HSC BIOLOGY

MOD 5-6
SUMMARY NOTES
TABLE OF CONTENTS

HSC BIOLOGY 1
Module 5: Heredity 2
Reproduction 5.1 How does reproduction ensure the continuity of a species? 2
Cell Replication 5.2 How important is it for genetic material to be replicated exactly? 11
DNA and Polypeptide Synthesis 5.3 Why is polypeptide synthesis important? 18
Genetic Variation 5.4 How can the genetic similarities and differences within and between
species be compared? 24
Inheritance Patterns in a Population 5.5 Can population genetic patterns be predicted with any
accuracy? 29
Module 6: Genetic Change 30
Mutation 6.1 How does mutation introduce new alleles into a population? 30
Biotechnology 6.2 How do genetic techniques affect Earth’s biodiversity? 31
Genetic Technologies 6.3 Does artificial manipulation of DNA have the potential to change
populations forever? 31
Module 7: Infectious Disease 32
Causes of Infectious Disease 7.1 How are diseases transmitted? 32
Responses to Pathogens 7.2 How does a plant or animal respond to infection? 33
Immunity 7.3 How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a pathogen? 34
Prevention, Treatment and Control 7.4 How can the spread of infectious diseases be controlled?
34
Module 8: Non-infectious Disease and Disorders 35
Homeostasis 8.1 How is an organism’s internal environment maintained in response to a
changing external environment? 36
Causes and Effects 8.2 Do non-infectious diseases cause more deaths than infectious diseases?
36
Epidemiology 8.3 Why are epidemiological studies used? 37
Prevention 8.4 How can non-infectious diseases be prevented? 37
Technologies and Disorders 8.5 How can technologies be used to assist people who experience
disorders? 38
 Module 5: Heredity

Reproduction 5.1 How does reproduction ensure the continuity of a species?

5.1.1.a – explain the mechanisms of reproduction that ensure the continuity of a species, by
analysing sexual and asexual methods of reproduction in a variety of organisms, including but
not limited to:
– animals: advantages of external and internal fertilisation

EXPLAIN : Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how

Animals

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

● Requires one parent ● Requires two parents

● Parent cell replicates and divides ● Haploid (n) gamete from each parent
● Genetically identical offspring combines
● Produces diploid (2n) offspring
● Genetically unique and diverse
● Every cell in the body except sperm
and egg contain 46 chromosomes - 23
each

ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
● Energy efficient ○ High genetic diversity
● Only requires 1 parent (don’t need to ○ Less prone to environmental change
go searching) ○ Facilitates adaptation
● No courtship required
DISADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES: ○ Energy costly
● Low genetic diversity ○ Requires 2 parents (need to go
● Prone to environmental changes searching)
● Inhibits adaptation ○ Courtship is time and resource
consuming

External Fertilisation Internal Fertilisation

■ Sperm and egg unite outside of ◻ Sperm and egg unite within female
female body body
■ Amphibians, fish ◻ Reptiles, birds, mammals
 ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
■ Little energy required to mate ◻ Fertilisation is more likely to occur
■ Large number of offspring produced ◻ Embryos are protected from
■ Offspring can be spread widely = less predators, disease
competition ◻ Offspring more likely to survive
■ Female can continue reproducing ◻ Less gametes have to be produced
while the first young develop ◻ Developed young are fed
■ Young are widely spread, reducing
competition with parents and each DISADVANTAGES:
other ◻ Higher energy requirement to find
mate
DISADVANTAGES: ◻ Less offspring produced
■ Many gametes go unfertilised (less ◻ More energy needs to raise and care
successful) for young
■ Young need to fend for themselves ◻ Slower, lengthy, demanding on
immediately parents
■ Offspring often not protected by ◻ Potential for STD’s
parents; many deaths
■ No control over gametes once
released
■ Must occur in aquatic environment
■ Exposure to disease and predation

5.1.1.b
– plants: asexual and sexual reproduction

Plants

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

● Bulbs and Runners ● Flowers are important

● Bulb: Onion: Underground storage ● Contain both male and female sex
organ with short stem and fleshy cells
leaves. From each bulb there are new ● Pollen: Male gamete, Ovum: Female
shoots developing gamete
● Same genetic information ● Sexual reproduction = pollination :
● Runner: Strawberry: Side branches both pollen and ovum must meet
that grow close to the ground and
develop new roots and shoots from
parent plant
● Same genetic information
 1. Insect/bird hovers over STAMEN (male
parts) where the ANTHER (produces
pollen) is
2. They fly to PISTIL (female part of
plant) and stick to STIGMA (bulb that
contains pollen)
3. Pollen grains will stick to STIGMA and
travel down OVARY (holds eggs)
where pollen meets ovum and
fertilisation occurs

5.1.1.c
– fungi: budding, spores

Fungi

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

BUDDING: ● Requires two

● Development of new individual as an Outgrowth of parent parents
plant. ● Haploid (n)
1. Parent yeast cell produces outgrowth that forms a BUD. gamete from
2. Nucleus of parent cell splits off daughter nucleus which each parent
migrates into daughter cell. combines
3. Bud detaches from parent by PINCHING inwards at base (may ● Produces
still remain in contact with parent). diploid (2n)
● Bud starts off smaller than parent but is genetically identical. offspring
● [coral] Small bump comes off the side of the parent organism ● Genetically
and develops into a new branch of that parent coral. unique and
diverse
REGENERATION & FRAGMENTATION: ● Every cell in
● [flatforms, sea sponges] If a part of the parent organism the body
breaks off, new individuals will arise from the broken piece except sperm
and egg
SPONGE REGENERATION: contain 46
chromosomes
PARTHENOGENESIS (virgin birth): - 23 each
● [honey bees, aphids, ants, stick insects, komodo dragon]
Development of female gamete without prior fertilisation
from male gamete
● Common in invertebrates but rare among higher vertebrates.
Exception: hammerhead shark
 SPORES
● MITOspores - asexual production
● MEIOspores - sexual production
● Genetically identical and produced in large quantities
● Advantage: large number of reproduction
● Disadvantage: chances of survival are not guaranteed/are
low.

5.1.1.d
– bacteria: binary fission

Bacteria is a single-celled, prokaryotic organism. (eg. E.coli)

Bacteria reproduce/replicate by BINARY FISSION.
Binary fission is an ASEXUAL process where the bacteria expands (elongates), then forms a
barrier (CROSS WALL) which separates the two cells. The DNA in the bacteria (with genetic
information) will double, and then split off into two.

5.1.1.e
– protists: binary fission, budding
Protists are all unicellular eukaryotic organisms. (eg. protozoa, plasmodium-malaria)
Protists reproduce/replicate by BINARY FISSION and BUDDING.

Binary Fission Budding

Similar to bacteria’s binary fission. A new organism grows from the parent
But there is a nucleus (unlike bacteria), so organism. It detaches to live away
DNA is stored there. The chromosome will independently or can remain in contact with
move to each side of the nucleus. Then, there the parent to form a colony. Due to unequal
is splitting of the nucleus and then splitting of cytoplasmic division, at first, the new
the cell membrane and cytoplasm into two organism is much smaller than the parent.
daughter cells. They have the SAME genetic material
(identical).

5.1.2 – analyse the features of fertilisation, implantation and hormonal control of pregnancy
and birth in mammals

ANALYSE : Identify components and draw relationships

FERTILISATION - combination of male and female gametes to form a fertilised egg (ZYGOTE).
The ZYGOTE contains a new fusion of genetic material from both parents (VARIATION).
VARIATION increases the chances of survival in the case of environmental changes.

INTERNAL FERTILISATION EXTERNAL FERTILISATION

 Female: 28-day reproductive ovulatory cycle. N/A ?
At 14 days (middle of cycle), there is an OVA.
OVULATION - ova comes out of the ovary and
sits on the outer one third of the fallopian
tube.
OVA waits for fertilisation. After fertilisation,
a zygote is created.

FERTILISATION & IMPLANTATION

– LINKED as implantation happens ONE WEEK after fertilisation: when the embryo sticks to the
muscle wall in the uterus.

Mammals: animals with these characteristics - mammary glands (young fed milk), endothermic
(warm-blooded), have a backbone and hair or fur.
- MAXIMISE reproductive SUCCESS via INTERNAL FERTILISATION (high chance of gametes
meeting), the process of IMPLANTATION (high chance of embryo survival), PROTECTION
from external environment, and constant NUTRIENTS being provided.

Steps of Fertilisation and Implantation

Location: OVARY Location: Fallopian Tube Location: ENDOMETRIAL

Process: OVULATION Process: FERTILISATION LINING
Explanation: OVA leaves Explanation: At Day 0, the Process: IMPLANTATION
ovary and sits on outer ⅓ of SPERM CELL fuses with OVA. Explanation: Embryo sticks to
fallopian tube A ZYGOTE is formed. At Day the uterus wall.
2-4, CELL DIVISION occurs.

HORMONES (endocrine system)

↪ CHEMICAL MESSENGERS that travel in BLOODSTREAM

↪ Causes cellular responses
↪ Released by GLANDS
↪ Causes an effect on a component of the body. Eg. Oestrogen = growing breasts
↪ Important for FERTILISATION SUCCESS; schedules attachment of fertilised egg.
↪ Can be made from LIPIDS (testosterone), AMINO ACIDS (adrenaline), PROTEINS (insulin)

Endocrine System
HYPOTHALAMUS: controls body temp and releases hormones (main controller)
The hormones travel through the BLOODSTREAM into the PITUITARY GLAND.
Pituitary gland releases hormones and controls amount released by other glands (eg. thyroid
gland).

PREGNANCY HORMONES

Oestrogen (ovary): organ development of the foetus, grows breast tissue, stimulates growth of
endometrium, produces mucus so sperm doesn’t enter.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): stops ovulation, maintains corpus luteum for
progesterone production, increases blood supply to pelvis. Rises rapidly in the First Trimester.
Decreases in the Second Trimester.

Progesterone (ovary): maintains endometrium, prepares uterus, prevents pre-birth

contractions & lactation, increases uterine blood supply. Rises throughout all Trimesters; peaks
at 32 weeks.

Prolactin: stimulates lactation (milk release). Rapid increase during Third Trimester

Oxytocin: releases during childbirth, causes contractions (uterine muscles). Rise in Levels during
the Third Trimester.

Relaxin: loosens pelvic muscles

Cortisol (2nd Trimester): regulates metabolism, blood sugar levels. Develops stretch marks and
high blood pressure.
 Extra Notes (for entire dot point)

★ Uterus Lining/Wall is scientifically called the endometrium/endometrial hyperplasia.

★ Ovarian Follicle: Oestrogen and PROGESTERONE are released from here.
★ Corpus Luteum: mass of cells that form in an ovary that produces progesterone.

5.1.3 – evaluate the impact of scientific knowledge on the manipulation of plant and animal
reproduction in agriculture

EVALUATE : Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of

AGRICULTURE: growing crops or raising livestock to produce food/resources/clothing for human
benefit.
Humans have been manipulating plant and animal reproduction for many years in order to
improve the quality, nutrition and yield of products.
Disadvantages: ethics, negative effect on species/environment, decrease diversity
(bio&genetic).

SELECTIVE BREEDING: process where animals or plants that have desired traits are bred
together to reproduce offspring that will also have these characteristics.
The four basic steps of selective breeding are:
1. Determine the desired trait
2. Interbreed parents who have desired traits
3. Choose the offspring with the BEST form of the desired trait and interbreed them
4. Continually repeat this process until the population reliably reproduces the desired trait

Artificial Insemination Artificial Pollination Cloning (crops) Superovulation (cattle)

(dairy cattle) (crops)

Deposit of semen from a Manual transfer of pollen Creating an identical copy Used to produce large
bull into the uterus of a into stigma of another of an organism by using amounts of embryos for
cow to increase and plant. This helps them genetic engineering embryo transfer. Female
improve reproduction, reproduce as many natural techniques. Produces cattle are fed a medicine
milk and beef production. pollinators (bees) are identical plants quickly (Follicular Stimulating
Cost-effective, low becoming endangered and and for cheap. Not safe Hormone FSH) for a few
resources. need help to maintain and accurate. Not much is days that stimulate the
Increased risk of lowered food supply. known about cloning ovaries. Increases
genetic diversity and Time-consuming and technology. Potentially reproduction rate of
breed extinction. fertilisation is not help defeat malnutrition superior females. May
guaranteed. around the world. lead to negative health
side effects.

Impact of Manipulating Reproduction in Agriculture

POSITIVES: improve the quality, nutrition and yield of products. Can make food more resistant to pests and
diseases.
NEGATIVES: Reduces biodiversity and genetic diversity as the selective breeding is reducing the range of genes in
the species, consequently affecting the organism’s survival in an environmental change.

INQUIRY QUESTION SUM UP: How does reproduction ensure the continuity of a species?

Reproduction ensures new individuals and offspring are produced so species do not go
extinct.

Asexual reproduction is advantageous in the way that it is efficient and does not require much
energy or resources.

Sexual reproduction is advantageous in the way that it introduces genetic variation among
offspring, which increases the chances of a species survival rates in environmental changes.

Cell Replication 5.2 How important is it for genetic material to be replicated exactly?

5.2.1.a – model the processes involved in cell replication, including but not limited to:
– mitosis and meiosis

Key Terminology:
Spindles - structure made of microtubules (strong fibres) in order to organise chromosomes and
move them around during mitosis.
Centromere - where the sister chromatids are connected; part of the chromosome that holds it
together.
Chromatid - one of the two identical halves of a chromosome.
Homologous (chromosomes) - a pair of chromosomes with the same genes, length, size,
material.
Chromatin - DNA wrapped around protein forming this substance
 CELL REPLICATION: a process in which cells replicate their genetic material by dividing original cells.
DNA: found in every cell in the nucleus. Packaged in chromosomes. Small sections of DNA are called
genes. Genes code for different proteins. Proteins control metabolism, enzymes and hormones.

MITOSIS
Cell division where a parent cell divides to form two identical daughter cells.
PURPOSE: make SOMATIC CELLS. Cell division allows us to grow, repair damage and develop an organism.
46 chromosomes, 46 centromeres, 92 chromatids

Division Process:
INTERPHASE ↪ Where the cell spends most of its time.
(late G2 phase) ↪ Cell PREPARES for mitosis
↪ Chromosomes make copies of themselves (DUPLICATE)
↪ Duplicates stay attached to each other
↪ DNA is already copied; chromosomes in nucleus have
two copies; sister chromatids

PROPHASE -> ↪ First official stage of mitosis

↪ In the cytoplasm, (mitotic) spindles start to form
Prometaphase
↪ Chromosomes condense so they are compact and
become visible in the nucleus
↪ Nucleus (nuclear envelope) breaks apart and spindles
move towards the chromosomes

METAPHASE ↪ Centrosomes are on opposite sides of the cell

↪ Copies of chromosomes line up in the centre of the cell
along the spindles

ANAPHASE ↪ Chromosomes split into two identical groups and move

to either side of the cell
↪ I.e sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell
↪ Protein that holds them together is broken down for
them to separate

TELOPHASE ↪ A nucleus forms around each group and the spindles

start to break down
↪ Mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks
↪ Chromosomes begin to decondense and return to
being “stringy”

CYTOKINESIS ↪ Final stage of the cell cycle. Diploid daughter cells are
(note: cytokinesis starts in produced and are identical to the parent cell
anaphase or telophase)

MEIOSIS I & II
 Cell division that occurs twice that produces gametes that are haploid (n). Occurs in
reproductive organs: ovary and testes.
PURPOSE: creates gametes for sexual reproduction. Contributes to genetic variety.
23 sperm xy, 23 egg xx = 46 fertilised eggs

Key Terminology:
Nondisjunction - too many or too little chromosomes due to incorrect joining of chromosomes
in meiosis.
Crossing Over - when homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material between non-sister
chromatids (occurs in Prophase I)
Independent Assortment - homologous chromosomes randomly align in two rows (Metaphase I)

Division Process: (Reduction Division)

INTERPHASE ↪ Where the cell spends most of its time.

(late G2 phase) ↪ Cell PREPARES for meiosis
↪ Chromosomes make copies of themselves (DUPLICATE)
↪ Duplicates stay attached to each other
↪ DNA is copied; chromosomes in nucleus have two copies; sister chromatids

PROPHASE I ↪ Chromosomes condense so they are compact and become visible in the
 nucleus
↪ Chromosomes begin to pair up in any order (random segregation)
↪ Nucleus (nuclear envelope) breaks apart and spindles move towards the
chromosomes
↪ CROSSING OVER

METAPHASE I ↪ Centrosomes are on opposite sides of the cell

↪ Copies of chromosomes randomly line up in the centre of the cell along the
spindles in two rows (independent assortment)
↪ I.e. spindles from the centrioles connect to the centre of the chromosomes

ANAPHASE I ↪ Spindles contract

↪ Homologous chromosomes are pulled to the other side of the cell

TELOPHASE I ↪ A nucleus forms around each group and the spindles start to break down
↪ Mitotic spindle is broken down/dissolves into its building blocks
↪ Cytokinesis is performed to make 2 haploid daughter cells

PROPHASE II ↪ Chromosomes condense

↪ Nuclear membrane dissolves
↪ Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
↪ NO CROSSING OVER
 METAPHASE II ↪ Spindles attach to chromatids
↪ They align in the middle, along the equator

ANAPHASE II ↪ Spindles contract to separate the chromatids

TELOPHASE II ↪ Cell membrane surrounds the cell

↪ Cytokinesis occurs to create 4 haploid daughter cells.

‘MODEL’ - Mitosis and Meiosis was modelled using paper plates, wool/string, cotton balls, and marker outlines.
This helped students understand the placement, movement and composition of chromosomes during cell
division. The advantage of the models is its ability to help us visualise the concept in a simpler way. The
disadvantage is its inaccuracy which may give students an incorrect understanding of the process.

5.2.1.b
– DNA replication using the Watson and Crick DNA model, including nucleotide composition,
pairing and bonding

DNA STRUCTURE

Deoxyribonucleic Acid has the code for proteins and information for inherited characteristics.
Nitrogenous Bases:
Adenine and Thymine have a double hydrogen bond.
Cytosine and Guanine have a triple hydrogen bond.

Rosalind Franklin - took photo 51 which showed double helix structure.

The first to produce clear crystallographic evidence of double helix.
Watson & Crick - continued crystallographic research, won 1962 Nobel
Prize, used Franklin’s photo without permission, and gave no credit to
her.

The DNA model helped scientists understand how genes control cellular
processes and characteristics.

Overview:
■ One DNA molecule = 2 strands of nucleotides
■ 2 strands twisted into a double helix
■ Weak Hydrogen bonds: makes it easier to ‘unzip’ the molecule for DNA replication
 ■ Antiparallel Arrangement: two complementary double helix strands where each strand
runs in opposite directions.

DNA REPLICATION

★ Occurs in Eukaryotic cells in the nucleus.

★ Occurs before cell division → during interphase

1. Topoisomerase unwinds DNA from double helix structure

2. Helicase unzips DNA into two strands (lagging and leading)
3. Lagging and leading strands are numbered to tell us what strand is being replicated
4. DNA Polymerase creates DNA by assembling nucleotides
5. Ozakazi fragments (short DNA bits) are attached to lagging strand
6. Primase initiates the recall of RNA use as primer for polymerases
7. RNA primer (short piece of RNA) creates complementary strand of DNA
8. Ligase (glues) joins fragments of synthesised DNA together to form one seamless strand
5.2.2 – assess the effect of the cell replication processes on the continuity of species

ASSESS : Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

The processes of cell replication are fundamental for the continuity of species, and life in
general. The process of mitosis is significant as it creates new somatic cells that are required for
growth, maintenance and repair, ensuring that the organism reaches a point when it can
reproduce for itself. Mitosis also allows a zygote to form in an adult organism, reinforcing its
critical nature in a species’ continuity. Moreover, the process of meiosis is crucial as it allows
organisms to reproduce with an abundance of variation, enabling a higher chance of survival as
there is variety where the organism can adapt to changes in its environment. Furthermore, DNA
replication is essential for accurate transmission of genetic material from a cell to another,
evident in mitosis and meiosis. It also allows for the genetic information to be transferred with
the correct structure, functioning and behaviour of an organism, pivotal for its survival and
continuity.

However, a spontaneous error or mutation may arise due to environmental factors, which if
undetected, will result in permanent mutation that can cause malfunction. Although mutation
can allow for genetic variation, too much of it can disturb the organisms’ function.

CASE STUDY/EXAMPLE: Sickle Cell Anemia

→ A genetic disease due to mutation
→ Mutation in Chromosome 11
→ Produces irregular red blood cells with low oxygen capacity

DNA and Polypeptide Synthesis 5.3 Why is polypeptide synthesis important?

5.3.1 – construct appropriate representations to model and compare the forms in which DNA
exists in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

DNA in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Remember that the main difference between the two is the structure of their organelles
(membrane-bound structure performing specialised functions).
 DNA in PROKARYOTES DNA in EUKARYOTES

↣ DNA of pro and eu cells is identical at the chem level

↣ Differences between the DNA between the two include: packaging, quantity, replication and info
content

↣ Are usually a single circular chromosome and ↣ Is linear, associated with HISTONES and found
plasmid in the nucleus
↣ Contain no HISTONES (protein supporting ↣ Genes contain INTRONS AND EXONS
chromosome) 1. Transcription: move and scribe. Movement of
↣ Is found in the cytoplasm in the nucleoid writing from DNA to mRNA. Removal of the
↣ Does not contain INTRONS (segment of DNA non-coding segments of DNA (introns).
that does not code for specific proteins) 2. Translation: move language from nucleotides
↣ Contains EXONS into amino acid sequences (part of our
protein makeup). This is where we get a
specific part of a protein.

➢ Nucleoid-associated proteins cause ➢ Packaged in chromosomes

chromosomes to form looped structures ➢ Histones cause tight coiling, dense packing
➢ Nucleotide base pairs ranges; species ➢ Multiple proteins; specific dependent
dependent ➢ Humans; 23 pairs of chromosomes containing
➢ Relatively simple (begins at a single point) 3 billion base pairs
➢ Organised as operons; each can code for ➢ Multiple replication origin points
multiple proteins ➢ Organised in genes that each code for a single
polypeptide

5.3.2.a – model the process of polypeptide synthesis, including:

– transcription and translation

Overview of DNA and Proteins

Amino Acids: simple organic compounds and building blocks of proteins. → Essential aa:
obtained from food → Non-essential aa: produced by our bodies
Peptides: short chains of 2-50 amino acids
Polypeptides: linear molecules made of multiple peptides
Proteins: functional unit made of one or more polypeptides. → defined structure determined
by sequence and folding of amino acid chains - determines function of protein
Key Terminology:

DNA polypeptide synthesis requires two types of RNA: messengerRNA and transferRNA
⇉ Transcription: complementary mRNA copy of DNA gene is made in nucleus
⇉ Translation: mRNA sequence is converted into amino acid sequence carried by tRNA into
ribosomes
⇉ mRNA: single stranded nucleic acid – ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, nitrogen bases
⇉ tRNA: small RNA molecule that transfers specific amino acids to ribosome during
polypeptide formation
⇉ Codon: set of three nitrogen bases in mRNA
⇉ Anticodon: complementary set of three nitrogen bases in tRNA

TRANSCRIPTION:
– when a copy of a DNA backbone moves to a single-stranded mRNA molecule that leaves
nucleus for ribosome

1. Double stranded DNA molecule is present

2. DNA backbone uncoils, exposes DNA sequence (gene). Single-stranded mRNA forms.
Thymine never leaves nucleus – is replaced by URACIL
3. Gene copy has been made on mRNA molecule. Other backbones come back together on
DNA. mRNA exits nucleus through pores; goes to ribosomes (where proteins and
polypeptides are formed).

TRANSLATION:
– occurs in ribosomes. DNA never leaves the cell; single-stranded mRNA molecule does

1. mRNA leaves nucleus for ribosomes. Sets of three mRNA = CODONS

2. Free amino acids bind to specific tRNA = ANTICODON sequence
3. As mRNA moves along 5’ to 3’ direction, sets of three codons attract to anticodon which
drop off a specific amino acid.

5.3.2.b
– assessing the importance of mRNA and tRNA in transcription and translation
 ASSESS : Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Importance of mRNA in Transcription: Importance of tRNA in Translation:

- Single-stranded nucleic acid (structure - Small single-stranded nucleic acid

effect on function) - Distinctive 3-folded loop structure
- Carries info from DNA in nucleus to (^structure effect on function)
Ribosome - One loop has an anticodon
- To SYNTHESISE PROTEIN - Each tRNA has a complementary
- Structure: comprised of ribose sugar, amino acid attached to the opposite
phosphate backbone, nitrogenous end of the anticodon
bases → has all necessary material - Complementary mRNA & tRNA
- DNA does not leave nucleus during codon-anticodon pairing = specific
Transcription, resulting in mRNA to sequence of amino acids required for
skillfully perform its function (of protein synthesis occurs
sending message from nucleus to - tRNA transports correct amino acids
ribosomes) to ribosomes
- mRNA acts as a MESSENGER: copies & - Without tRNA, Protein/POLYPEPTIDE
carries genetic info from N->R synthesis would not occur
- Without mRNA, genetic info would
not be able to go to the ribosomes
(processing factory), hence
transcription would not occur

5.3.2.c
– analysing the function and importance of polypeptide synthesis

Function of Proteins
~ Proteins are a major component of every cell and have many roles in bodily functions ~

Structural Proteins​- maintain cell shape and make connective tissues

- Dietary intake of protein is important for the growth, repair and maintenance of tissue
- Eg. Actin - found in muscle cells > allowing movement and muscle build up

Enzymes​- biological catalysts

They act on a specific molecule to either break it down into something simple, or make
something more complex, allowing efficiency and an easier way to survive
- Eg. DNA Polymer​ase

Messenger Proteins (hormones)​- chemicals which are secreted into the blood to travel to
target tissues where they cause a change in activity
- They help regulate body processes
- Eg. Insulin > regulates the blood glucose levels

Storage & Transport Proteins​- storage proteins bind to a certain substance to hold them in
place & transport proteins bind to substances and carry them around the body (eg.
haemoglobin - carrying oxygen)

Immunity Proteins​- antibodies are proteins which react with antigens (foreign objects) to
remove them from the body. Eg IgA

Importance of Polypeptide Synthesis

⌴ Proteins have vital functions eg. structural, enzymes etc, and are found in every cell and
life couldn’t function without them
⌴ If protein synthesis didn’t exist, no proteins could be made, and the protein would have
the incorrect structure for the function
⌴ Polypeptide synthesis forms products that are necessary to carry out replication,
transcription and translation.
⌴ Eg. Enzymes - the function is determined whether the active site can bond to the
substrate which it aims to. If the shape is wrong, then there is no function

5.3.2.d
– assessing how genes and environment affect phenotypic expression

Genome ​- an organism's complete set of genetic material (DNA) - (info for growth and survival)
Genes ​- broken down sections of the DNA - coding for certain characteristics of a human (acts as
a template for mRNA in polypeptide synthesis)
Alleles​- alternative forms of the same gene (eg. eye colour)
Genotype​- an organism's genetic makeup for a particular characteristic (eg. eye colour - blue
(bb), brown (BB,Bb))
Phenotype ​- physical expression of the gene (eg. person with genotype bb has blue eyes)
How environmental factors affect phenotype

- At fertilisation, the zygote has the potential to grow into an adult with certain
characteristics
- ie. the phenotype is controlled by the genotype

Nutrition ​- if a baby is properly nourished, it has the capability to grow into the predicted
phenotype from the genotype however if the baby is malnourished, it may not grow to the full
potential (the body isn’t gaining the nutrients required to survive and grow)

Light Intensity ​- if a plant is grown in complete sunlight it should grow to the potential of the
genotype and have the phenotype, however if it’s grown in darkness, it will not grow as desired

- Both genes and the environment play a large role in the phenotype expression however
it is responsible for each case.
- Eg. genes are the most important in some characteristics - eye colour
- Eg. environment is the most important - weight

How gene factors affect phenotype

Dominance of Alleles​- in organisms, alleles dictate the genotype of the organism, which then
dictate the phenotype of the organism. If the gene is heterozygous, the allele which is dominant
(capital letter) will be shown in the physical expression eg. brown eyes > blue eyes

Co-dominance ​- both alleles are simultaneously expressed in the phenotype eg. Rune Cattle
(patches of red and white), eg. Blood type - A & B blood type are shown together as AB

5.3.3 – investigate the structure and function of proteins in living things

Protein ​- a molecule made of one or more polypeptide chains. These chains bond and fold to
make a unique three dimensional structure
- Inherently important as our cells are made out of them and we need protein to grow
and repair bodies
- Made of polypeptides; which are made of amino acids which are then made of carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen
 - All ​proteins are made of polypeptides however​​polypeptides ​are NOT ​made of proteins
- The function of a protein depends entirely on its structure

Structure of Proteins

Amino Acids (CHONs) ​- 20 types of amino acids to choose from

Polypeptides (chains of amino acids)​- any amino acid can be placed in a random order >
enables different polypeptides due to the different combinations of amino acids
Proteins​- proteins contain different numbers and combinations of proteins which then give a
distinct structure and is important for the function of the protein

Function of Proteins

- Growth and maintenance of tissues

- Controls biochemical reactions - enzymes (are proteins)
- Proteins help form immunoglobulins, or antibodies, to fight infection.
- Transport proteins carry substances throughout your bloodstream — into cells, out of
cells or within cells.

Genetic Variation 5.4 How can the genetic similarities and differences within and between
species be compared?

5.4.1 – conduct practical investigations to predict variations in the genotype of offspring by

modelling meiosis, including the crossing over of homologous chromosomes, fertilisation and
mutations

Genetic Variation ​- a term used to describe the differences between the genomes (complete set
of DNA) of individuals and species. Also known as the differences in DNA of a group of
organisms

Random Segregation & Crossing over of homologous chromosomes in Meiosis

- This is where one cell divides into 4 non-identical cells with only a haploid number of
chromosomes (occurs in gonads for reproductive variation)
- The pairs of chromosomes line up, however they are in a random order, meaning that
the gene will be different and that different combinations of chromatids will end up in
gametes
 - To ensure variety, the pairs cross over (they swap sections of their gene to have different
chromosome make ups)
- These haploid cells are now in the forms of gametes and are used in fertilisation

Fertilisation
- These gametes which have just gone through meiosis (already with Genetic variation),
now fuse with either a maternal or paternal gamete which have gone through meiosis as
well. They have different alleles and this contributes to the genotype/phenotype of the
organism
- It is highly unlikely that two gametes are the exact same and will lead to variation in the
offspring

Mutations
- A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA
- It can lead to a change in the genotype, as there is a change in the bases, this may
change the codon and can lead to differing DNA sequences > change the phenotype
- Eg. Sickle cell anaemia (affects how much oxygen the rbc can carry)

5.4.2.a – model the formation of new combinations of genotypes produced during meiosis,
including but not limited to:
– interpreting examples of autosomal, sex-linkage, co-dominance, incomplete dominance and
multiple alleles

Term Definition Diagram

Gene Segment of DNA on chromosome.

Describes how to make a certain protein.
Allele Variations of given gene.
Found on same place in homologous chromos.

Homozygous Genetic state of having identical alleles for a trait

Eg. Homo Dom = EE, Homo Rec = ee

Heterozygous Having two different alleles of a particular gene inherited from

each parent.
Eg. Hetero Dom = Ee

Dominant Allele that determines phenotype of an organism even if

paired with a recessive allele.

Recessive Allele that does not have an effect when paired with a
dominant. Only has effect when paired with another rec.

Genotype Genetic makeup/expression of an organism.

The gene or allele combination it has.
Eg. Tt, Nn, Bb, LL, jj

Phenotype Physical characteristic of an organism.

The way it looks.
Eg. Blue eyes, black fur, straight hair
Autosome
- ​any chromosome which is not a sex chromosome (eg. eye colour) (22 pairs of
autosomes)
Sex chromosome ​
- any chromosome which codes for sexual characteristics eg. codes for breast
development in women & penis development in males (only 1 pair of these)
- The ​X ​& ​Y chromosomes
- Males are XY (heterozygous)
- Females are XX (homozygous)
- Contain some characteristics for non-sex genes as well

Autosomal Inheritance
- The patterns and expression of genes which are located in the autosomes
- If the autosome is heterozygous, the dominant allele will be demonstrated through
phenotype
- If the autosome is homozygous, the allele will be shown as the phenotype
- Eg. eye colour - the dominant allele will be shown over the recessive (brown > blue)

Sex - Linkage
- Since chromosomes come in pairs, there are two copies of each gene, except in
sex-linked genes
- There are more genes on the X chromosome than the Y, making it larger
- As the male only has one copy of the X chromosome, the male will only show the gene
portrayed, meaning it could be negative (eg, haemophilia), whereas a female may have
the recessive and dominant genes (XX) and the dominant will show, however she will be
a carrier

Co-dominance
- Where both alleles are expressed in the phenotype eg. Roan cattle (red and white
patches of fur)
- Since they’re both co dominant, the alleles are capitals, eg, W - white, R - red, and can
be placed in the punnett square meaning that RW is the patches of red & white
Incomplete Dominance
- The dominant allele is partially expressed, meaning it doesn’t dictate the phenotype of
the organism eg. Snapdragon flower
- The dominant allele allows some of the recessive to break through meaning that there is
a blend in colour
 - Eg. Red genotype is RR, white is rr, so there is 100% chance of Rr - resulting in pink
flowers

Multiple Alleles
- Three or more alternative forms of an allele that can create a variant number of
phenotypes when they exist in different numbers.

Gregor Mendel’s work

- Explains that inheritance is not a blending of characteristics
- Inheritance is controlled by a pair of particles in the cells called factors (genes & alleles)
- These two factors segregate from one another when sex cells form
- Characteristics are either dominant or recessive
- Ratios of variations of offsprings from two parents can be predicted using maths

5.4.2.b
– constructing and interpreting information and data from pedigrees and Punnett squares

Punnett Squares
These are tables which predict the possible genotype and phenotype of the offspring, produced
by a male and female.

Eg. Eye colour: father has dominant heterozygous Bb brown eyes, and mother has recessive
homozygous blue eyes
B b

b Bb bb

b Bb bb
- Phenotype Ratio // 50% chance of brown eyes, 50% chance of blue eyes
- Genotype Ratio // 2 Bb : 2 bb or 1 Bb : 1 bb ratio

Pedigrees
A family tree which shows how organisms are related to one another & also show how
characteristics are passed on over generations.
Importance of Pedigrees
⌃ Useful as they allow scientists to understand what is happening with the inheritance of a
trait/disease
⌃ To figure out the inheritance pattern of a trait by seeing how often the trait is expressed
in the phenotype
⌃ Allows geneticists to examine the genotype of individuals, and whether they’re carriers
of the trait/will express it.
⌃ Important with genetic disease, as the couple who are having a baby will be able to see
the likelihood of the child developing a disease eg. cystic fibrosis
⌃ Can be used to see whether a person will have a disease later in life eg. Huntington’s
disease

5.4.3.a – collect, record and present data to represent frequencies of characteristics in a

population, in order to identify trends, patterns, relationships and limitations in data, for
example:
– examining frequency data

5.4.3.b
– analysing single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

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Allele Frequency: how common an allele is in a population. Count how many alleles are present
in the genetic area of a population, then divide it by the total number of gene copies in the
population.

Case Study: Blood Groups

A, B, O, AB (determined by genes inherited from parents)

Can be positive or negative based on the RH (rhesus) factor.
Evolutionary link to malaria

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs): form of genetic variation among a population.

Represents a difference in a single DNA nucleotide. Helps scientists locate which genes are
associated with disease. Shows the similarities and differences between individuals as they are
a variation of a single nucleotide.
Scientists, through Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS), can analyse trends and links in
SNP’s, and the allele frequency of these SNP’s, leading to an understanding of which diseases or
disorders may be present in the individual. Scientists can then research and develop methods,
treatment or take preventative actions of serious diseases such as Parkinson’s, Crohn’s or
Alzheimer’s.

Inheritance Patterns in a Population 5.5 Can population genetic patterns be predicted with any
accuracy?

5.5.1 – investigate the use of technologies to determine inheritance patterns in a population

using, for example:
– DNA sequencing and profiling

Sequencing: order of nucleotides in a DNA sample determined

Profiling: unique DNA of organism determined and represented as a series of bands

- Can be used to identify if two individuals are related
- Paternal relation to child
- Fluids associated with crime
- The more closely related two individuals are, the more similar their DNA profile will be.
Historically used Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs): repeating string of genetic letters
or nucleotides repeated in tandem.
Now uses Short Tandem Repeats (STRs): genetic marker or variation of DNA sequence repeated
consecutively.
Variation observed: differences in number of repeats of the shorter sequence between
individuals.
Gel Electrophoresis used to separate STRs in DNA samples.
1. DNA extraction from sample (blood, hair follicle)
2. Multiple STRs in DNA made using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
3. Gel electrophoresis separates STRs based on their differing lengths
4. Gel results show length for each STR for the individual. These can be compared to other
samples to find a trend/relationship.
Profiles that focus on Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA = more useful because passed on
generationally.
Ethics: who owns the DNA? Who should access it? Should a family know if their loved one is a
carrier for Huntington’s disease?

5.5.2.a – investigate the use of data analysis from a large-scale collaborative project to identify
trends, patterns and relationships, for example:
– the use of population genetics data in conservation management

⤏ More genetic variation = organisms adapt to environmental change = conservation of

species.
⤏ Inbreeding can make unfavourable recessive alleles more common → higher chance that
offspring suffer from genetic diseases.

5.5.2.b
– population genetics studies used to determine the inheritance of a disease or disorder

Eg. Sickle Cell Anemia (Case study)

In RBCs, there is a haemoglobin (protein) which

carries oxygen to other cells. RBCs travel around
the body via blood vessels that are like narrow
tubes: veins, arteries, capillaries transporting
blood.
When the RBC is sickled, it becomes
crescent-shaped due to a genetic mutation, leading
to issues like impairing oxygen delivery.

5.5.2.c
– population genetics relating to human evolution
Monkeys, mushrooms, and all other living creatures have a gene that codes for a protein called
Cytochrome C, which plays a central role in releasing energy from food.
Humans are most closely related to the rhesus monkey (only once different in amino acid
sequence).
Amino acid sequence data helps to infer patterns of evolutionary relationships as they are the
building blocks of proteins, meaning they reflect the level of evolutionary relatedness between
species. The closer the species, the more amino acid sequences will be shared.
Additional information like analysis of fossil record, genetic and molecular evidence,
comparative genomics, understanding of population structure and migration may help.

Module 6: Genetic Change

Mutation 6.1 How does mutation introduce new alleles into a population?

6.1.1.a – explain how a range of mutagens operate, including but not limited to:
– electromagnetic radiation sources

Mutation: random change to DNA that cannot be predicted or predict which gene will be
affected or how it will be affected. Usually has no effect on organisms but can result in a
phenotypic change to the individual.

Ionising radiation, such as x-rays, gamma rays, alpha and beta particles can damage DNA,
causing mutations through energy that cause electrons to be removed from atoms. These may
lead to birth defects or cancer. UV radiation can lead to skin cancer.
It can cause mutations DIRECTLY, where the sugar phosphate backbone breaks, or the
nitrogenous base changes so it does not pair with the complementary base. Or it can cause
mutations INDIRECTLY, where other molecules in the cell are ionised so free radicals produced
can join with other molecules to form compounds that damage DNA. Eg. H2O2, hydrogen
peroxide.

6.1.1.b
– chemicals

Examples of How Chemicals can cause Mutations

 ■ Reactive Oxygen Species, like free radicals cause atoms (eg. oxygen) to be reactive and
bond with other atoms
■ Intercalating Agents (eg. ethidium bromide) insert themselves into DNA, stretch them
then cause frameshift mutations
■ Heavy Metals (eg. mercury, cadmium) break the sugar-phosphate backbone, stopping
the enzymes from repairing DNA.
■ Deanimating Acids (eg. nitrous acids) converts C to U
■ Base Analogs (eg. 5-bromo-deoxyuridine) replace bases during DNA replication

6.1.1.c
– naturally occurring mutagens

Can be from a Non-Biological Origin: heavy metals such as arsenic, nickel, cadmium, some
ionising radiation and chemicals in charred food.

Can be from a Biological Origin: various toxins produced by living organisms, like alkaloids
produced by plants (bracken ferns). Some viruses like the bacterium helicobacter pylori can
cause mutations.

Green mould = caused by aflatoxins = mycotoxin = mutagen

6.1.2.a – compare the causes, processes and effects of different types of mutation, including but
not limited to:
– point mutation

⥤ Change to a single base in DNA heavily alters how the protein encoded by a gene
functions since its function depends on its shape
⥤ The interactions of surrounding amino acids determines its shape
⥤ Amino acid change = protein shape change

BASE SUBSTITUTION:
○ One base is replaced/changed to another due to potential copying error
○ Change in amino acid sequence

BASE DELETION:
○ Removal of a single nucleotide from a DNA sequence

BASE INSERTION:
 ○ Addition of a single nucleotide into a DNA sequence

FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS are caused by insertion or deletion of a single nucleotide base,

affecting the triplet base amino acid and all the following amino acids.

6.1.2.b
– chromosomal mutation

STRUCTURAL CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS (block mutations) affect large regions of a

chromosome usually involving many genes:
○ Inversion
○ Deletion
○ Duplication
○ Translation

CHROMOSOMAL NUMBER MUTATIONS

- Cell has extra or is missing chromosomes; changes to the number of chromosomes
Can be:
ANEUPLOIDY: diploid cell has extra or is missing chromosomes
- Caused by Nondisjunction in meiosis where a homologous chromosome fails to separate
- Eg. Trisomy - can be down syndrome; extra one on chromosome 21
Or:
POLYPLOIDY: cell has three or more of each chromosome
- Caused by still having diploid (2n) cells during the first stage of meiosis rather than
having a haploid (n) cell.
- Gametes will be diploid
- If one gamete is diploid and the other is haploid, then there will be a cell with 3n =
polyploidy. If there is 6 of each chromosome = hexaploidy (6n) etc

Karyotype: visual representation of an individual’s complete set of chromosomes. Used to

analyse any mutations or chromosomal abnormalities.

6.1.3 – distinguish between somatic mutations and germ-line mutations and their effect on an
organism

SOMATIC MUTATIONS GERM-LINE MUTATIONS

 Location Body cells: any other cell Gametes (sex cells): sperm or
other than reproductive cells egg cell
Eg. skin cells, muscle cells Eg. ovary

Effect (Biological Impact) No effect. Extremely rare to In some cases, it is

be passed onto offspring, inheritable by offspring.
depending on the gene that Usually no phenotypic effect
is changed. Cancer may occur as the mutation is recessive.
if the gene is a tumour Several generations later, an
suppressor. individual with two copies of
the mutant allele of the gene
may have the phenotype.

Example Melanoma Albinism, haemophilia

Basal cell carcinoma

6.1.4 – assess the significance of ‘coding’ and ‘non-coding’ DNA segments in the process of
mutation

NON-CODING MUTATIONS (coding regions, non-coding regions)

○ Most of our DNA are introns; do not code for DNA
○ Introns (or flanking regions): do not code for any DNA
○ Exons: code for instructions for DNA for protein synthesis
○ Generally have little to no effect other than rare cases like ;
Eg. Huntington’s Disease is caused by a ‘non-coding’ DNA segment being a mutation -> affects
gene expression: over 40 short tandem repeats of CAG. Normal condition: less than 35 repeats
Germ-line cell mutations have a higher chance of the offspring having the disease if there is
already a lot of tandem repeats.

CODING MUTATIONS
● Sometimes has significant impact, sometimes does not
1. Missense Mutation: base substitution mutation -> wrong encoded amino acid in
polypeptide sequence
2. Nonsense Mutation: point mutation -> STOP mutation inserted into polypeptide -> non
functional -> protein synthesis unable to work
3. Silent Mutation: base substitution mutation -> results in same amino acid in polypeptide
-> no real/observable impact
 6.1.5 – investigate the causes of genetic variation relating to the processes of fertilisation,
meiosis and mutation

Fertilisation Meiosis Mutation

Cause of New alleles combined > results In crossing over & random In CODING region of gene,
Genetic in a blend of genetic segregation > gametes produced polypeptide may function
Variation information ; half from each with new chromosome differently > changed gene is a
parent. combinations > Nondisjunction may new allele.
Natural selection may increase add/remove a chromosome. Due to Increases or decreases gene
the chances of better ‘fit’ random distribution of new genetic pool. Abnormalities cause DNA
parents producing gametes. information, diversity occurs. changes in gene pool.

6.1.6 – evaluate the effect of mutation, gene flow and genetic drift on the gene pool of
populations

Gene Flow: when alleles are added or removed from a gene pool due to the migration of
fertile individuals/gametes from one population to another.
→ The higher gene flow between two populations, the less likely the two populations will
evolve into two species
→ Factors that may affect gene flow: mobility/movement of gametes (higher mobility =
higher chance of gene flow), physical or behavioural barriers
→ How barriers restrict gene flow:
↪ geographical isolation means that two populations may be too far apart for
mating
↪ hybrid infertility means that a hybrid offspring may be infertile due to the parent
genotype having different diploid numbers (chromosomes may not pair correctly
during meiosis)
↪ temporal isolation means that interbreeding is unlikely as the species may breed
at different times of day (even if they are in the same geographical range)
↪ behavioural isolation, where courtship rituals may attract only specific species
that may prevent mating with other species

Genetic Drift: when, by chance, unpredictable events change the allele frequency from one
generation to the next. It occurs more easily and heavily on smaller populations.
→ Not related to natural selection as it is random and has no involvement with the “fittest”
species.” It also does not necessarily lead to adaptations to specific environmental
conditions
→ Events that can lead to Genetic Drift:
 ↪ Natural disasters, such as flood where only those on high ground may survive
↪ Being accidentally killed by another species that is not a predator, competitor or
pathogen
↪ Chance events in fertilisation; more offspring may die
↪ Soil being waterlogged so only some plants and animals die due to their chance
location
→ Founder Effect: when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population, they
form a new one with a different gene pool composition. They are more likely to
experience a high frequency of genetic disorders as there are less organisms affected =
highest chance of genetic drift.
→ Bottleneck Effect: when a large population reduces in size. It can be from a natural
disaster or human activities. The gene pool of the surviving population is much smaller
than the original one. The alleles in the survivors are random. Eg. cheetah population =
lead to low genetic variability.

Biotechnology 6.2 How do genetic techniques affect Earth’s biodiversity?

6.2.1.a – investigate the uses and applications of biotechnology (past, present and future),
including:

Past Uses and Present Uses and Future Uses and

Applications Applications Applications

Agriculture Fermentation of food Selective breeding of Engineering of genes

(to produce bread, animals of plants to create
cheese, yoghurt). Pest resistant crops crops with desired
GMO of soybeans Fight drought, insect traits
(now most widely and disease infestation
used). on plants
Biological control of
pests (eg. prickly pear)

Industrial/Environmental Bacterial sludge used GMO’s in plants and Reduction of

in sewage treatment. animals greenhouse gas
emissions through
cover crops that
provide sustainable
biofuels. Fruits and
veggies stay fresher.

Medical Medicines, vaccines, Genetic testing, drug Banana vaccine - trials

 antibiotics (penicillin). treatments, artificial currently underway to
Insulin extracted from tissue growth, insulin incorporate vaccines
animals. development, against hepatitis B and
hormone growth cholera.
CRISPR - can modify
genes. Company trying
to use GMO’s to
prevent dengue fever
and Zika virus.

– analysing the social implications and ethical uses of biotechnology, including plant and animal
examples

Biotechnology: used to improve health, wellbeing, and the environment.

Positive Social & Ethical Implications Negative Social & Ethical Implications (Concerns)

○ Genetic Diversity: increase diversity of traits, ● Ownership: private & personal information
traits continue to be recombined to best may be exploited. Companies may use
survive in the environment genetic information to discriminate
○ Open-Source Directions: keeps scientific ● Intellectual Property: allows for products to
information in the public sphere for other be profited. Claims for ownership of DNA
scientists to work on projects they find sequencing in a person's body is
important complicated.
○ Reduced waste ● Expensive: only the rich can access such
○ Increased yield advanced technology
○ Sustainable future ● Long and complex procedures
○ Future generations will have best adapted ● Testing on animals = unethical (animal
traits welfare)
○ Improvements in health and nutrition ● Benefits vs harm for researching and testing
○ Reduced security threat new drugs
○ Less dependence on imports ● Backlash from religious groups on ethics (eg.
○ Traits are more safe and predictable embryos, designer babies, “killing” an
○ Farmers keep their jobs and continue to grow embryo)
crops (3rd world countries)

6.2.1.b
– researching future directions of the use of biotechnology
 Biotechnology Future Directions for Use Potential Benefits

Embryo Parents can alter the embryo Parents can screen out an embryo with
Profiling profile of certain characteristics: a genetic disease before implantation
eye colour, height, intelligence. (Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis).
Parent can choose which embryo Parents can create Designer Babies of
to implant their choice - this may enhance the
traits of future generations and
ultimately lead to an evolution of
adapted offspring.

Growing Egg IVF can be time-consuming and Parents who want to have kids may
Cells from complex. If skin cells can be used have a greater chance of producing
Human Skin to create egg cells, the technology viable embryos, making this an easier,
Cells will be increased in application. It less complicated and less
has already been successfully time-consuming procedure. They may
used in mice also be able to choose which embryo to
implant, ensuring the child has desired
features or without disease.

6.2.1.c
– evaluating the potential benefits for society of research using genetic technologies

■ Pharmaceuticals: vaccines use understanding of the immune system, and how it

responds to viruses, antibiotics. Development of molecules to strengthen this response.
Scientists are able to design drugs that have increased efficiency and fewer side effects
■ Stem Cell Treatments: allowed scientists to harness stem cells to create grafts, treat
certain cancers and diseases
■ Environmental: production of genetically modified crops improving the plants’ survival
rate and nutritional value
■ Industrial: biodegradable plastics
■ Energy: biofuels designed to extract energy from biomass rather than petrol

6.2.1.d
– evaluating the changes to the Earth’s biodiversity due to genetic techniques

★ Creation of monocultures use favoured genes that wipe competitive alleles from species’
gene pools
 ★ Horizontal gene transfer: acquires genetic information by transfer of a member of a
different species. As traits escape into ecosystems, competition may arise to other
naturally occurring species.

Genetic Technologies 6.3 Does artificial manipulation of DNA have the potential to change
populations forever?

6.3.1 – investigate the uses and advantages of current genetic technologies that induce genetic
change

Genetic Technology Use/Process/Application Advantages

Selective Breeding Humans control which males Increased health in offspring

- Agriculture and females are bred & with enhanced traits from
produce offspring with parents. Farmers improve
desirable traits yield, quality and longevity of
livestock -> more $$

Knockout Genes Studies gene function by Increased understanding of

- Medical comparing a knockout gene human diseases; cancers,
with normal functions. Mice heart disease, diabetes,
frequently used as knockout arthritis, substance abuse.
genes as they are similar to
humans.

Marker-assisted breeding Uses genetic markers to Increases speed of

- Agriculture/industry choose organisms for conventional selective
selective breeding. breeding. Increases yield.
Eg. tiger prawn (aquaculture) Eg. increases yield of tiger
developing breeds tolerant to prawns by over 50% -> prawn
endemic diseases. industry more sustainable

Genetic Screening and IVF Reveals specific information Diagnoses and analyses risk
(in-vitro fertilisation) about an embryo’s genetic of disease. Parents are
- Medical health to test for relieved to know their
chromosomal abnormalities embryo will not have a
or inherited disease -> genetic disorder. Allows
parents want to avoid this. infertile parents to have a
Egg fertilised outside of body child. Increase biodiversity by
– in petri dish -> inserted into introducing new alleles.
uterus of chosen birther.
6.3.2.a – compare the processes and outcomes of reproductive technologies, including but not
limited to:
– artificial insemination

Process Outcomes Assessment

Artificial Collects, stores and Increased amount of Less genetic diversity

Insemination transports male more desirable and biodiversity.
semen with desirable animals. Is expensive due to
- Agriculture
qualities, used to Transportation of the requirement of
and Medical fertilise a large frozen sperm is specialised
number of female cost-effective and equipment.
animals through reduces risk of injury Can cause injury to
their vagina. in transit/mating. the female organism.
A large number of
females can be
inseminated by just
one male’s sperm.

6.3.2.b
– artificial pollination

Process Outcomes Assessment

Artificial Transfer of pollen Controls the Improved plant

Pollination from male to the inheritance of outcomes eg. rice
stigma of female. The favourable traits. production. Breeder
- Agricultural
pollinated flower is Can be used to has complete control
then covered from produce hybrids for over which traits are
other flowers -> selective breeding. crossed. Can increase
allows for pollination susceptibility to
and fertilisation to disease
occur. (abiotic/biotic
pressures).
6.3.3.a – investigate and assess the effectiveness of cloning, including but not limited to:
– whole organism cloning

★ Also known as reproductive cloning

★ Creates an identical copy of a molecular organism with selected characteristics ->
genetically identical to parent
★ In mammals: cattle, chickens, sheep, dogs
★ Can use artificial embryo-splitting in animals
★ Can take cuttings of plants -> it eventually grows to become whole plants
Disadvantages:
○ High cost of breeding
○ High rate of mortality
○ High rate of health problems in cloned animals

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer:

1. Adult cell removed from organism that is going to be cloned. DNA is removed from the
cell.
2. Unfertilised egg is removed from the donor organism. DNA (in nucleus) is removed from
the egg.
3. DNA of organism is inserted into the donor’s egg cell.
4. Cell undergoes replication process.
5. When cell becomes embryo -> inserted inside surrogate mother
6. Surrogate gives birth to organism which is genetically identical to the donor
Therapeutic Cloning: makes a cloned embryo to use its cells in treating or researching diseases.
No evidence of this occurring yet though.

Ethical Considerations & Efficiency

● Health and longevity of the cloned organism
● Cloning is also expensive
● Eg. Dolly the sheep only lived for 6.5 years when her sheep breed (finn-Dorset) could live
for 11-12 years. -> could be due to the telomeres of chromosomes from somatic cell
already being shortened (cloned sheep is not born at 0 years old)
● Religious beliefs and social values: immoral, clash with human dignity
● Fear of human cloning
● Animal welfare
● Human superiority over animal debate
● Equity of access
● Can preserve endangered species

6.3.3.b
– gene cloning

★ Also known as Molecular Cloning

★ Produces multiple copies of a DNA sequence to produce multiple copies of an identical
molecule
1. Desire gene is cut from source cell using enzymes produced by bacteria
2. Gene fragments have matching ends. A plasmid is cut at the two ends with the same
enzymes.
3. Gene is pasted into the plasmid from a bacterial cell to form recombinant DNA
4. Plasmid inserted back into the host bacterial cell
5. Host cell replicates the DNA
Effectiveness:
● Allows genes lacking in certain organisms to be amplified at a quick and efficient rate.
Eg. human insulin growth hormone = time efficiency

6.3.4 – describe techniques and applications used in recombinant DNA technology, for example:
– the development of transgenic organisms in agricultural and medical applications
 - Using genetic engineering to insert one or more foreign genes into an organism’s
genome. This gives desired traits to the transgenic organism
- Eg. Aquabounty’s genetically engineered salmon has recombinant DNA featuring the
growth hormone gene from another salmon species and recombinant DNA with gene
regulators from an eel species.
- Techniques for making transgenic organisms can include bacterial plasmids,
microinjection, biolistics, electroporation and viruses.
- In bacterial plasmids, a small circular piece of DNA acts as a vector to transfer genes to
another species.
- This method of gene cloning involves creating a transgenic bacterium with the
desired gene inserted into its DNA plasmid and gene regulators.
- The bacterium undergoes fission to reproduce and more transgenic bacteria with
the desired gene are produced.
- Eg. producing human insulin in E.coli bacterium is used in large amounts for
medical purposes.
- In a bacterium there is a bacterial plasmid and bacterial chromosome. The
plasmid is removed from the bacterium and cut with a restriction enzyme. The
desired gene is cut out using the restriction enzyme. The recombinant DNA is
formed by annealing the desired gene into the plasmid using ligase. The
recombinant DNA plasmid is inserted into the bacterium.
- Restriction enzymes cut DNA at a specific sequence of bases which leaves DNA
overhangs called ‘sticky ends.’ These bond with another strand of DNA that has
complementary bases. DNA ligase then helps anneal the bases together. For example
Ecor1 always cuts between the G and A in GAATTCC.

6.3.5 – evaluate the benefits of using genetic technologies in agricultural, medical and industrial
applications

Increase crop & livestock resistance: protects against pests, diseases, extreme environmental
conditions. Eg. Bt cotton has a gene from soil bacterium that kills cotton-eating caterpillars.
Increase productivity, yield, quality of crops & livestock: eg. Golden rice has genes from daffodils
and soil bacterium to produce grains with beta-carotene for vitamin A = nutrition, health.
Produce therapeutic products: proteins, hormones, cytokines, enzymes, vaccines, antibodies for
research and medicine. Eg. insulin for diabetes that was inserted into a plasmid to transform
E.coli which is harvested and purified.
Study human diseases: Eg. Onco mice with human cancer genes can be used to predict and
develop cures for human cancer.
Create new products: Eg. blue roses are roses modified with pansy genes

6.3.6 – evaluate the effect on biodiversity of using biotechnology in agriculture

Biodiversity: variety of life on Earth within and between species.

Increase Biodiversity: artificial insemination and pollination used to cross organisms from the
same species that would otherwise be unable to breed. Recombinant DNA is used to move
genes between species, creating transgenic organisms.
Decrease Biodiversity: intense farming practices promote growth of crops and animals with
desirable traits = decrease biodiversity -> less likely to survive sudden environmental changes.
GMOs can escape into the wild -> may outcompete non-GMOs. GMOs may interbreed with
closely related species to produce hybrids and compete, causing problems for farmers and yield.

6.3.7 – interpret a range of secondary sources to assess the influence of social, economic and
cultural contexts on a range of biotechnologies

Social status, financial standing: impact who can access biotechnological products and services
that are expensive. Leads to social inequity as those who benefit are high in socioeconomic
status.
Human health can be negatively impacted from genetically modified foods and gene therapy.
Any risks should be evaluated and well-advertised to consumers.
Privacy has been debated in DNA profiling and genetic sequencing as they require the storage of
people’s genetic information in databases. Without proper legislation, data can be misused.

Ethical views are shaped by one’s philosophical, cultural and religious views. Eg. genetic
screening during pregnancy and consuming GMOs can be ethically sensitive to some groups.
Informed consent is needed for all medical treatments to be ethical. Eg. Parents must be
informed of all the potential risks to them and their unborn child. Animal welfare:
biotechnology can reduce our dependence on animals, improving animal welfare but other
applications may be perceived as violating animal rights by contributing to their pain and
suffering for our benefit.

Module 7: Infectious Disease

Causes of Infectious Disease 7.1 How are diseases transmitted?

7.1.1.a – describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens, including
microorganisms, macroorganisms and non-cellular pathogens, and collect primary and
secondary-sourced data and information relating to disease transmission, including:
– classifying different pathogens that cause disease in plants and animals

Pathogen: a biological agent which causes disease in a host organism.

■ They live and reproduce at the expense of the host
■ Disease is caused by the pathogen releasing toxins, damaging tissues, or competing for
nutrients
■ Being infected by a pathogen does not guarantee disease. Disease must involve a host
response
■ Pathogens only cause infectious diseases – can spread from one host to another
■ Hence non-infectious diseases are caused by factors unrelated to pathogens

Type Of Pathogen Features Example & Symptoms

Bacteria (cellular) -Unicellular prokaryote Mycobacterium tuberculosis

-Usually have a cell wall -Susceptible to the environment,
-Have a circular chromosome obligate intracellular bacteria
-Reproduce by binary fission -Fever, sweats, chills
-No membrane-bound organisms -Haemoptysis, non-productive
-Shapes: coccus (spherical), bacillus cough, chest pain
(rod), spirillum (sprialled), or vibrio
(comma)

Fungi (cellular) -Eukaryotes Candida Albicans

-Can be unicellular (yeast) -Fungus responsible for oral and
-Can be multicellular (mushrooms, vaginal thrush
moulds) -Found living amongst beneficial
-Have a cell wall made of chitin bacteria on mucosal surfaces
-Have membrane-bound organelles -Stress of antibiotics can cause the
-Heterotrophs Candida to overgrow and cause
disease
-Opportunistic pathogen
-Itching, unpleasant odour, white
discharge from area

Protozoans -Unicellular eukaryotes Plasmodium spp.

(cellular) -Reproduce by binary fission -Causes malaria
-Part of Protista kingdom -Jaundice, anaemia, blood in urine
 -Female Anopheles mosquito is the
main vector for the transmission of
Plasmodium cells to humans

Ectoparasites -Multicellular eukaryotes Sarcoptes scabiei

(animal) -Live on the surface of a host -Itch mite (parasite) causing scabies
-Macroscopic (can be seen without -Female scabies mite burrows into
microscope) the skin and lays eggs
-Itching is caused by an allergic
reaction to the mites
-Spread by prolonged direct
contact, common in families and
during sex
-Causes itchiness with a pimple-like
rash that gets worse at night
because the pathogen is nocturnal

Endoparasites -Multicellular eukaryotes Ascaris lumbricoides

(animal) -Live inside a host -Helminth (worm) aka nematodes
-Macroscopic (can be seen without responsible for roundworm
microscope) infestation
-Human endoparasites are worms -Largest intestinal roundworm
-Other endoparasites exist for affecting humans
other organisms -Causes gastrointestinal
obstruction, malnutrition,
iron-deficiency anaemia
-Faecal-oral transmission (through
improper food cleaning,
contaminated water, sexual
activity)

Prions -Protein + infection = prion Spongiform diseases

(non-cellular) -Normal prions are present in the -> Bovine spongiform encephalitis
nerve cells of the brain. They do (mad cow disease
not cause disease -Destroys nerve cells and brain
-When the prion protein misfolds, tissues
it causes disease and is resistant to -Drills small holes in brain matter
most methods used to break (can be seen under microscope)
proteins down -Disease can be sporadic (random
for no reason), or through
consumption of affected foods (eg.
beef)
-Invariably (always) fatal with no
cure
 -Causes seizures, tremors,
psychosis, delirium, insomnia

Viruses -A protein container which Human immunodeficiency virus

(non-cellular) encloses genetic material (HIV)
-Have both living and non-living -Kills cells of the immune system
characteristics and can cause acquired
-They infect by injecting genetic immunodeficiency syndrome
material into a living cell (AIDS)
-The injected genes are then -Patients suffer from repeated
expressed, producing billions of opportunistic infections and cancer
new viruses from AIDS due to failure of the
-Have a lytic and latent phase immune system
-Causes fever, large/tender lymph
nodes, sores around
mouth/genitals

Mode of Transmission
- The path a pathogen takes to move from one host to another
- Transmission can be direct (from infected host or reservoir) or indirect (through a
carrier)
Direct Modes:
- Physical contact between host and recipient
- Sexual contact, involving exchange of bodily fluids
- Oral cavity contact through kissing
- Vertical transmission between mother and child (childbirth or breastfeeding)
Indirect Modes:
- Airborne (droplets in air) containing infectious agents produced by host
- Faecal-oral
- Waterborne (eg. cholera)
- Foodborne
- Vector transmission where an organism carries the infectious agent from host to host

7.1.1.b
– investigating the transmission of a disease during an epidemic

Endemic: Present in a demographic at a predictable rate

Epidemic: A sudden increase in disease cases in a given geographical location; spreads rapidly.
Pandemic: An epidemic which has spread across countries or continents (global-scale)
 - Epidemics and pandemics occur when there is a large amount of infectious agents, many
susceptible hosts and effective modes of transmission.

CASE STUDY: Ebola Virus Disease

● First appearance in South Sudan and the Congo
● Major epidemic in 2014-2015 in West Africa, killing 11300 people out of 28600
infections
● Transmitted to humans from an infected fruit bat (host)
● Spreads through direct human to human contact
● Infects the dendritic cells of the immune system, preventing an immune response
(releases cytokines which thins blood which causes lowered blood pressure -> lowered
body temperature -> shocking the body -> death = overactive immune system)
● Initial symptoms include fever, muscle pain, headache
● Severe symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea, internal & external bleeding
● Treatment: no vaccine or cure. Patients are supported with intravenous fluids/therapy
(IV)
● Prevention, control: contact tracing, laboratory testing, cook meat thoroughly, sanitation

7.1.1.c
– design and conduct a practical investigation relating to the microbial testing of water or food
samples

Natalie Phan - Experiment Scaffold - Google Docs

7.1.1.d
– investigate modes of transmission of infectious diseases, including direct contact, indirect
contact and vector transmission

7.1.2.a – investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, to explain the causes and
transmission of infectious diseases, including:
– Koch’s postulates

➢ Established relationship between microbes and disease

➢ Performed extensive studies on bacillus anthrax
➢ Identified the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis and cholera (through his postulates)
 1. The same microorganism must be present in all hosts with a certain disease and not
present in healthy hosts
2. The microorganism must be cultured from the diseased organisms in a controlled
laboratory environment
3. When the isolated microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host, the new host must
present the same symptoms as the first host (develop the same disease)
4. The microorganism must be able to be cultured from the new host and it must be
identified as being the same as the first culture

7.1.2.b
– Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination

★ Before his experiments, it was believed that living things came into being from non-living
matter: spontaneous generation. Eg. flies came from rotting meat, mice developed from
dirty clothes
★ Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation
★ People also believed in the Miasma theory which stated that diseases were transmitted
via a toxic vapour containing miasma particles
★ His experiment provides strong evidence for the Germ Theory of disease: diseases are
caused by microorganisms which are too small to see without magnification
★ Discovered that microbes were responsible for spoilage, discovered a process to kill
these microbes -> pasteurisation (now a standardised industrial practice)

Swan Necked Flask Experiment

Aim: To show that microorganisms present in the air cause spoilage rather than from within the
broth itself

Materials:
- 2 conical flasks
- S-shaped glass tubing
- Straight glass tubing
- 2 rubber stopped
- Distilled water
- 1 stock cube
Method:
1. Produce a filtered beef stock using 1 stock cube mixed in 250mL of distilled water and
filtering it
2. Fit the stopped onto the flasks, one with straight tubing, the other with S-shaped tubing
3. Heat each flask so that it boils for 15 minutes
4. Place 10 drops of water into the S-shaped tubing so the tubing is completely blocked
5. Leave both flasks in a warm position out of direct sunlight for several weeks
6. Every 2 or 3 days, observe and record the contents of each flask

Discussion
- Cloudiness, bubbles, fungal colonies, scum, bacterial colonies should appear in the flask
with straight tubing
- The flask with straight tubing will decay and spoil while the flask with S-shaped tubing
will remain clear
- Boiling the broth killed all microbes present, creating a sterile environment
- With straight tubing, dust and air are able to fall into the broth, introducing microbes
and allowing spoilage
- The S-tubing creates an airtight seal, stopping spoilage and showing that microbes are
present in the air

7.1.3.a – assess the causes and effects of diseases on agricultural production, including but not
limited to:
– plant diseases

○ Australia’s agricultural industry contributes to around 3% of Australia’s GDP

○ Disease has a large effect on the agricultural industry
○ Disease management and prevention are major considerations and expenses for farmers
 ○ A disease affecting crops or livestock will heavily affect both farmers and consumers

Case Study: The Potato Blight

- Phytophthora infestans is the fungal pathogen that causes potatoes to become infected,
inedible, and flesh necrosis
- This significantly impacts potatoes that are asexually propagated because there is very
little genetic variation -> every potato is a susceptible host
Case Study: Panama Disease
- Fusarium oxysporum is the fungal pathogen that causes banana plantations to wilt,
perish and become inedible
- Bananas have non-functional seeds so they have to be asexually propagated. Hence
there is a lack of genetic variation so every banana is a susceptible host causing a crisis
Case Study: Fire Blight
- Affects the pome fruit industry such as apples and pears
- Erwinia amylovora is the bacterium that causes the rapid browning and death of pome
plant tissue
- Australia is not affected by this due to strict quarantine and biosecurity; all plant
products are prevented from entering the country
- Infection leads to tissue damage and death, bacterial ooze droplets
- Transmission from infected plants to healthy plants in through rain, wind, insects
- Prevention: on-farm biosecurity, adherence to on-farm hygiene practices

7.1.3.b
– animal diseases

Hoof/Foot and Mouth Disease

- Highly contagious disease affecting hooved animals: pig, sheep, cows, horses
- Australia remains free of the disease because of our strict quarantine and customs laws:
The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) minimises the risk of exotic
pests and diseases from entering Australia.
- This protects our health, agricultural, environment and native biota
- 29% of Australian agricultural exports is from meat and livestock products
- Causes fever, blisters in mouth and hooves of hooved animals
- Leads to production loses, loss of revenue, leaves animals weakened, economic loss

7.1.4 – compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and
transmission between hosts
Responses to Pathogens 7.2 How does a plant or animal respond to infection?

7.2.1.a – investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen through
practical and/or secondary-sourced investigation, for example:
– fungal pathogens

7.2.1.b
– viral pathogens

7.2.2 – analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and chemical
changes that occur in the host animals cells and tissues

Immunity 7.3 How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a pathogen?

7.3.1 – investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune systems in the human body

7.3.2 – explain how the immune system responds after primary exposure to a pathogen,
including innate and acquired immunity

Prevention, Treatment and Control 7.4 How can the spread of infectious diseases be
controlled?

7.4.1 – investigate and analyse the wide range of interrelated factors involved in limiting local,
regional and global spread of a named infectious disease

7.4.2.a – investigate procedures that can be employed to prevent the spread of disease,
including but not limited to:
– hygiene practices

7.4.2.b
– quarantine

7.4.2.c
– vaccination, including passive and active immunity
7.4.2.d
– public health campaigns

7.4.2.e
– use of pesticides

7.4.2.f
– genetic engineering

7.4.3.a – investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for
the control of infectious disease, for example:
– antivirals

7.4.3.b
– antibiotics

7.4.4 – investigate and evaluate environmental management and quarantine methods used to
control an epidemic or pandemic

7.4.5.a – interpret data relating to the incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in
populations, for example:
– mobility of individuals and the portion that are immune or immunised

7.4.5.b
– Malaria or Dengue Fever in South East Asia

7.4.6 – evaluate historical, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control the
spread of disease

7.4.7.a – investigate the contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols in the development

of particular medicines and biological materials in Australia and how recognition and protection
of Indigenous cultural and intellectual property is important, for example:
– bush medicine

7.4.7.b
– smoke bush in Western Australia
Module 8: Non-infectious Disease and Disorders

Homeostasis 8.1 How is an organism’s internal environment maintained in response to a

changing external environment?

8.1.1.a – construct and interpret negative feedback loops that show homeostasis by using a
range of sources, including but not limited to:
– temperature

8.1.1.b
– glucose

8.1.2.a – investigate the various mechanisms used by organisms to maintain their internal
environment within tolerance limits, including:
– trends and patterns in behavioural, structural and physiological adaptations in endotherms
that assist in maintaining homeostasis

8.1.2.b – internal coordination systems that allow homeostasis to be maintained, including

hormones and neural pathways

8.1.2.c – mechanisms in plants that allow water balance to be maintained

Causes and Effects 8.2 Do non-infectious diseases cause more deaths than infectious diseases?

8.2.1.a – investigate the causes and effects of non-infectious diseases in humans, including but
not limited to:
– genetic diseases

8.2.1.b
– diseases caused by environmental exposure

8.2.1.c
– nutritional diseases

8.2.1.d
– cancer
8.2.2.a – collect and represent data to show the incidence, prevalence and mortality rates of
non-infectious diseases, for example:
– nutritional diseases

8.2.2.b
– diseases caused by environmental exposure

Epidemiology 8.3 Why are epidemiological studies used?

8.3.1.a – analyse patterns of non-infectious diseases in populations, including their incidence

and prevalence, including but not limited to:
– nutritional diseases

8.3.1.b
– diseases caused by environmental exposure

8.3.2 – investigate the treatment/management, and possible future directions for further
research, of a non-infectious disease using an example from one of the non-infectious diseases
categories listed above

8.3.3 – evaluate the method used in an example of an epidemiological study

8.3.4 – evaluate, using examples, the benefits of engaging in an epidemiological study

Prevention 8.4 How can non-infectious diseases be prevented?

8.4.1.a – use secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of current disease-prevention

methods and develop strategies for the prevention of a non-infectious disease, including but
not limited to:
– educational programs and campaigns

8.4.1.b
– genetic engineering
Technologies and Disorders 8.5 How can technologies be used to assist people who experience
disorders?

8.5.1.a – explain a range of causes of disorders by investigating the structures and functions of
the relevant organs, for example:
– hearing loss

8.5.1.b
– visual disorders

8.5.1.c
– loss of kidney function

8.5.2.a – investigate technologies that are used to assist with the effects of a disorder, including
but not limited to:
– hearing loss: cochlear implants, bone conduction implants, hearing aids

8.5.2.b
– visual disorders: spectacles, laser surgery

8.5.3.c
– loss of kidney function: dialysis

8.5.4 – evaluate the effectiveness of a technology that is used to manage and assist with the
effects of a disorder