides adequate information about

various kinds of soils, including problematic or degraded soils. It is important
for project feasibility studies and land use development.

(iv) Detailed Soil Survey:

In detailed soil survey boundaries of soil units are delineated from
observations by actual traverse lines on grid pattern throughout the course
of the boundary. Soils are examined in detail and the close intervals in an

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area to detect differences that can be significant in their use and
management.

Detailed soil surveys are conducted in priority areas to furnish information

required for a proper assessment of soil properties, terrain features,
erosional aspects and other related factors that can help in working out the
use capability and the management practices for soil conservation and
better production of crops and maintenance of soil fertility.

Scale of detailed survey: Cadastral maps (1: 8,000 to 1: 4,000 scale) or aerial
photographs (1: 15,000 to 1: 15,000 scale) are generally used as base
material for preparing soil maps for detailed soil surveys. The mapping units
on a detailed soil map show soil series, types and phases. Detailed soil
surveys are laborious, time consuming and much expensive.

Purpose: For farm planning, better soil management practices for

conservation and improving soil fertility

(vi) Rapid reconnaissance soil survey

In this survey, field mapping is done at 1: 1,000,000 or still smaller scale

using satellite imagery. The soils are mapped by traversing representative
areas. Observations are done at an interval of 1 – 2.5 km and the mapping
units are phases of great groups.

Soil Mapping Unit:

The distribution of different soil series on the landscape is often intricate and
necessitates some simplification for mapping. This is achieved by means of a
mapping unit, which is the smallest area of a map that can be delineated by
a single boundary at the scale used.

In large scale maps, simple mapping units (narrowly defined soil series) are
delineated to attain a purity of 80 per cent or more within that unit. But as
the map scale decreases (from 1: 25,000 to 1: 50,000. or 1: 1,00,000),
complex mapping units are used.

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Techniques used in Soil Survey:
There are usually three techniques as follows:

(i) General-Purpose API Survey:

Used for low-intensity surveys in which mapped boundaries (soils or land
resources) are largely or entirely inferred from Air Photo Interpretation (API)
with a free survey at low intensities of field observations to characterize
physiographic units.

(ii) General-purpose free survey:

For medium-intensity surveys using API, but also with a relatively high
intensity of field observations.

(iii) Special Purpose Grid Survey:

In this method, individual soil properties are recorded on a grid pattern and
may be mapped parametrically. Observation points may commonly be
located on an elongated grid sited to cross the ‘grain’ of the land.

Such systems, with observations along each line spaced more closely than
the transects themselves is particularly suited to land with readily
identifiable soil catenae, or where dense vegetation makes trace cutting
difficult.

However, where soil variation is more random as, for example, in recent
alluvial sediments, a regular grid becomes more efficient. Grid surveys may
also be used where there is too little surface evidence and/or too few
landmarks to allow free survey of representative areas.

Importance of Soil Survey:

Soil surveys are land inventories composed of soil maps, soil descriptions,
some physical and chemical analyses, engineering properties and limitations
for major land uses. The utilization of soils in a better way has also been
reported possible through soil survey.

Soil surveys are necessary to plan, develop and apply effectively drainage
and irrigation practices on farm lands, conduct agricultural research on

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mapped soils if the research findings are to be transferred to other areas
having comparable soil site characteristics.

WEEK 3: SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

Definition
Soil profile – this is the vertical arrangements of soil layers called horizons.
Soil horizon is a layer of soil approximately parallel to the soil surface and has different
physical, chemical and morphological characteristics from the adjacent layers
Soil horizons are differentiated according to;
- Colour using Munsell colour charts

- Texture

- Structure

- Consistency

- Cutans (clay coatings)

- Slickensides (shiny surfaces)

- Cementation

- Pores of roots

- pH

- reaction with HCl

- compaction and coarse fraction

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Differences between horizons generally reflect the type and intensity of processes that have caused
changes in the soil. Ideally, we should always be striving in our descriptions to maintain a link
between process and morphology. In many soils, these differences are expressed by horizonation that
lies approximately parallel to the land surface, which in turn reflects vertical partitioning in the type
and intensity of the various processes that influence soil development. However, there are many
exceptions to this preferred horizontal organization.

Properties of each horizon are described in the following order; Depth intervals of horizons or layers
(measured from the top of the mineral horizons), Horizon boundary characteristics, Colour, Texture,
Structure, pores, Consistence, Roots, pH, effervescence, Special features such as coatings, nodules,
and concretions. Also, about 1/2 kg or 500g of soil should be taken from each horizon. Sampling
should start from the last horizon to avoid contamination of the horizon. Properly labeled and taken
to a standard laboratory for analysis.

If you look in a soil pit or on a roadside cut, you will see various layers in the soil. These layers are
called soil horizons. The arrangement of these horizons in a soil is known as a soil profile. Soil
scientists, who are also called pedologists, observe and describe soil profiles and soil horizons to
classify and interpret the soil for various uses. Soil horizons differ in a number of easily seen soil
properties such as color, texture, structure, and thickness. Other properties are less visible. Properties,
such as chemical and mineral content, consistence, and reaction require special laboratory tests. The
distinction between a mineral and an organic horizon is by the organic carbon content.
Once the horizons have been differentiated by the above characteristics, then boundaries are
established and marked as well as depth. Boundaries may be described as;
Classification of Horizon Boundaries Abbreviation Change in cm
Abrupt A <2
Clear C 2–5
Gradual G 5 – 15
Diffuse D > 15
Topography Abbreviation Description
Smooth S Nearly a plane
Wavy W Waves wider than deep
Irregular I Depth greater than width
Broken B Discontinuous
Soil profile description
Procedure for digging up a soil profile pit
Once the soil site has been described, (general information on elevation, topography, vegetation,
climate, geology, drainage, surface stones, rock outgrowths, erosion, land use etc.), the profile pit
can be dug and prepared for detailed investigation. The pit should be rectangular in plan, large
enough for a man to sit comfortably in the bottom, and as deep as is necessary to expose the
parent material. The position when possible should be oriented in such a way that the light shines
into the bed of the pit and indirectly illuminates both long sites at the same time.

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The face of the profile can be smoothened by use of a small curved knife or hand trowel. It is
recommended that the soil face be allowed to dry a little before commencing detailed
investigation to allow some of the more important structural features to show up clearly. It is
very important, too, that particles from one soil layer are not allowed to contaminate others.
1. determine the depth of the horizon and its nature

2. describe the frequency of roots and soil fauna (organic matter)

3. determine the colour using Munsell soil colour chart

4. determine the soil texture as shown below;

5. determine the structure: may be

- simple or compound

- hard/massive

- platy

- blocky angular

- columnar

- prismatic or single grain as shown below;

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6. determine the consistency of the soil i.e. soft, friable, etc

7. determine the soil drainage (moisture content, gleying etc)

8. determine the soil pH

9. determine the carbonate content

10. do soil sampling (chemical analysis), mapping of soil

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Soil horizons
Horizons are used to classify the soil and make interpretations. There are two categories of soil
horizons;

- Master horizons

- Diagnostic horizons

a) Master horizons

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The master horizons are designated by capital letters namely: O, A, B, C and R. Strictly C
and R are categorized as layers not horizons since their characteristics are not produced by
soil forming factors.
O Horizon
This is the top most layer of most soils. It is composed mainly of plant litter at various levels
of decomposition and humus.
A Horizon
This horizon is found below the O layer. This layer is composed primarily of mineral
particles. The A horizon has two important characteristics;
- It is the layer in which humus and other organic materials are mixed with mineral
particles and

- It is a zone of translocation from which eluviation has removed finer particles and soluble
substances, both of which may be deposited at lower layer

Thus, the A horizon is darker in colour and usually light in texture and porous. The A
horizon is commonly differentiated into darker upper horizon or organic accumulation, and a
lower horizon showing loss of material by eluviation.
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 B Horizon
It is a horizon in which the dominant features are one or more of the following:
 A residual concentration of sesquioxides or silicate clays, alone or mixed, that has formed by
means other than solution and removal of carbonates or more soluble salts. Thus, B horizon may
be coloured by oxides of iron and aluminium or by calcium carbonate illuviated from the A
horizon.
 An alluvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, carbonates, gypsum, or humus. This
layer receives material eluviated from the A horizon.
 Removal of carbonates
 Coatings of sesquioxides adequate to give darker, stronger, or redder colors than overlying and
underlying horizons but without apparent illuviation of iron.
 An alteration of material from its original condition that obliterates original rock structure, that
form silicate clay, liberates oxides, or both, and that forms a granular, blocky, or prismatic
structure.
C Horizon
The C horizon is composed of weathered parent material. The texture of this material can be
quite variable with particle ranging from clay to boulders. The C horizon has also not been
significantly influenced by pedogenic processes, translocation, and/or organic modification.
R Horizon
This is the final layer in a typical soil profile. The layer simply consists of unweathered bedrock.
H Horizon
It is an organic layer formed by accumulation of organic matter (OM) at the surface and is
saturated with water for prolonged period of time. It contains 30% or more OM
E Horizon
It is a layer that underlies H, O or A horizon. It has concentrations of sand (quartz) and silt
fractions high in resistant minerals resulting from loss of silica clay, Al or Fe oxides, or some
combination of them. It has less OM and is light coloured compared to A horizon.
How to distinguish master horizons
There are subordinate distinctions within master horizons. Lower case letters are used as suffixes
to designate specific features within the master horizons e.g.
a. = organic matter, highly decomposed

b. = buried soil horizon e.g. Ob or Ab

c. = accumulation of concretions or nodules (ppt of minerals e.g. Fe, Mn etc), used

with other letters e.g. Bck (B horizon with concretions cemented by calcium
carbonate)
e. = organic matter, intermediate decomposition

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 f. = frozen soil
g. = gleying (molting). It refers to development of grey colour, which is normally
associated with water and reflects variation in oxi-reduction.
h. = illuvial accumulation of organic matter e.g. Bh (organic matter has moved from
A to B horizon
i = slightly decomposed organic matter
k. = accumulation of carboanets e.g. Bk
m. = strongly cemented, consolidated, and is usually used with another letter
showing the cementing material e.g. Bmk (soil strongly cemented with CaCO3)
n. = sodium accumulation
o. = residual accumulation of sesquioxides (Fe and Al)
p. = ploughed layer (disturbance by ploughing or other tillage practices)
q. = silica accumulation
r. = weathered rock
s. = illuvial/accumulation of sesquioxides
t. = accumulation of clay
v. = plinthite. A layer enriched by iron
w. = colour of structural B
x. = fragipan or compacted
y. = accumulation of gypsum (CaSO4)
z. = accumulation of salts

b) Transition Horizons
These are horizons between master horizons (O, A, E, B and C). They may be dominated by
properties of another but have prominent characteristics of another. Both captital letters are
used to designate the transition horizons (e.g. AE, EB, BE, and BC), the dominant horizon
being listed before the subordinate one.
Examples of transition horizons are;
AB – transition layer between A and B with properties more near like those of A than

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 underlying B.
BA - transition layer between B and A with properties more near like those of B than
underlying A.
BE - transition layer between B and E with properties more near like those of B than
underlying E.
c) Diagnostic soil horizons
The term diagnostic refers to features that help identify the soil. Diagnostic horizons are found in
the surface or the subsurface. The diagnostic surface horizons are called epipedons while
subsurface are endopedons. The term; ‘pedon’ is a Greek word meaning ‘soil’. A pedon is a
three dimensional body of soli whose lateral dimensions are large enough to permit the study of
horizons and its physical and chemical composition. Thus a pedon is the smallest observable and
measurable entity of a soil.
A group of pedons closely associated in the field and similar in their properties and with
sufficient size as a basic unit of classification is called a polypedon.
Examples of epipedons
Mollic (A) – It is a mineral horizon that is dark coloured due to accumulation of organic matter
(> 0.6 % organic carbon throughout). Its thickness is generally > 25 cm. It is
generally soft when dry. It has base saturation of > 50%. (NH4OAc solution)
Umbric (A) – It has similar characteristics with Mollic A horizon except the it has a base
saturation of < 50%. It is developed in areas with higher rainfall and from parent
material with lower ca and Mg contents
Orchric (A) – It is light in colour and low in organic matter content (< 0.6%) compared to
Mollic and Umbric. It is hard when dry and massive when wet.
Histic (O) – Very high in organic content, wet during some parts of the year.

Examples of endopedons
Argillic (B) – It has accumulation of silicate clays that has been translocated from the upper
surface. It has clay coatings also known as clay skins or argillans. Bt horizon is a horizon formed
as a result of clay translocation and accumulation of these clay particles in the B horizon.
Oxic/Ferralic (A or B) – It is a highly weathered subsurface horizon. It is high in Al and Fe
oxides. It has low cation exchange capacity (CEC) < 16 Cmol/kg of soil.

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WEEK 4:

CAT 1 TAKEAWAY ASSIGNMENT

WEEK 5: SOIL DATABASES

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 Soil data describes soil characteristics and soil classes. The characteristics of soil data are key to
farming practice. The soil quality is influential on the selection of crops, the need for inputs and
for management of the land. Many governments collect soil information in order to gain a better
understanding of the environmental conditions in different areas of the country or as part of
extension activities. However, the applicability of soil data from government sources depends on
the accuracy and the level of detail of the information. Generally, the information is coarse (1 km
or 250m resolution), which means that it is relevant for general farm advice or strategic planning.

The key data sets that form soil database are soil maps, soil samples and soil classification. Most
governments have collections of soil data and soil maps, but the quantity and quality of the data
varies greatly. Performing a nationwide soil survey is costly and creating an accurate soil map is
a specialist task. Soil data is nowadays stored in digital form in a Geographical Information
System, such as ArcGIS or QGIS. If available, the data can easily be published as open data.
Implementers of data sets are;

 International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC), the world soil information
institute, manages and shares a collection of 96,000 harmonized soil records from around the
world and a global soil data base, SoilGrids. ISRIC collects, harmonizes and publishes global
soil geographic information, whereas many national, regional, local and NGO organizations
provide soil information specific to their area and according to their procedures and standards.

 The FAO soil map portal provides an overview of global, regional and national soil maps and
data bases. The portal links to global, national and FAO legacy maps (scans), also soil profiles
and reports, soil degradation, management and biodiversity

 GloSIS Global - From the FAO. Data Hub for Global Soil Information System (GloSIS) country-
driven global datasets. Includes Global Soil Organic Carbon (GSOC) map, C sequestration
potential, Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD) derivatives (soil properties, soil quality
indicators, digital Soil Map of the World (FAO, pre-HWSD0.
 Data collection from the International Soil Modeling Consortium (ISMC)
Collections relevant to modelling soil processes: hydrology, soil physics, pedogenesis etc at
scales from macro-pore to continental.

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 International Soil Carbon Network Data (ISCN) access - a science-based network that facilitates
data sharing, assembles databases, identifies gaps in data coverage, and enables spatially explicit
assessments of soil carbon in context of landscape, climate, land use, and biotic variables".

The following are soil databases for classification

1 Global map of salt-affected soils (GSASmap)

Naturally saline or sodic soils host valuable ecosystems, including a range of rare plants, that are
adapted to extreme conditions. However, salt-affected soils may develop quickly in response to
human activities. Soils may thus become affected by salinity and sodicity due to inappropriate
management or through saline water intrusion from sea, river, or groundwater and undergo a
rapid decline of health, losing their capacity for biomass production, natural filtration, carbon
sequestration, and other necessary ecosystem functions. The Global map of salt-affected soils
(GSASmap) is an important tool for identifying salt-affected soils where sustainable soil
management practices should be adopted to halt salinization and a foundation for launching a
monitoring framework to track soil salinization and sodification and move into early detection
and management.

2. Global Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration Potential Map (GSOCseq)

These maps allow for the estimation of topsoil (0-30 cm) soil organic carbon sequestration
potential in agricultural areas under four soil management scenarios:

 Business as Usual (BAU) scenario

 Sustainable Soil Management 1 (SSM1) – low, 5% increase in C input
 Sustainable Soil Management 2 (SSM2) - medium, 10% increase in C input
 Sustainable Soil Management 3 (SSM3) - high, 20% increase in C input

The untapped potential of sequestering Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) in agriculturally managed
soils as one of the most cost-effective nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation and
adaptation has been widely described in recent years. However, unlocking this potential relies on
the establishment of strong mechanisms to monitor, report and verify (MRV) changes in SOC
stocks.

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3. Global soil organic carbon map (GSOCmap)

GSOCmap is the first global soil organic carbon map ever produced through a consultative and
participatory process involving member countries, which makes this map totally new and unique.
In fact, the map was prepared by member countries, under the guidance of the Intergovernmental
Technical Panel on Soils and the Global Soil Partnership Secretariat.

Countries agreed on the methodology to produce the map and were trained on modern tools and
methodologies to develop national maps. The Global Soil Partnership then gathered all national
maps to produce the final product, ensuring a thorough harmonization process.

4. FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World

The International Union of Soil Science (IUSS) - at its Seventh Congress, at Madison,
Wisconsin, USA, in 1960 - recommended that soil maps of continents and large regions be
published. As a follow-up FAO and UNESCO decided in 1961 to prepare a Soil Map of the
World at 1:5 000 000 scale. The project was completed over a span of twenty years. It was the
fruit of world-wide collaboration between innumerable soil scientists and remained until
recently the only global overview of soil resources.

5. The Harmonized World Soil Database Vs 1.2

This is the result of a collaboration between the FAO with International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis (IIASA), ISRIC-World Soil Information, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese
Academy of Sciences (ISSCAS), and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
(JRC)

The Harmonized World Soil Database is a 30 arc-second raster database with over 15 000
different soil mapping units that combines existing regional and national updates of soil
information worldwide (SOTER, ESD, Soil Map of China, WISE) with the information
contained within the 1:5 000 000 scale FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World (FAO, 1971-
1981).

The resulting raster database consists of 21600 rows and 43200 columns, which are linked to
harmonized soil property data. The use of a standardized structure allows for the linkage of the

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attribute data with the raster map to display or query the composition in terms of soil units
and the characterization of selected soil parameters (organic Carbon, pH, water storage
capacity, soil depth, cation exchange capacity of the soil and the clay fraction, total exchangeable
nutrients, lime and gypsum contents, sodium exchange percentage, salinity, textural class and
granulometry).

Updating and upgrading soil databases

A first revised global product (The Harmonized World Soil Database) was published in 2006
at a resolution of 1km. Recent efforts focus on using Digital Soil Mapping
techniques (mapping soil properties continuously rather than soil associations with their related
soil properties). A first revised global product made in this way may be expected soon. Other
global maps (WRB, Soil Regions and Zobler) are using the original FAO/UNESCO soil map as
main source of information.

1. Regional and National Soil Maps and Datasets

The most updated national soil information can only be obtained from a country’s national soil
service. However, International organizations such as FAO, ISRIC World Soil Information,
the Joint research Centre of the European Commission and others have compiled and
harmonized national soil information in regional datasets or made soil maps available in digital
format.

2. Soil profile databases

Many of the digital soil maps contain geo-referenced soil profile information for instance
most Soil and Terrain database (SOTER) products do.

Some national soil science organizations also maintain a collection of soil profile databases,
although often these are not freely available. At global level ISRIC maintains the WISE soil
profile database, which recently has been considerably expanded thanks to the AfSIS data set.
FAO also has a considerable collection of soil profile information. These data are of utmost
importance for applications in Digital Soil Mapping.

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Examples of soil profile databases

a) WISE - Global Soil Profile Data, version 3.1

Version 3.1 of the ISRIC-WISE database (WISE3) was compiled from a wide range of soil
profile data collected by many soil professionals worldwide. All profiles have been harmonized
with respect to the original Legend (1974) and Revised Legend (1988) of FAO-Unesco. Thereby,
the primary soil data ─ and any secondary data derived from them ─ can be linked using GIS to
the spatial units of the digitized Soil Map of the World as well as more recent digital Soil and
Terrain (SOTER) databases through the soil legend code.

WISE3 holds selected attribute data for some 10,250 soil profiles, with some 47,800 horizons,
from 149 countries. Individual profiles have been sampled, described, and analyzed according to
methods and standards in use in the originating countries. There is no uniform set of properties
for which all profiles have analytical data, generally because only selected measurements were
planned during the original surveys. Methods used for laboratory determinations of specific soil
properties vary between laboratories and over time; sometimes, results for the same property
cannot be compared directly. WISE3 will inevitably include gaps, being a compilation of legacy
soil data derived from traditional soil survey, which can be of a taxonomic, geographic, and soil
analytical nature. As a result, the amount of data available for modelling is sometimes much less
than expected. Adroit use of the data, however, will permit a wide range of agricultural and
environmental applications at a global and continental scale (1:500 000 and broader).

b) The Africa Soil Profiles Database (AfSP)

The Africa Soil Profiles Database (AfSP) holds 1000's of unique soil profile records, inventoried
and compiled from a wide variety of data sources and originating from studies covering the near
entire continent, of which over 90% is georeferenced. All records include soil profile layer
attribute data and over 80% of the records includes soil analytical data including, but not limited
to, those specified by GlobalSoilMap.net. Soil attribute values are standardized according to e-
SOTER conventions and validated according to routine rules. Odd values are flagged. The

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degree of validation, and associated reliability of the data, varies because reference soil profile
data, that are previously and thoroughly validated, are compiled together with non-reference soil
profile data of lesser inherent representativeness

c) FAO soil and land legacy maps

FAO Land and Water Division (NRL) has made an effort to make Soil Legacy data and
information available for their users. In that regard, FAO has just finished uploading 1228 soil
and land legacy maps (mainly soil maps and also land use, geological and land cover legacy
maps). FAO will continue working in this activity and will include Soil Profile legacy data soon.

Application of Soil databases for classification in Kenya

I) The KENSOTER dataset 1:1 million

The KENSOTER dataset 1:1 million was compiled in 1996 by the Kenya Soil Survey with
technical backstopping and training provided by ISRIC -World Soil Information. The
compilation was based on the - Exploratory Soil Map and Agro-Climatic Zone Map of Kenya-,
scale 1:1 million (KSS 1982) and the many described and analyzed soil profiles in KSSs
database system. The database has been updated and subsequently used for the sequestration of
organic carbon stocks in soils at national level (GEF-SOC project). In 2007 the dataset was
updated in respect of attribute data for the Green Water Credit project in the Upper Tana River
catchment.

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WEEK 6: THE WORLDWIDE SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

A soil classification system organizes knowledge about sets of soil properties and concepts, and
groups them into taxonomic classes
Definition of Soil classification – It is a systematic arrangement of soils into groups or
categories on the basis of their characteristics
Purpose of Soil Classification
a) Organize knowledge of soils thereby contributing to economy of thoughts, using a few
words to communicate many ideas
b) Bring out and understand relationships among individuals and classes of the population
being classified
c) Remember properties of the objects classified
d) Learn new relationships and principles in the population we are classifying
e) Establish groups or subdivisions of the objects under study in a manner useful for
practical, applied purposes such as; predicting their behavior, identifying their best uses,
estimating their productivity and providing objects or units for research and for extending
and extrapolating research results or our observations.

There are many systems in common use based on certain principles but emphasis will be on;
 USDA Soil Taxonomy
 FAO/UNESCO soil classification system
 World Reference Base (WRB)

USDA Soil Taxonomy Classification System

Historical development of the USDA soil taxonomy

The United State Soil Taxonomy developed in 1951 was the most comprehensive soil
classification system as the classification of 1938 used before this time had several loopholes
which made classification very difficult. New ideas were more elaborated which included the
new nomenclature and introduction of diagnostic horizons. After several approximations and
series of amendments a final copy of the classification published in 1975 by soil Survey Staff, as
“Soil Taxonomy: A Basis System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil
Surveys”.
However, several amendments followed the 1975 publication, which led to another publication
in 1999. The latest being the Eleventh edition of Keys to Soil Taxonomy, (2010) which

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incorporated all the changes that have taken place since the publication of the second edition in
1999. The classification contains twelve (12) orders in the highest category as it is a multi-
categorical and hierarchical system. The system is not restricted to United States of America
only since experience from Europe and other continents have been used in its compilation. This
system studies the morphology and properties of pedon as well as use the nature and properties
of mineral horizon (B horizon) as basic criteria in preference to superficial horizons in
classifying mineral soils.

Concepts, correlation and use in classifying soils

There are six levels in the hierarchy of categories: Orders (the highest category), suborders, great
groups, subgroups, families and series (the lowest category) (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).

Orders: There are twelve orders, differentiated on gross morphological features by the presence
or absence of diagnostic horizons or features which show the dominant set of soil-forming
processes that have taken place. There are 12 Orders that are differentiated by the presence or
absence of diagnostic horizons of features that show the dominant set of soil forming processes
that have taken place. Each Order groups together soils that differ little in the kinds and relative
strengths of processes tending to develop horizons. The twelve Orders are

Alfisols – These are moderately weathered soils, with argillic horizon

(clay accumulation) at depth with high CEC, formed under broadleaf
forests, rich in iron and aluminum, they are soils with clay B horizons
and high base status

Andisols– from volcanic ash and defined as containing high

proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials

Aridisols – (from the Latin aridus for “dry”) formed in an arid or

semiarid climate

Entisols– young soils with little or no profile development,

Gelisols– soils of very cold climate and containing gel-like permafrost

within two metres of the soil surface,

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 Histosols – consist primarily of organic materials, peat soils

Inceptisols – soils with altered horizons and have lost material by

leaching,

Mollisols – have a thick dark superficial horizon (epipedon) rich in

calcium saturated organic matter, mull humus and are associated with
temperate grasslands,
Oxisols – characterized by very low CEC values, low base saturation
and extreme mineral weathering sesquioxide-rich (oxic horizon) typical
of tropical rainforest,

Spodosols – typical soils of coniferous forests, soils with iron and

humus. Free sesquioxides and organic matter move from the upper
part of the horizon (elluvial zone) and accumulate at lower levels
(illuvial zones),

Ultisols – sesquioxide-rich highly weathered soils commonly known as

red clay soils, and characterized by clay accumulation at lower depth
with low CEC, and

Vertisols – clayey soils that have deep wide cracks at some periods of
the year, and are dominated by smectite clays, and include mostly
black, cracking and expanding tropical clay, shrinking and swelling
clay soils.

Suborders: It is the next level of generalization. It permits more statements to be made about a
given soil. In addition to morphological characteristics other soil properties are used to classify
the soil. The suborder focuses on genetic homogeneity like wetness or other climatic factors.
There are 68 suborders within the 12 orders. The names of the suborders consist of two syllables.
The first connotes the diagnostics properties; the second is the formative element from the soil
order name. For example, an Ustalf is an alfisol with an ustic moisture regime (associated with
sub-humid climates).

Great groups: The great group permits more specific statements about a given soil as it notes
the arrangement of the soil horizons. A total of 317 great groups (140 of which occur in the

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tropics) have been defined for the 68 suborders. The name of a great group consists of the name
of the suborder and a prefix suggesting diagnostic properties. For example, a Plinthustalf is an
ustalf that has developed plinthite in the profile. Plinthite development is selected as the
important property and so forms the prefix for the great group name.

Subgroups: There are three kinds of subgroups:

1. The typical subgroup which represents the central concept of the great group

2. Intergrades are transitional forms to other orders, suborders or great groups

3. Extragrades have some properties which are not representative of the great group but do not
indicate transitions, for example

Families: The grouping of soils within families is based on the presence or absence of physical
and chemical properties important for plant growth and may not be indicative of any particular
process. The properties include particle size distribution, temperature regime, and thickness of
rooting zone. There are thousands of families.

Series: The soil series is the lowest category. It is a grouping of soil individuals on the basis of
narrowly defined properties, relating to kind and arrangement of horizons; colour, texture,
structure, consistence and reaction of horizons; chemical and mineralogical properties of the
horizons. The soil series are given local place names following the earlier practice in the old
systems in naming soil series. There are tens of thousands of series.

FAO/UNESCO soil classification system

Historical development

According to (FAO, 1976), the FAO/UNESCO system was devised more as a tool for the
preparation of a small-scale soil map of the world than a comprehensive system of soil
classification. The system was an attempt to correlate all units of the various soil maps in the
world as well as obtain a worldwide inventory of soil resource with a common legend. The map
shows only the presence of major soils, being associations of many soils combined in general
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units. In order to prepare a soil map of the world as requested by the International Union of Soil
Sciences (IUSS) in 1968, FAO developed a supra-national legend which has been used as an
international soil classification system. Many of the names offered in that classification are
known in many countries and do have similar meaning. The FAO/UNESCO legend is a very
simple classification system with very broad units, but was the first truly international system,
and most soils could be accommodated on the basis of their field descriptions. The FAO soil map
was intended for mapping soils at a continental scale but not at local scale.

The objectives of FAO/UNESCO classification system was to;

i. Make first appraisal of the world soil resources

ii. Supply a scientific basis for the transfer of experience in areas with similar environments.

iii. Promote the establishment of a generally accepted soil classification and nomenclature.

iv. Establish a common framework for more detailed investigation in developing regions.

v. Serve as a basic document for educational, research, and developmental activities.

vi. Strengthen international contacts in the field if soil science.

Concepts, correlation and use of FAO/UNESCO system in classifying soils

In 1986 FAO published a soil map of Africa following the FAO/UNESCO system of soil
classification. In this map, all the soils of Africa have been grouped into 10 soil associations.
Though it is not very precise, the map provides an overview of the soil resources of the continent
of the ten major associations, the desert and shallow soil associations (comprising Yermosols,
Xerosols and Luvisols) occupy about one-third of Africa's land area. However, only a part of the
area occupied by these associations falls in the tropics.

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The FAO/UNESCO classification system has certain merits as it enjoys the authority of the
leading international organizations in soil science. It is however a compromise document,
incorporating features and nomenclatures from various national systems. It has achieved a
moderate successful rapport between artificial and natural classifications, being an artificial
system outwardly but with parameters chosen to address natural classes. Therefore, it is not a
classification system, but a map legend. It should not replace any national classification scheme,
but should serve as a common denominator.

A major revision of the system was published in 1988. This system was finally replaced by
the World Reference Base for Soil Resources in 1998. Many legacy soil reports and maps used
this system.

World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resource

Historical development

The World Reference Base (WRB) is the international standard for soil classification system
officially endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) in 1988. It was developed
by an international collaboration coordinated by the IUSS Working Group. It replaced
the FAO/UNESCO Legend for the Soil Map of the World as international standard. The
structure, concepts and definitions of the WRB are strongly influenced the FAO-UNESCO Soil
Classification System.

Objectives of WRB Soil Classification

 To develop an internationally acceptable system for delineating soil resources to which

national classification can be attached and related, using FAO’s Revised Legend as a
framework.
 To provide this framework with sound scientific basis so that it can also serve different
applications in related fields such as agriculture, geology, hydrology and ecology.
 To recognize within the framework important spatial relationship of soils and soil
horizons as characterized by topo and Chrono sequences.
 To emphasize the morphological characterization of soils rather than to follow a purely
laboratory – based analytical approach.
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Concepts, correlation and use of WRB in classifying soils

The classification of soils in this system is based on soil properties defined in

terms of diagnostic horizons, properties and materials, which to the greatest
extent should be measurable and observable in the field. The selection of
diagnostic characteristics takes into account their relationship with soil
forming processes.

In WRB, climatic parameters are not applied in classification of soils. It is fully

realized that they should be used for interpretation purposes in dynamic
combination with soil properties.

The WRB is a comprehensive classification system that enables people to

accommodate their national classification system. It does not substitute for
national classification systems but rather serves as a common denominator
for communication at an international level for compiling global soil
databases for inventory and monitoring of world’s soil resources.

In the present text, the 32 Reference Soil Groups are aggregated in 10 `sets'
composed as follows:

1. First, all organic soils are grouped in Set #1.

2. The remaining (mineral) Major Soil Groups (nine sets) are each
allocated on the basis of `dominant identifiers', i.e. those soil forming
factor(s) which most clearly conditioned soil formation.

The table below gives a sequence of the grouping according to respective

principles;
Set Organic soils Histosols
#1
Set #2 Mineral soils whose formation Anthrosols
was conditioned by human Technosols
influences (not confined to any
particular region)
Set #3 Soils with severe limitation to Cryosols
rooting Leptosols
Set #4 Soils that have been strongly Vertisols, Fluvisols, Solonetz,
influenced by water Solonchaks, Gleysols
Set #5 Soils in which iron (Fe) and/or Andosols, Nitisols, Ferralsols,
aluminium (Ai) chemistry plays a Plinthosols, Podzols
major role in their formation

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 Set #6 Set of soils with perched water Planosols, Stagnosols
Set #7 Soils that occur predominantly in Chernozems, Kastanozems,
steppe regions and have humus- Phaeozems
rich topsoil and a high base
saturation
Set #8 Soils from drier regions with Gypsum (Gypsisols) silica
accumulation of gypsum, silica or (Durisols) or calcium
calcium carbonate carbonate (Calcisols)
Set #9 Soils with a clay-rich subsoil Acrisols, Alisols, Lixisols,
Luvisols, Albeluvisols
Set Relatively young soils or soils Arenosols, Regosols,
#10 with very little or no profile Cambisols, Umbrisols
development or very
homogenous sands
WRB soil classification system uses diagnostic horizons. Note that a distinction must be made
between the soil horizon designations used in soil profile descriptions and diagnostic horizons as
used in soil classification. The former belong to a nomenclature in which master horizon codes
(H, O, A, E, B, C and R) are assigned to the various soil horizons in a soil profile when it is
described and interpreted in the field. The choice of horizon code is by personal judgement of the
soil surveyor. Diagnostic horizons, on the other hand, are rigidly defined and their presence or
absence can be ascertained on the basis of unambiguous field and/or laboratory measurements.
Some of the diagnostic horizons in the WRB soil correlation system

Uses of Soil classification

Soil classification systems are established to help people predict soil behavior and to provide a
common language for soil scientists. Soil classification information has found its uses in the
following areas;
1. Farmers
Knowledge of soil classification helps predict soil behaviour and soil behaviour helps predict soil
performance for growing agricultural crops. Part of the works of extension agents is to provide
soil survey maps of local soil classification to help farmers make decisions about crops to grow
in particular areas. E.g. soil classified as Vertisol has a high clay content which shrinks and
swells depending on their moisture status. Such soil may be very good for lowland rice farming.
2. Soil fertility improvement and management
Soil classification and interpretation of results has been used to improve soil fertility status for optimum
production. It has also played a role in reclamation and restoration of degraded landscapes and farmlands.

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For example, poor land use practices such as overgrazing, deforestation and soil destroying
activities can be prevented with proper knowledge of soil types and classifications. Erosion of
formally fertile soils layers affected 65% of the global land mass. Eroded soils are agriculturally
unproductive. Soil classification systems therefore teach the biological factors that affect soil
formation, soil productivity and prevent erosion.

3. Engineers and community planners

Engineers use soil classification survey to determine the potential pehaviour and limitations of
soil. Pipelines, bridges, buildings, recreational areas and landfills must be built on soil suitable to
the engineering need of the earth project. Community gardens, green belts, recreational areas,
and septic absorption fields can be effectively planned by community planners using adequate
soil information of the region

WEEK 7: LOCAL APPLICATIONS OF SOIL SURVEY IN KENYA - MAJOR

SOILS IN KENYA – LOCAL APPLICATIONS OF SOIL SURVEY

Major soils in Kenya: occurrence, distribution, properties, use and

Management

Andosols (young volcanic soils)

Andosols are formed from recent volcanic materials. They occur in areas with
steep slopes and high-rainfall of over 1000 mm per year, hence andosols are
exposed to excessive leaching. They are found in Chyulu Range, Aberdare
Range and slopes of Mt. Kenya.

Andosols are porous, have a high water-storage capacity and a low bulk
density. They are also acidic (low pH) due to the high leaching of soluble
bases and to the high levels of Aluminum (Al). These conditions favour P-
fixation, making it no longer available to the plants.

To improve agricultural production liming and the use of fertilizers is

necessary.

Andosols are high susceptible to erosion as they mostly occur on steep

slopes. In these areas, they are mainly used for tea, pyrethrum, temperate
crops and dairy farming.

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Nitisols

Nitisols occur in highlands and on volcanic steep slopes, for example in the
central highlands of Kenya, on both sides of Mt. Kenya, and the Aberdare
Range, Kisii and Kericho Highlands, Sotik, and aroung Mt. Elgon.

They are developed from volcanic rocks and have better chemical and
physical properties than other tropical soils:

 They are usually red, dark coloured to dark reddish brown in colour

 they have a good moisture-storage capacity and aeration;

 the cation exchange capacity and the percentage base saturation

range from low to high.

 Most Nitisols are acidic (pH < 5.5) due to the leaching of soluble bases.

 Have a high degree of phosphorus sorption

 Nitisols have often a high clay content (more than 35%). They are the
best agricultural soils found in the region. They are intensely used for
plantation crops and food production (e.g. banana, tea and coffee).

For optimal agricultural production, Nitisols need the use of manure and
inorganic fertilizers. To protect these soils from erosion, soil conservations
measures are essential.

Acrisols, Alisols, Lixisols and Luvisols

These kind of soils occur in the coffee zones in the sub-humid areas, on
undulating to hilly topography. They have the following properties;

 They show an increase of clay content in the sub-soil (B-Horizon).

 The sub-soil is often not very porous, impeding root spreading.

 They have a relatively low water-storage capacity, compared with

Nitisols.

 They have a low pH (acid), Al and Mn toxicities

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  They low levels of nutrients and nutrient reserves.

These soils have poor structure and need erosion-control

measures. Organic and inorganic fertilizers are needed to improve crop
production. The soils respond well to fertilizers (especially N, P and K) and to
the use of soil organic matter.

Ferralsols

Ferralsols occur on gently undulating to undulating topography. They are

very old, highly weathered and leached soils, and therefore with a poor
fertility, which is restricted to the top soil, as the subsoil has a low cation
exchange capacity. Phosphorous (P) and Nitrogen (N) are always deficient.
Ferralsols are rich in Aluminium (Al) and Iron (Fe). The nutrient reserves are
easily disturbed by agricultural practices. Important management practices
include the use of fertilizers (e.g. rock phosphate) and the maintenance of
soil organic matter by using green manures, farmyard manures and
mulching. Ferralsols have also good physical properties including an
excellent capacity to hold moisture.

Ferralsols are found in Uasin Gishu, Trans Nzoia, Narok and are used to grow
several annual and perennial crops,e.g wheat, maize, tree crops and coffee.

Vertisols

Vertisols occur on very gently undulating to flat topography, mostly in rice

growing areas e.g. Mwea in Krinyaga District, Trans Mara and Kano plains in
Nyanza Province. They are found in semi-arid and sub-humid environments.
Vertisols have the following characteristics;

 high clay content in the subsoil (higher than in the top-soil), thus, this
layer in the B-horizon can be impermeable resulting in a very slow
vertical and horizontal poor drainage, susceptible to waterlogging

 poor aeration due to fine texture

 extremely poor workability of the soils.

 they are dark coloured and with churning properties (expanding and
cracking).

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WEEK 8: SITTING CAT 2 EXAM

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Understanding
theSoil Test Report

WEEK 9: EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES

FOR CONCEPTS AND USE DECISIONS

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Crops absorb the nutrients required from soil in order to grow, so ensuring that your soil is meeting the
crops’ needs is critical. Having the proper level of nutrients in the soil will help to produce optimum
quality yields. Testing your soil at least every three years, if not annually, is the best way to determine if
your soil is in the ideal condition for your crop.
Laboratory Services tests soil samples to determine how effectively the soil can grow the crop. By
measuring the soil’s pH level and plant-available nutrients, lime and fertilizer recommendations can be
given. Specific crops require specific nutrient levels.
The soil test is divided into four main sections, as shown on the Sample Soil Test Report. These are

• information on client, sample and field

• results of soil test
• interpretation ratings for nutrient levels
• recommendations for lime and fertilizer applications

Client and Sample Identification

Client number
This is assigned to the producer the first time samples are taken to Laboratory Services. The client
number remains the same for future samples.
Accession number
This is the unique identifier assigned by Laboratory Services to a single sample or a set of samples.
Samples reported
This is the date Laboratory Services produced the soil test report.
Samples received
This is the date Laboratory Services receives the samples for analysis.
Lab number
This is assigned by Laboratory Services to an individual sample for tracking and keeping records.
Sample ID
This is assigned to the sample by the client. It’s often a name or a number.
Field size (ha)
This is the size of the farm field in hectares (ha). One ha equals 2.47 acres.

Phosphorus facts
• Phosphorus is important for seed germination and root development. Fields with low phosphorus
levels may not have well-developed root systems, leading to heavily-stressed plants during droughts.
These fields will require re-seeding more often.

• It’s important for vegetable, fruit and grain maturity and quality.

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• It improves nitrogen absorption by the crop.

K O – potassium (kg/ha)
2

Laboratory Services reports potassium in test results as an oxide to match how potassium in fertilizers is
reported.

• Potassium is important for over-wintering ability of perennial crops, overall growth and longevity and
disease resistance.
• Potassium is important for legumes. Nodules on legume roots are filled with bacteria that fix, or
convert, nitrogen into a form that’s usable by the plant. When legumes are grown on low-potassium
soils, the bacteria can’t fix as much nitrogen for the plant.
• Potassium is important for disease resistance and affects the taste and color of fruit and vegetables.
• Research shows that it takes 4.0 kg of potassium, added through nutrients or removed during
harvest, to change the soil test level by 1.0 kg/ha.
• Levels of potassium in soil can decrease much more quickly than levels of phosphorus because crops
remove significantly more potassium during harvest.

Ca – calcium (ca/ha)
Calcium is a secondary nutrient and is taken up by the crop in amounts similar to phosphorus. If test
results show that calcium is low compared to magnesium, calcitic lime should be used to increase the
soil pH.

Calcitic vs. dolomitic lime

Both calcitic lime and dolomitic lime can be used to increase the pH of soil, making it less
acidic. Calcitic lime contains about 40% calcium and very little magnesium. Use calcitic lime
if tests show that calcium is low (below 2500 kg per hectare).
Dolomitic lime contains both calcium and magnesium but has higher levels of magnesium.
Use dolomitic lime if tests show that magnesium levels are low (below 225 kg per hectare).

Calcium facts
• Calcium is important for cell nutrition.
• It helps plants respond better to environmental and disease stresses.
• It improves plant absorption of other nutrients.

Mg – magnesium (kg/ha)
Soils in Nova Scotia typically have medium to high levels of magnesium. If test results show that
magnesium is low, dolomitic lime should be used to increase the soil pH. Commercial fertilizers report
the potassium amount in its oxide form, K2O.

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Magnesium facts
• Magnesium is important for plant photosynthesis.
• It helps legume nodules fix nitrogen.
• It helps move phosphorus within the plant.
• It helps prevent livestock disorders such as grass tetany and milk fever in cattle.

Na – sodium (ka/ha)
Sodium is not an important plant nutrient. The soil’s percentage of sodium is used to help calculate base
saturation. Sodium toxicity can occur if the pH is very high, above 8.3.

S – Sulfur (ka/ha)
Soils in Nova Scotia usually have enough sulphur for crop growth without needing to add more. Sulfur
comes naturally from regional rocks and acid rain. Most sulfur is found in organic matter and must be
converted to sulphate for the crop to use it.

Sulfur – A level of over 40 kg/ha of sulphur in soil is considered good.

Sulfur facts
• Sulfur increases protein levels in grain crops.
• It encourages the formation of nodules in legume crops.
• It is part of the compounds that can give the characteristic smell and taste of onions and garlic.

Al – aluminum (ppm)
Aluminum is not an important plant nutrient. But high levels in the soil reduce the availability of
phosphorus, sulphur, and other nutrients. Aluminum can become toxic to crop production by damaging
root systems at low pH levels, below pH 5.5. Test results show the total extractable aluminum from the
sample, not the available aluminum.

Fe – iron (ppm)
Iron levels are usually adequate in the soil even though it has low crop availability.

Iron – Good levels should be between 50 and 100 ppm.

Iron facts

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• Iron is important for crops that prefer acid soils such as blueberries, strawberries, grain, soybeans,
and cole crops such as cabbage and broccoli.
• It’s an important part of nitrogen-fixing in legume crops.

Mn – manganese (ppm)
Manganese is naturally high in Maritime acidic podzol soils, typical of boreal forests. High levels of
organic matter and high pH reduce the availability of manganese.

Manganese – Normal levels are from 40 to 60 ppm.

Manganese facts
• Manganese increases seed germination rates and reduces time to harvest because it increases
phosphorus and calcium availability to the crop.
• A manganese deficiency can be a problem for soybeans if the field has a low level, high pH, and
heavy clays in the soil.
• Crops that have a high response to manganese are beans, cereals, soybeans, and vegetables.

Cu – copper (ppm)
Copper is an important nutrient for all animals except sheep, where it is toxic even at low levels. Copper
levels are usually lower in soils that are sandy or have low organic matter.

Copper – Low levels are below 0.6 ppm with high levels occurring over 3 ppm.

Copper facts
• High pH levels and high levels of phosphorus, zinc, and iron will decrease copper uptake in plants.
• Crops that respond to copper are alfalfa, grain, lettuce, onions, beets, spinach, blueberries,
watermelons, and tomatoes.
• Some animal manures have high levels of copper from copper foot baths.
• Toxic effects from applying too much copper can last for years.

Zn – zinc (ppm)
Zinc is important for root development. It can be tied up and unavailable to the crop when soil levels of
phosphorus are over 1000 kg/ha.

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 Zinc – Soil levels below 1.0 ppm can be deficient or marginal for sensitive crops.

Zinc facts
• Zinc affects the rate of maturation of both seed and stalks.
• Crops that respond highly to zinc are corn, beans, onions, and spinach.

B – boron (ppm)
In sensitive crops, boron is important in reducing nutritional disorders that affect marketability. Boron
moves easily in the soil so fields with low boron levels should receive annual applications when growing
sensitive crops. Most fields in Nova Scotia have low levels of boron.

Boron – It’s a fine line between too little and too much boron in soil from one crop to
another. One crop won’t have enough while another can be harmed.
Boron is toxic to peas, beans and cucumbers.

Boron facts
• Plant tissue tests can be a better indicator of boron levels than a soil test.
• Boron is most available to crops when soil has a pH of 5 to 7.
• If levels are too low, below 0.5 ppm, sensitive crops should respond if you apply 1.1 to 2.2 kg/ha.
• Vegetables are sensitive to boron, especially root and cole crops. At levels below 0.7, many
vegetables need between 1.1 to 3.3 kg/ha of boron.
• Alfalfa grows and survives longer with higher levels between 1-3 ppm.
• Clovers grow best between 0.5-2.0 ppm.
• Grain, corn, and grass grow best between 0.5-1.5 ppm.

Nitrate-N (ppm) and nitrogen (%)

Nitrate-N is the plant-available form of nitrogen that occurs in the soil. This form of nitrogen is readily
leached through the soil.

Nitrate N and nitrogen (%) tests

You must request this test from Laboratory Services if you want these tests on your
samples. They aren’t part of the standard sampling package.
Nitrate and nitrogen percentage testing are not a part of the regular soil package. You can request
this test from Laboratory Services. The soil sample must be taken immediately to the lab to reduce
the amount of nitrogen that is lost from the sample over time.

CEC – Cation Exchange Capacity (meq/100gm)

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The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) measures the soil’s ability to hold and release positively-charged
nutrients, called cations. Cations are simply atoms or molecules with a positive electric charge, such as
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na).

Soils with low CEC (1-10 meq/100g):

• sandy soils that have low O.M. or clay content
• low water holding capacity
• ph levels can easily fluctuate therefore requires less lime to change levels.
• nutrients can be easily leached
Soils with high CEC (11-50 meq/100g)
• higher clay and organic content
• high water holding capacity
• resists changes in pH therefore needs more lime
• less susceptible to leaching
The soil’s ability to hold onto these nutrients depends on the soil texture and the amount of organic
matter.

• CEC is affected by soil type, pH levels, and organic matter.

• CEC is lower for sandy soils and higher for clay soil.
• The higher the CEC, the higher the clay and organic matter content in the soil.

Base sat. – base saturation

Base saturation can be used as a general indicator of soil fertility.
Base saturation measures the part of the CEC which is occupied by the basic cations (K, Ca, Mg, Na) and
by hydrogen (H) by percent.

• Calcium in base saturation ratios should be between 55 to 85 per cent. Most fields that are above
2500 kg/ha (optimum calcium levels) and have a base saturation of around 60 to 70 per cent is
optimal.
• Magnesium ratios should be 10 to 12 per cent, usually 200 to 300 kg/ha in fields.
• Potassium ratios should be between 2–5%. If potassium ratios are signficantly higher (and
magnesium levels are low) it could cause a disorder in cattle, grass tetany or milk fever. This disorder
can be very serious, even fatal if the blood serum magnesium levels in cattle is low. Signs include
staggering, convulsions, coma and ultimately death.

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 Calcium
• 55-85% base sat.
• Calcium levels at 2500 kg/ha usually have 60-70% base sat.
Magnesium
• Optimum level of 200-300 kg/ha usually have 10-12% base sat.
Potassium
• 2-5% base sat.

Base saturation numbers can be misleading

• In the past, many believed that fields needed certain ratios in base saturation rates to ensure proper
nutrient uptake for the best crop yields. This isn’t necessarily true.
• Research in the 1940s suggested that ideal soil levels contained 65 to 75 per cent calcium, 10 to 12
per cent magnesium, and 2 to 5 per cent potassium. There is considerable debate that
calcium:magnesium ratios should be from 2-8:1.
• Research from the 1950s to ’80s show these ranges have little or no effect in most agricultural soils
ifit they have good nutrient levels. Use the Base Sat. as an estimate of soil health.

WEEK 10: DEVELOPMENTAL PLANS AND PRACTICES FOR

MANAGEMENT IN CROPS, FOREST, RANGE AND WILDLIFE LANDS

Discussion and buzz grouping in class

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WEEK 11: LAND CLASSIFICATION AND RATING TECHNIQUES

Land suitability is the fitness of a given area for a land utilization type (or
land use), or the degree to which it satisfies the land user. The land may be
considered in its present condition or after improvements. It is generally
presented as a class or rating.

There may be certain parts of the area considered, for which particular kinds
of use are not relevant, e.g. irrigated agriculture beyond a limit of water
availability. In these circumstances, suitability need not be assessed. Such
parts are shown on maps or tables by the symbol NR: Not Relevant.

The structure of the land suitability classification has four categories of

decreasing generalization that are recognized:

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i). Land Suitability Orders that reflect kinds of suitability
ii). Land Suitability Classes: reflecting degrees of suitability within Orders
iii). Land Suitability Subclasses: reflecting kinds of limitation, or main kinds of
improvement measures required, within Classes and
iv). Land Suitability Units: reflecting minor differences in required
management within Subclasses.

Land Suitability Orders

Land suitability Orders indicate whether land is assessed as suitable or not
suitable for the use under consideration. There are two Orders, represented
in maps, tables, etc. by the symbols S and N respectively.
 Order S - Suitable Land on which sustained use of the kind under
consideration is expected to yield benefits which justify the inputs,
without unacceptable risk of damage to land resources.
 Order N - Land which has qualities that appear to preclude sustained
use of the kind under consideration.
Land may be classed as Not Suitable for a given use for a number of reasons.
It may be that the proposed use is technically impracticable, such as the
irrigation of rocky steep land, or that it would cause severe environmental
degradation, such as the cultivation of steep slopes. Frequently, however,
the reason is economic: that the value of the expected benefits does not
justify the expected costs of the inputs that would be required.

Land Suitability Classes

Land Suitability Classes reflect degrees of suitability. The classes are
numbered consecutively in sequence of decreasing degrees of suitability
within the Order. The number of classes recognized should be kept to the
minimum necessary to meet interpretative aims. Three Classes are
recognized within the Order Suitable as shown in the table below:
Suitability Description
Classes within
the Order:
Suitable
S1 Land having no significant limitations to sustained
Highly suitable application for a given land use or only minor
limitations. Nil to minor negative economic,
environmental, health, and/or social outcomes.
S2 Land having limitations which in aggregate are
Moderately moderately severe for sustained application of a given
suitable land use. Appreciably inferior to S1 land. Potential

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 negative economic, environmental, health, and/or social
outcomes if not adequately managed.
S3 Land having limitations which in aggregate are severe
Marginally for sustained application of a given use. Moderate to
suitable high risk of negative economic, environmental, health,
and/or social outcomes if not adequately managed.

Differences in degrees of suitability are determined mainly by the

relationship between benefits and inputs. The benefits may consist of goods,
e.g. crops, livestock products or timber, or services, e.g. recreational
facilities. The inputs needed to obtain such benefits comprise such things as
capiLa1 investment, labour, fertilizers and power. Thus an area of land might
be classed as Highly Suitable for rainfed agriculture, because the value of
crops produced substantially exceeds the costs of farming, but only
Marginally Suitable for forestry, on grounds that the value of timber only
slightly exceeds the costs of obtaining it.
Within the order not suitable, there are normally two classes;
N1, Not Land having limitations, which may be insurmountable.
suitable Limitations are so severe as to preclude successful
sustained use of the land. Very high risk of negative
economic, environmental, and/or social outcomes if not
managed.
N2, Not Land having limitations, which appear so severe as to,
suitable preclude any possibilities of successful sustained use of
the land in the given manner. Almost certain risk of
significant negative economic, environmental, and/or
social outcomes.
Land Suitability Subclasses within the Order Suitable

Land Suitability Subclasses reflect kinds of limitations, e.g. moisture

deficiency, erosion hazard. Subclasses are indicated by lower-case letters
e.g. S2m, S2e, S3me. There are no subclasses in Class SI.

Land Suitability Subclasses within the Order Not Suitable

Land within the Order Not Suitable may be divided into suitability subclasses
according to kinds of limitation, e.g. N1m, N1me, N1e although this is not
essential. As this land will not be placed under management for the use
concerned it should not be subdivided into suitability units.

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Land Suitability Units

Land Suitability Units are subdivisions of a subclass. All the units within a
subclass have the same degree of suitability at the class level and similar
kinds of limitations at the subclass level. The units differ from each other in
their production characteristics or in minor aspects of their management
requirements (often definable as differences in detail of their limitations).
Their recognition permits detailed interpretation at the farm planning level.
Land suitability units are distinguished by Arabic numbers following a
hyphen, e.g. S2e-I, S2e-2.

The structure of land suitability classification may be summarized as;

Order Class Sub-class Unit

Suitable S1 S2 m S2e-1
S2 S2e S2e-2
S3 S2me
Not Suitable N1 N1-m
N2 N1-e

Classifications of current and potential suitability

A classification of current suitability refers to the suitability for a defined

use of land in its present condition, without major improvements. A current
suitability classification may refer to the present use of the land, either with
existing or improved management practices, or to a different use.

A classification of potential suitability refers to the suitability, for a defined

use, of land units in their condition at some future date, after specified major
improvements have been completed where necessary.

Land Evaluation

Land evaluation is the process of estimating the potential of land for

alternative kinds of land use so that the consequences of change can be
predicted.

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Land evaluation takes into consideration the economics of the proposed
enterprises, the social consequences for the people of the area and the
country concerned, and the consequences, beneficial or adverse, for the
environment. Thus land evaluation should answer the following questions:

- How is the land currently managed, and what will happen if present
practices remain unchanged?

- What improvements in management practices, within the present use, are

possible?

- What other uses of land are physically possible and economically and
socially relevant?

- Which of these uses offer possibilities of sustained production or other

benefits?

- What adverse effects, physical, economic or social, are associated with

each use?

- What recurrent input e are necessary to bring about the desired production
and minimize the adverse effects? What are the benefits of each form of
use?

If the introduction of a new use involves significant change in the land itself,
as for example in irrigation schemes, then the following additional questions
should be answered:

- What changes in the condition of the land are feasible and necessary, and
how can they be brought about?

- What non-recurrent inputs are necessary to implement these changes?

The evaluation process does not in itself determine the land use changes
that are to be carried out, but provides data on the basis of which such
decisions can be taken. To be effective in this role, the output from an
evaluation normally gives information on two or more potential forms of use
for each area of land, including the consequences, beneficial and adverse, of
each.

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WEEK 12: PREPARATION OF SOIL AND LAND USE MAPS AND
REPORTS
Sequence/procedures/stages of Survey Operations:
i. Pre-field activities:
It includes preliminary identification of major soil-landform- vegetation
relationships, and the study of all relevant existing data. It includes collation
and study of existing data of the area i.e. maps, reports, topo-sheets,
analytical data, general field reconnaissance, aerial photo assemblage and
interpretation, and design and planning of field survey.
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ii. Field Survey:
Field survey activities include soil mapping operations and land evaluation
operation. The soil mapping operation involves identification and
classification of the soil types present in the area, and surveying their
distribution, leading to a production of a soil map.

Land evaluation operation includes field activities for assessing the

potentials of the various soils for a range of alternative types of land use and
the identification of possible development hazards.

There are two methods of field survey;

 Free survey – the surveyor uses his judgement of the objectives of
the survey and all the available aerial photos and ground evidence to
locate profile pits of the most useful and representative sites. The
number of profile pits depends on the requirements of the survey and
the complexity of the soil pattern. The surveyor uses a lot of
observable field marks and takes auger borings (and currently GIS
coordinates) in relation to every change of vegetation or edaphic
features. Aerial photo interpretation is of great significance in this free
survey
 Grid survey - observations are made at regular intervals at pre-
determined traverses in the survey area. A traverse is a straight path
opened along a baseline in the area to be surveyed. Traverses are cut
at regular intervals which depends on the kind of survey. Soils along
the traverses are dug and studied. Tools such as the mud auger,
bucket auger, shovel, and spade are used. Grid survey is used in areas
under dense forests, swamps, and areas with broken topography
where accessibility is difficult and areas where adequate aerial photos
or topo sheets are not available.

Note: Grid survey is very tedious, expensive and time consuming because it
takes a lot of time cutting traverses through the forest, augering at 50 m
intervals. However, grid survey is advantageous because;
 Traverses provide access between roads in dense forests
 Sampling points along the traverses can be located and mapped with
accuracy

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  The direction of the traverses can be arranged to cross the
topographical grain of the county/country
 The greater part of the field survey can be carried out by soil survey
assistants with minimum supervision by the soil surveyor
 The traverse grid provides a uniform sampling point within which it is
very unlikely that important soil types can be overlooked

Sampling for laboratory analysis are prepared. When analyses are being
performed in order to assesses the feasibility of a project or to assist in the
implementation of agriculture development, the surveyor must take great care to
ensure that the samples collected are as fully representative as possible of the
defined soil types and that any interpretation of the results takes into account the
constraints imposed by the sampling procedure.
Soil samples are collected from the auger holes at a delineated soil unit with
respect to topography, texture, slope and vegetation. Depending on the
soils and crops involved; two augering depths in cm are use;

(a) 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120

(b) 0-10, 40-50, 90-100, 140-150

Deep augering of about 3 to 5 m are often required to characterize

particularly with reference to permeability and salinity, and for groundwater
sampling.

Undisturbed samples are usually taken sometimes for soil physical tests e.g.
soil moisture characteristic curves and bulk density. In this case core rings
are used.

While sampling, care should be taken, to avoid collecting sub samples from
locations having a different history or land use or recent fertilizer application.
A representative sample of about 1 kg is taken for laboratory analysis.

iii. Profile sampling

Soil profile pit with a depth of 120 – 200 is dug and observations are done
that include;

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  Description of the environment
 General information of the soils and detailed profile descriptions
 Geo referencing of auger holes and site descriptions e.g vegetation,
slope measurement, drainage, and geology

Expression of the physical phases of the soil e.g. texture, structure,

consistency/soil strength, soil colour, permeability, soil temperature etc.
Sample preparation, recording and dispatch:
The following points should be borne in mind when sending samples for
analysis:
i. If possible, the samples should be air dried before being sent to the
laboratory.

ii. Each sample should be labelled twice; once with a tie on label and once
with a label inside the sample bag.

iii. Labels should be short and simple, since soil laboratories occasionally
make mistakes in transcribing numbers. The project name should be clearly
marked on each label.

iv. The laboratory should be requested to keep any unused samples,

carefully labelled, until about six months after completion of the project in
case of any queries.

v. About 1 kg of air-dried soil is sufficient for complete analysis; for a

restricted range of chemical analyses only 150 g may be needed.

(iv) Plotting soil mapping unit

Consolidation:
‘Filling in’ in areas of complex soils or difficult boundaries; testing of mapped
areas, revisions of API; incorporation of soil analytical results; final
classification.

v. Reporting:
Production of final report and accompanying maps and diagrams.

Data Recording:

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Landform characteristics, soil drainage, profile permeability and crop rooting
often receive only a cursory appraisal because they are less easy to quantify
than soil colour, depth or texture. Nevertheless, the former characteristics
are always of equal, and often of greater importance from the point of view
of agricultural development, and must therefore by carefully considered and
recorded at each inspection site.

Interpretation of Soil Survey and Soil Survey Report:

The most important and specific objective of soil survey is to interpret the
soils based on their properties and characteristics for various uses.
Interpretation of soil survey is aimed at predicting the use potential of a soil
for a specific purpose, such as, productivity of soils, capability of soils for
raising specific kinds of crops, waste recycling, water supply, urban and
industrial structures and many more specialized activities.

Interpretation of soils for land capability classification is based on inherent

soil characteristics, external land features, erosion hazards and
environmental factors that limit the use of the land.

The soil survey report and soil map are the end-product of any survey. It
contains general description of the area (location, extent, physiography and
relief, rivers, drainage, geology, climate, vegetation), socio-economic
condition, agriculture and present land use, detailed description of soils
(morphology, characteristics) land capability classification and other general
problems of the area.

The soil survey reports have been found to be extensively used especially in
designing drainage and irrigation networks, planning the ameliorative
measures for salt affected and eroded areas, for sanctioning loans etc. This
report is also used for developing rational land use planning for growing
crops.

The processes of surveying and mapping enable us to recognize and correlate different soil
categories. Soil surveying is the process of studying and mapping the earth’s surface in terms of
soil types. A soil survey report consists of two parts:

– The soil map which is accompanied by

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– A description of the area shown on the map.

Cartographic production of soil map

The principal result of a soil survey is a soil map upon which is shown the distribution of the soil
mapping units.

Once the field surveyors have compiled a “field” copy of their map, it is passed on to the
cartographers who have the responsibility of preparing it for publication.

One of the most critical features of a map is its scale, for this determines what can be shown,
especially in terms of the smallest area capable of being represented. On a soil map, this is
limited by practical considerations to an area of about 0.25cm .2

Thus, any soil area which occupies less than 0.25cm when represented upon the map must be
2

combined with adjacent soil mapping units.

It is pertinent to add that in virtually all soil surveys, the published map is produced at a smaller
scale than that at which the fieldwork took place. For example, the fieldwork of a map published
at 1:25,000 could be carried out at base maps of a scale of 1:10,000. The use of a larger-scale
map for fieldwork has the advantage that the surveyor has.

The soil survey report

A soil survey report is a written report which accompanies the soil map when a soil survey
project is undertaken. Such a report explains in detail the mapping units, their properties, and
relationships. According to the Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1951), every soil survey
report should contain.

– An explanation of how to use the soil map and report;

– A general description of the area;

– Description of the individual mapping units shown on the map, tables showing their
characteristics

– Prediction of the yields of common crops under specifically defined sets of management
practices for all the soils mapped

– Explanations of the management problems of each soil with special emphasis on how the
characteristics of the soil influence the problems and their solutions.

In summary, for efficient and effective land uses, soil scientists survey land and prepare a soil
map on which the soils in the area are classified based on observable and unchangeable soil
properties.

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Digital soil mapping

• Also called predictive soil mapping.

• Computer assisted production of soils and soil properties.

• Digital Soil Mapping makes extensive use of: (1) technological advances,
including GPS receivers, field scanners, and remote sensing, and (2)

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 computational advances, including geostatistical interpolation and inference
algorithms, GIS, digital elevation model, and data mining
• These techniques are simply tools to apply your knowledge of soil patterns
and distributions. The maps can only be as good as your understanding of
the soils and landscapes
• DSM - Same type of advancement to the Soil Survey as aerial photographs
and stereoscopes introduced by Tom Bushnell and others early in the
Survey.

Opportunities for the new technology (DSM)

• Available soil data are increasingly numerical

– Tools (GIS, Scanners, GPS,…

– Soil Data Models

– Increasing soil data harmonization

• The spatial infrastructures are growing

– DEMs: Global coverage

– Remote Sensing

– Web servers

• Quantitative mapping methods

– Geostatistics (pedometrics)

– Data mining

– Expert knowledge modeling

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