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Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgement xv

1 Introduction 1
References 6

2 Background Theory 7
2.1 Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields 7
2.1.1 Field Representation in Terms of Axial Field Components in
Source-Free Regions 9
2.1.2 Boundary Conditions 10
2.1.3 Poynting’s Theorem 11
2.1.4 Reciprocity 11
2.1.5 Duality 13
2.1.6 Method of Images 13
2.1.7 Geometric Optics 13
2.2 Equivalent Sources 15
2.2.1 Aperture in a Ground Plane 17
2.2.2 Conformal Surfaces 17
2.3 Radiation 18
2.3.1 Near-Field 21
2.3.2 Far-Field 21
2.3.3 Mutual Coupling Between Infinitesimal Current Elements 23
2.4 Problems 26
References 27
viii Contents

3 Fields Radiated by an Aperture 29

3.1 Radiation Equations 29
3.2 Near-Field Region 32
3.3 Fresnel Zone 32
3.4 Far-Field Region 33
3.4.1 Example of a Uniformly Illuminated Rectangular Aperture 38
3.5 Radiation Characteristics 40
3.5.1 Radiation Pattern 41
3.5.2 Half-Power Beamwidth 42
3.5.3 Front-to-Back Ratio 42
3.5.4 Polarization 42
3.5.5 Phase Centre 44
3.5.6 Antenna Gain and Directivity 44
3.5.7 Effective Aperture 46
3.5.8 Radiation Resistance 47
3.5.9 Input Impedance 47
3.5.10 Antenna as a Receiver 48
3.6 Aberrations 48
3.7 Power Coupling Theorem 50
3.8 Field Analysis by High-Frequency Methods 52
3.8.1 Asymptotic Physical Optics 53
3.8.1.1 Example: Scattering Radiation from Large Conducting
Wire Loop 55
3.8.1.2 Special Case: APO in Two Dimensions 57
3.8.2 Geometrical Theory of Diffraction 61
3.9 Problems 67
References 70

4 Waveguide and Horn Antennas 71

4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Radiation from Rectangular Waveguide 72
4.3 Pyramidal Horn 74
4.3.1 Design of a Standard Gain Pyramidal Horn 79
4.3.2 Dielectric-Loaded Rectangular Horn 81
4.4 Circular Waveguides and Horns 85
4.4.1 Circular Waveguide 86
4.4.1.1 Matching at a Circular Aperture 90
4.4.2 Coaxial Waveguide 91
4.4.2.1 Matching of a Coaxial Aperture 95
4.4.2.2 Coaxial Apertures with an Extended Central Conductor 97
4.4.3 Conical Horn 101
4.4.4 Corrugated Radiators 105
4.4.5 Cross-Polarization 110
4.5 Advanced Horn Analysis Topics 114
4.5.1 Flange Effects 114
4.5.2 Mode Matching in Horns 115
Contents ix

4.5.3 Profiled Horns 123

4.5.3.1 Optimization 126
4.5.3.2 Parametric Profiles 126
4.6 Problems 131
References 133

5 Microstrip Patch Antenna 137

5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Microstrip Patch Aperture Model 138
5.3 Microstrip Patch on a Cylinder 143
5.4 Problems 146
References 147

6 Reflector Antennas 149

6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Radiation from a Paraboloidal Reflector 150
6.2.1 Geometric Optics Method for a Reflector 152
6.2.1.1 Dipole Feed 154
6.2.1.2 Circular Waveguides and Horn Feeds 157
6.2.2 Edge Taper and Edge Illumination 160
6.2.3 Induced Current Method 162
6.2.3.1 Radiation from Symmetrical Reflectors with General Profile 164
6.2.3.2 Spherical Reflector 167
6.2.4 Receive-Mode Method 168
6.3 Focal Region Fields of a Paraboloidal Reflector 172
6.3.1 Asymptotic Representation of the Scattered Field 176
6.4 Blockage 181
6.5 Reflector Antenna Efficiency 183
6.6 Reflector Surface Errors 188
6.7 Offset-fed Parabolic Reflector 189
6.8 Cassegrain Antenna 196
6.8.1 Classical Cassegrain 196
6.8.2 Offset Cassegrain Antenna 198
6.9 Shaped Reflectors 202
6.9.1 Reflector Synthesis by Geometric Optics 203
6.9.2 Reflector Synthesis by Numerical Optimization 209
6.10 Problems 213
References 217

7 Arrays of Aperture Antennas 219

7.1 Introduction 219
7.2 Two-Dimensional Planar Arrays 219
7.2.1 Rectangular Planar Array 221
7.2.2 Hexagonal Array 223
7.3 Mutual Coupling in Aperture Antennas 228
7.3.1 Infinite Periodic Arrays 230
x Contents

7.3.2 Finite Arrays 235

7.3.3 Mutual Impedance and Scattering Matrix Representation 239
7.3.4 Analysis of Arrays of Aperture Antennas by Integral Equation Methods 242
7.3.4.1 Moment Method Approach 245
7.3.4.2 Mode Matching in Arrays 247
7.3.5 Mutual Coupling Analysis in Waveguide Apertures 249
7.3.5.1 Rectangular Waveguide Arrays 249
7.3.5.2 Self-Admittance of TE10 Mode 253
7.3.5.3 Arrays of Circular and Coaxial Waveguides 257
7.3.5.4 Self-Admittance of TE11 Mode in Circular Waveguide 262
7.3.5.5 Mutual Coupling in Other Geometries 266
7.3.5.6 Waveguide-Fed Slot Arrays 269
7.3.5.7 Arrays of Microstrip Patches 273
7.3.5.8 A Numerical Formulation of Coupling in Arbitrary
Shaped Apertures 278
7.3.6 An Asymptotic Expression for Mutual Admittance 281
7.3.7 Radiation from Finite Arrays with Mutual Coupling 284
7.4 Techniques for Minimizing Effects of Mutual Coupling 286
7.4.1 Element Spacing 286
7.4.2 Aperture Field Taper 287
7.4.3 Electromagnetic Fences 287
7.4.4 Mutual Coupling Compensation 287
7.4.5 Power Pattern Synthesis Including the Effect of Mutual Coupling 289
7.5 Low-Sidelobe Arrays and Shaped Beams 289
7.6 Problems 300
References 302

8 Conformal Arrays of Aperture Antennas 307

8.1 Introduction 307
8.2 Radiation from a Conformal Aperture Array 308
8.2.1 Waveguide with E-Field Polarized in Circumferential Direction 308
8.2.2 Waveguide with E-Polarized in Axial Direction 315
8.2.3 Historical Overview of Asymptotic Solutions for Conformal Surfaces 317
8.3 Mutual Coupling in Conformal Arrays 319
8.3.1 Asymptotic Solution for Surface Dyadic 322
8.4 Coupling in a Concave Array: Periodic Solution 325
8.5 Problems 331
References 331

9 Reflectarrays and Other Aperture Antennas 335

9.1 Introduction 335
9.2 Basic Theory of Reflectarrays 337
9.3 Extensions to the Basic Theory 341
9.4 Other Aperture Antennas 344
9.4.1 Lenses 344
9.4.2 Fabry–Pérot Resonator Antennas 352
Contents xi

9.5 Problems 354

References 356

10 Aperture Antennas in Application 357

10.1 Fabrication 357
10.1.1 Machining 357
10.1.2 Printing 358
10.1.3 Mould Formation 358
10.1.4 Electroforming 358
10.1.5 Lightweight Construction 358
10.1.6 Pressing and Stretch Forming of Reflector Surfaces 359
10.1.7 Assembly and Alignment 360
10.2 Measurement and Testing 361
10.2.1 Far-Field Measurement 361
10.2.2 Near-Field Measurement 364
10.2.3 Intermediate-Field Measurement 369
10.3 Modern Aperture Antennas 371
10.3.1 Compact Low-Sidelobe Horns 371
10.3.2 Multibeam Earth Station 375
10.3.3 Radio Telescopes 379
10.4 Problems 387
References 388

Appendix A: Useful Identities 391

A.1 Vector Identities 391
A.2 Geometric Identities 392
A.3 Transverse Representation of the Electromagnetic Field 393
A.4 Useful Functions 394
References 394

Appendix B: Bessel Functions 395

B.1 Properties 395
B.2 Computation of Bessel Functions 400
References 401

Appendix C: Proof of Stationary Behaviour of Mutual Impedance 403

Appendix D: Free-Space Dyadic Magnetic Green’s Function 405

Reference 406

Appendix E: Complex Fresnel Integrals 407

References 409

Appendix F: Properties of Hankel Transform Functions 411

References 412
xii Contents

Appendix G: Properties of Fock Functions for Convex Surfaces 413

G.1 Surface Fock Functions 413
G.1.1 Soft Surface Functions (m > 0) 414
G.1.2 Hard Surface Fock Functions (m < 0) 415
G.2 Acoustic Fock Functions 417
G.2.1 Soft Acoustic Fock Function 418
G.2.2 Hard Acoustic Fock Function 419
References 421

Index 423
Preface

Aperture antennas are a class of antennas in common daily use and some have even become
synonymous with areas of science and technology. Typical examples include reflectors, horns,
lenses, waveguides, slits, and slots. Other antennas can be conveniently described by means of
aperture concepts. Some of these include microstrip patches and reflectarrays. In this book we
describe the underlying theory and application of these antennas as well as their use in arrays.
The history of aperture antennas is inextricably linked with historical developments in wire-
less and also the verification of Maxwell’s equations. The very first waveguide was demon-
strated by Lodge in 1894 and in 1895 Bose used circular waveguides as an antenna along
with pyramidal horns for experiments on the polarization properties of crystals. About thirty
years later a 10 m diameter reflector became the first radiotelescope when it detected emissions
from electrons in interstellar space. In the 1960s aperture antennas accompanied the first
humans on the moon and more recently they have contributed to the wireless revolution that
is presently underway.
Aperture antennas are normally associated with directional beams and, indeed, this is their
role in many applications. They can also occur on non-planar or curved surfaces such as on
aircraft or ground-based vehicles. These antennas may consist of a single radiator or in arrays.
In this form they are often used to provide directional or shaped beams.
Directional beams are needed in terrestrial and satellite microwave links to efficiently use the
available power as well as to reduce interference and noise. Radar systems also require direc-
tional antennas to identify targets. As well, arrays of aperture antennas can produce almost
omnidirectional radiation.
A limitation of a directional planar antenna is that when it is scanned from broadside the beam
broadens and the pattern deteriorates. When the antenna is conformal to a convex surface, such as a
cylinder or a cone, the beam can be scanned in discrete steps through an arc while maintaining a
constant pattern. Of importance in the design of low sidelobe antenna arrays, both planar and con-
formal, is predicting the effect of mutual coupling between the array elements. Maximum perfor-
mance is achieved from arrays when the coupling between elements is fully taken into account.
This book gives an introduction to the techniques that are used to design common aperture
antennas as well as some approaches to their fabrication and testing. The intention is for it to be
a single textbook for a course in antennas in the final year undergraduate or in a master’s degree
by coursework. It assumes that the reader has undertaken a course on Maxwell’s equations,
fields and waves. Some of these topics are reviewed in the early few chapters to provide con-
tinuity and background for the remainder of the book. The antennas covered in later chapters
xiv Preface

include horns, reflectors and arrays. Some examples are pyramidal and corrugated horns, par-
abolic and spherical reflectors, reflectarrays, planar lenses and coaxial waveguide array feeds.
To provide more than a simplified treatment of arrays, the topic of mutual coupling is covered
in more detail than most similar books on this topic. Also included is an introduction to sources
and arrays on non-planar surfaces, which is of importance for applications involving aerody-
namic surfaces and for making aperture antennas unobtrusive. A chapter is included on modern
aperture antennas that extend the concepts introduced in earlier chapters. This is to show where
advances have been made in the past and how they could be made in the future. Also included
are some topics of a practical nature detailing some techniques for fabrication of aperture anten-
nas and their measurement.
Acknowledgement

The author thanks his many colleagues who have provided comments on some of the material
and for their contribution to the projects described herein. In particular for this book, thanks are
extended to colleagues Drs. Stuart Hay, Doug Hayman, Nasiha Nikolic, Geoff James, Stepha-
nie Smith and Andrew Weily who readily gave up time to providing comments on early drafts
of the chapters. Thanks are extended to members of the editorial staff at Wiley, in particular
Anna Smart, Sandra Grayson and Teresa Nezler, and also to the SPi publications content man-
ager Shiji Sreejish. The kind permission to use pictures by CSIRO Australia, the Institution of
Engineering and Technology (IET), Engineers Australia, and SES ASTRA is gratefully
acknowledged.
The author also wishes to acknowledge in particular several folk who provided mentorship
and gave great support and encouragement during his early research career. To mention a few
significant mentors by name: Prof. Peter Clarricoats, FRS gave the author a great start in the
area of aperture antennas and arrays; the late Dr. George Hockham FRS, inspired the author and
demonstrated the importance of some of the techniques described herein for applications and
how practical antennas could be realised; Dr. Geoff Poulton provided a number of important
opportunities for the author and long-term friendship and the many technical discussions during
our working careers; and finally, the late Mr. David Hurst helped the author in his first attempts
in the wireless area graciously and shared his wide knowledge and practical expertise. The
author wishes to thank Ms. Dallas Rolph for assisting greatly in editing the text as well as gen-
eral assistance when they worked together at CSIRO. Finally, the author is very grateful to his
wife, Val, for her love and strong support over 40 years when many of the topics discussed
herein were investigated.
1
Introduction

The topic of this book covers a class of antenna in common use today as well as a way of
describing many others. Examples include waveguides, horns, reflectors, lenses, slits, slots
and printed antennas. Some examples are illustrated in Figure 1.1. In the following chapters,
the background theory and application of some basic forms of these antennas are described as
well as how they can be designed, fabricated and tested. Additionally, detail will be provided on
some of the individual antennas pictured in Figure 1.1.
Aperture antennas are normally associated with directional radiation beams and, indeed, this
is their purpose in many applications. They can also create other types of beams such as shaped
or contoured beams either separately or combined as arrays as will be shown. Aperture anten-
nas can also occur on non-planar or conformal surfaces such as on aircraft or missile bodies
where airflow and aerodynamic performance are paramount. Conformal antennas can consist
of a single radiator or arrays in the surface where they can be used to provide directional and
shaped beams.
Aperture antennas can be used to produce omnidirectional radiation patterns, which are
important if the antenna platform is unstable or the user direction is unknown, for all-round
electronic surveillance and monitoring or where the location of another user cannot be guar-
anteed such as in mobile radio systems. A 360-degree coverage can be achieved with a con-
formal antenna or with electronic switching between planar elements.
Directional beams are required in terrestrial and satellite microwave links to efficiently use
the available power as well as to reduce interference and noise. Directional antennas are also
required in radar systems to identify targets. A limitation of a directional planar antenna is that
when it is scanned from broadside (typically boresight) the beam broadens and the pattern dete-
riorates. When the antenna is conformal to a convex surface, such as a cylinder or a cone, the

Fundamentals of Aperture Antennas and Arrays: From Theory to Design, Fabrication and Testing,
First Edition. Trevor S. Bird.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bird448
2 Fundamentals of Aperture Antennas and Arrays

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 1.1 Examples of aperture antennas. (a) Open-ended waveguide antennas (right to left) coaxial,
circular and rectangular. (b) Circular waveguide (diameter 32.7 mm) with three ring-slots designed for
operation at 9 GHz. (c) Feed array of pyramidal horns for 12.25–12.75 GHz. (d) 11–14.5 GHz high-
performance circular corrugated feed horn, diameter 273 mm, and flare angle 11.8 . (e) Small
paraboloidal reflector and rear waveguide feed designed for a 15 GHz microwave link. (f ) 64 m Parkes
radio telescope is a front-fed paraboloid (f/D = 0.408). This versatile instrument has been used for
frequencies from 30 MHz to >90 GHz. Source: Reproduced with permission from CSIRO (a–f)
Introduction 3

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k) (l)

Figure 1.1 (continued) (g) Two multibeam earth station antennas at Danish Radio’s multimedia
house in restad in Copenhagen, Denmark, covering different segments of the geostationary satellite arc.
(h) Multibeam feed system for the Parkes radio telescope. Source: Reproduced with permission from
CSIRO. (i) On-board Ku-band satellite antennas under test on an outdoor test range prior to launch.
(j) Dual-offset Cassegrain antenna with a waveguide array feed cluster under test in anechoic chamber
(Bird & Boomars, 1980). (k) Series-fed microstrip patch array for a microwave landing system.
Source: Reproduced from INTERSCAN International Ltd. (l) Conformal array of rectangular
waveguides (22.86 × 10.16 mm) on a cylinder of radius 126.24 mm. Source: Picture courtesy of Plessey
Electronic Systems
4 Fundamentals of Aperture Antennas and Arrays

beam can be scanned in discrete steps through an arc while maintaining a constant pattern.
Recent developments in microwave and optical components have simplified the design of feed
networks, thereby making conformal antennas and arrays attractive alternatives for directive
applications as well as for scanned beam and in ultra-low sidelobe antennas. Of importance
in the design of the latter, both planar and conformal antenna arrays are often employed,
and in this application predicting the effect of mutual coupling between the array elements
should be undertaken. Maximum performance is achieved from arrays when the effects of cou-
pling are known and included in the design. Otherwise, the full potential of the array flexibility
may not be realized.
Aperture antennas may be analysed in much the same way as the conceptually simpler wire
antennas. First, the designer needs to find the currents on the conductors or in other materials
from which the antenna is constructed. To do this exactly is usually impossible except in a few
idealized cases, and numerical methods are required to obtain approximate solutions. After the
currents are known, the radiated fields are obtained from Maxwell’s equations. Sometimes,
however, adequate design information may be obtained from simplified approximations to
the current, similar in some regards to adopting a sinusoidal current approximation on a linear
wire antenna. This approach is especially valuable for analysing the far-field radiation charac-
teristics, which are relatively insensitive to second-order variations in the current distribution.
However, for more detailed information or quantities such as the input impedance, reflection
coefficient at the input of horns or the effects of mutual coupling from nearby antennas, an
accurate representation of the currents is usually required to properly take account of the current
variations and near-field behaviour.
The representation of actual currents on the antenna structure may be difficult, or impossible,
to achieve analytically because of the geometry and materials involved. It is convenient, and
also physically allowable, to replace the actual sources by equivalent sources at the radiating
surface, the antenna ‘aperture’, which need not lie on the actual antenna surface but on another
often fictitious surface close by. For example, the aperture of a paraboloid reflector may be the
projection of the rim onto a suitable plane. These equivalent sources are used in the same way as
actual sources to find the radiated fields. Once these fields are known, an assessment of the
antenna’s performance can be made.
For the engineer wishing to specialize in the area of communications systems, some knowl-
edge is needed of the theory and design of aperture antennas. The intention of this book is to
provide some of this basic information. Today, compared with prior to the 1980s and even ear-
lier, a variety of full wave computer solvers are now available and are particularly valuable for
final design and analysis. The fundamental material available in this book is important as a
starting point and for understanding the physical nature of the antenna structure before more
detailed design is undertaken. It is intended that readers should be able to move from the present
material to more specialized topics and to the research literature. In addition, the details pro-
vided herein should help the non-specialist in antennas to critically assess aperture antenna spe-
cifications. Where possible, useful design information has also been included. An underlying
assumption is that the reader is familiar with the basic concepts of electromagnetic fields, waves
and radiation, as presented, in a variety of excellent textbooks (Harrington, 1961; Jones, 1964;
Jordan & Balmain, 1968; Kraus & Carver, 1973; Johnk, 1975). Some topics of a more
advanced nature have also been included here, beyond those of a typical introductory course.
These are indicated by an asterisk (∗) after the section heading. They have been included as
Introduction 5

possible extensions from standard material for more specialized courses, research or possibly
part of a project.
The material included here is based on notes for several courses in antennas given to fourth
year students in Electrical Engineering at James Cook University of North Queensland and also
at the University of Queensland in the 1980s. At that time there was no suitable modern text-
book available on antennas for undergraduate teaching. Since then, several excellent textbooks
have appeared (Balanis, 1982). In addition, the notes were found useful over the years by mem-
bers of my research group at CSIRO. Other relevant material had been developed on mutual
coupling for presentation at several symposia held in the 1990s, and some of this information
has been included here. As might be anticipated, practical topics of relevance that were encoun-
tered during my research career have been included as well.
The purpose of this book is to provide a stand-alone textbook for a course in antennas, pos-
sibly in the final undergraduate years or in a master’s degree by coursework. It should also be
useful for Ph.D. candidates and practising engineers. For continuity, some background electro-
magnetics, fields and waves are included.
The antennas described in detail include horns, reflectors, lenses, patch radiators and arrays
of some of these antennas. Because of its importance and to provide more than a superficial
treatment of arrays, the topic of mutual coupling is covered in greater detail than most similar
books in the area. Also included is an introduction to sources and arrays on non-planar surfaces,
which is important for applications involving aerodynamic surfaces and for making aperture
antennas unobtrusive. An introduction to the fabrication and test of aperture antennas is
included as well as some recent examples of them.
The theory needed for analysing aperture antennas is given in Chapter 3. Material is also
included for handling conformal aperture antennas. Starting with the concept of equivalent
sources, the equations for radiation from an aperture are developed from the fields radiated by
a small electric dipole and a small loop of current. The basic theory that is needed for more
detailed development is also provided. This includes details of the far-field radiation from
uniformly illuminated rectangular and circular apertures and also how phase aberrations on the
aperture impact the far-fields. The radiation from waveguide and horn aperture antennas are
described in Chapter 4, and material is included for the radiation from rectangular waveguide
antenna. This model is used as a basis for detailed description of the pyramidal horn. The radiation
properties of circular waveguides and horns are reviewed in this chapter and details are provided
on the corrugated horn. A simple model of the microstrip patch antenna is given in Chapter 5
along with details of the radiation properties of these antennas. The purpose is to describe another
form of aperture antenna and as background for reflectarrays. The properties of reflector antennas
in common use are described in Chapter 6, including the paraboloid the Cassegrain, and spheroid
geometries as well as some offset counterparts. Planar arrays of aperture antennas and mutual
coupling in arrays are detailed in Chapter 7. This is followed in Chapter 8 by similar details
for apertures on conformal surfaces. The areas of arrays and reflectors come together in the
reflectarray antenna, which is introduced in Chapter 9. This chapter also includes details of some
other aperture antennas not treated elsewhere, in particular, lenses, and the Fabry-Pérot cavity
antennas. Finally, some possible approaches for the fabrication and testing of aperture antennas
are described in Chapter 10. In addition it includes examples of some aperture antennas that make
use of many of the techniques covered earlier in the book. At all times, the intention is an emphasis
on fundamentals and, where possible, practical information for design is also included.
6 Fundamentals of Aperture Antennas and Arrays

References
Balanis, C.A. (1982): ‘Antenna theory: analysis and design’, Harper and Row, New York.
Bird, T.S. and Boomars, J.L. (1980): ‘Evaluation of focal fields and radiation characteristics of a dual-offset reflector
antenna’, IEE Proc. (Pt. H): Microwav. Optics Antennas, Vol. 127, pp. 209–218. Erratum: IEE Proc. (Pt. H), Vol.
128, 1981, p. 68.
Harrington, R.F. (1961): ‘Time-harmonic electromagnetic fields’, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Johnk, C.T.A. (1975): ‘Engineering electromagnetic fields and waves’, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Jones, D.S. (1964): ‘The theory of electromagnetism’, Pergamon Press, London, UK.
Jordan, E.C. and Balmain, K.G. (1968): ‘Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems’, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Eagle-
wood Cliffs, NJ.
Kraus, J.D. and Carver, K.R. (1973): ‘Electromagnetics’, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, International Student Edition, Kaga-
kuska Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
2
Background Theory

In this chapter, some background theory is provided and notation is introduced in preparation
for use throughout the remainder of this text. The equations that were devised by Maxwell and
placed in differential form by Heaviside and Hertz are introduced. Throughout this book, all
field and sources are assumed to be time harmonic and the formulation of the field equations
and their consequences will be explored under this limitation. The important concepts of field
duality, equivalent sources and image theory are summarized. Finally, radiation from elemen-
tary sources is investigated, and this allows a description of some basic radiation parameters as
well as an introduction to mutual coupling.

2.1 Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields

The instantaneous vector field quantity r, t may be expressed in terms of a complex vector
field, A(r), where all fields and sources have a time-harmonic dependence, as follows:

r, t = Re A r exp jωt , 21

where bold type face indicates vector quantities, ω = 2πf is the angular frequency (rad/s),
t denotes time (s) and f is the frequency (Hz) of the harmonic oscillation.
Field and source quantities are defined as follows (MKS units given in square brackets):

E(r) = Electric field intensity [V m−1]

H(r) = Magnetic field intensity [A m−1]
J(r) = Electric current density [A m−2]

Fundamentals of Aperture Antennas and Arrays: From Theory to Design, Fabrication and Testing,
First Edition. Trevor S. Bird.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bird448
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place, and the scene closes with a chorus.
No. 14. The commencement of the third act re-introduces the
opening chorus of the first act. Fortunatus then appears as a Quack
Doctor, and takes Carlino into his service as Punch. Pedro,
understanding that the Doctor possesses unfailing remedies for
diseases of the skin, is in hopes, through his means, to retrieve his
lost colour.
Now begins No. 15, a terzet between Fortunatus, Carlino, and
Pedro, during which the latter, by eating the healing apples, (the
same musical phrase being played at the time which expressed the
plucking of them,) recovers his complexion. The whole scene of the
disenchantment is very original and dramatically written. Pedro
hastens to his sister with Fortunatus to effect her cure also.
No. 16. Aria of Alide, who attempts to console her cousin
Agrippina; full of melody, and concertante for the oboe, and of
exquisite effect.
No. 17. Duet between Agrippina and Fortunatus. The latter being
introduced by Pedro to his sister in order to accomplish her cure,
obtains possession of the Wishing-Cap and Purse, and, grasping
Agrippina, wishes himself and her in a convent on the coast of Sicily,
where he compels her to pass the remainder of her days. This duet,
with the chorus belonging to it, forms one of the most original and
effective situations in the opera. Behind the scenes the nuns chaunt
an old choral hymn, a piece of sacred harmony still sung in
convents; to which, with the accompaniment of the orchestra, the
above two sing the duet, wherein the violent and wicked character
of Agrippina reaches its climax. The chorus is treated as canto
fermo, and the dramatic air proceeds with it, free and unshackled; it
is a composition worthy the highest praise. Agrippina takes the veil,
and the invisible chorus finishes with an AMEN.
No. 18. Aria with concerted parts. Alide is to be united to Pedro.
The King announces this in a pompous aria to the people, who
express their joy. Here is introduced a very fine march. Fortunatus
appears, unmasks the villain Pedro, and marries Alide. The opera
closes with a concerted movement.
The representation of this work in Frankfort was admirable. M.
Schmetzer, as Fortunatus, had ample opportunity to display his
magnificent voce di petto. Demlle. Lampmann also proved very
successful in the character of Alide. The getting up was worthy the
theatre, and the applause unqualified.
 M. MOSCHELES AT LEIPZIG.
(From the Musicalische Zeitung.)

M. MOSCHELES, whose talents as a pianist are held in such high

estimation by every country where the musical art is appreciated,
gave us an unrivalled treat on the 22nd instant (October), and again
proved to us how much the character of a composition, and the
feelings intended to be excited, depend on the taste, judgment, and
animation with which it is performed. Our celebrated guest was
welcomed in a manner correspondent to his high merits by an
audience that completely thronged the Gewandhaus; and we trust
that all who were present not only came to hear and to enjoy, but to
learn. M. M. played his new concerto in C, and his fantasia,
‘Recollections of Denmark.’ It would be presumptuous to offer a
judgment on works of art after but once hearing them, and more
particularly so in the present instance, where the performance was
so bewitching, that the critic’s attention was unavoidably drawn from
the composition to the composer. It would be mere commonplace to
call M. M. the true representative of the true school of piano-forte
playing, or to say that a perfect gradation of power, brilliancy of
touch, precision of time, and all the charms of rhythm are united in
his performance. A detailed description of the merits of a master
conveys no adequate idea of the qualities and powers peculiar to a
man of genius. M. M. has all the difficulties of his instrument in such
complete subjection, that as they increase, so does his command
over them; while to the minutest particulars he has the happy art of
giving a value and communicating an interest, so that the attention
of his hearer never relaxes, and is always gratified.
 In the midst of his energy he has a self-control which gives it
dignity. Light and shade, power and sweetness are so admirably
contrasted, or beautifully interwoven, that in the midst of his
admiration the hearer is instructed. All M. M.’s peculiar merits were
united in his extemporaneous fantasia, for which he had four themes
of Mozart given to him by the audience. The most striking
modulations blended with the most brilliant traits, that happy union
and reunion of his subjects, in which Hummel also excels, the
imposing dignity of his style, and an expression of lyrical feeling
peculiar to himself, completed a combination of excellence that
called forth the warmest marks of admiration from the delighted
audience.
 REVIEW OF NEW MUSIC.
SACRED MUSIC.
1. MUSÆ LYRICÆ, original melodies composed for four voices, by the
REV. CHARLES DAY, LL.B., Vicar of Rushmere, 1832. (Mori and
Lavenu.)
2. CHRISTIAN VESPERS, written and composed by C. HUCHESON, Esq.,
1832. (Glasgow, R. and J. Finlay.)

OF all the accomplishments which shed a grace over the clerical

character, music is the most becoming. There is ‘nothing more
strong and potent unto good than music,’ says Hooker; and Martin
Luther ranks it next to theology. It is a social art, which draws
persons together to enjoy a pleasure which can excite no bad
passion, and who separate without any cause to regret an aching
head, or a lightened purse, and, probably, a loss of temper. It very
much assists in confining what are called the pleasures of the table
within reasonable limits. It softens, though it never enervates the
mind; and even if indulged in to excess, to the exclusion of more
important pursuits, leaves at least the bodily health unimpaired. But,
viewed as part of our church service—an essential part, indeed, the
great length of the liturgy being considered—it is incumbent on the
ministers of religion to acquire a competent knowledge of that which
ought to be calculated to act very influentially, though calmly, on
their congregations. In cathedrals it is absolutely necessary that the
officiating clergy be well acquainted with music, for the greater part
of the service in those establishments is set to musical notes. Hence
we think it will be admitted, that a divine does not leave his calling
when he dedicates some portion of his studies to an art so closely
connected with his profession; and Mr. Day, while writing his present
work, may truly be said to have been labouring in his vocation. Much
more so, past all dispute, than if, following the example of so many
of his brethren, he had devoted the same time to the performance
of magisterial duties. We say nothing of hunting, and such
unintellectual, savage amusements, presuming that very few of our
clergy now engage in pursuits so utterly incompatible with the
sacred character.
The volume before us contains twenty-two short pieces of vocal
harmony, much, in fact, in the style of the psalm-tune, but more
modern in all respects. The melodies are pleasing, some of them
original; and in harmonizing these the composer has been quite
successful, except in the few instances hereafter to be mentioned.
Indeed a superior taste, and a knowledge of the best schools,
distinguish most of Mr. Day’s pages. The words—which we must
observe seem to partake strongly of what is called Evangelical
feeling—are selected from Bishop Heber, Watts, Cowper, Wesley,
Toplady, &c., the expression and accentuation whereof are
irreproachable, except in one or two trifling instances not worthy of
remark. But pleasing and good as the harmony generally is, we
discover a few errors in it, which, in a work displaying so much
talent and skill, rather surprise us. At page 14, third bar from the
end, are three octaves. At page 26, the latter four bars exhibit more
of such errors—that is, if it be intended that the base should take
the lower notes. If otherwise, however, the unisons are very meagre.
But severe critics will exclaim loudly at two consecutive fifths
between the second and third bars of page 46, which,
notwithstanding the enormity of the offence, we confess are less
painful to our ears than the eighths we have just pointed out,
though they will meet with no mercy from musical rigorists, and
undoubtedly ought to have been detected by the composer, and
corrected.
 The manner in which this volume is brought out is an undeniable
proof of the elegant taste of either the proprietor or his publisher;
and the charitable purpose to which the profits arising from the sale
of it are to be applied, is no less indicative of the benevolent feeling
of the reverend author.

Mr. Hucheson’s work consists of sixteen original airs, harmonized

for three and four voices. But to these are prefixed nine full quarto
pages of what the writer denominates an ‘Introductory Sketch,’ to
which, being by far the best and most interesting part of the volume,
we first give our attention. It is a brief account of the origin and
progress of musical psalmody, which he shows, from ecclesiastical
historians, to have been introduced into England by Gregory the
Great, at about the close of the sixth century. ‘In the seventh
century a person not only taught the Monks sacred music, in the
neighbourhood of Wearmouth, but also opened schools for musical
instruction in the northern shires of England. Afterwards a similar
school was established in Canterbury, and other places were
provided with teachers from that country. The reign of Alfred
adorned the close of the ninth century, and by him music was
liberally patronised. St. Dunstan, in the tenth century, excelled in
sacred music, as well as in the arts of painting and sculpture.’ In
succeeding centuries much of the ample revenues of the church
were expended in the encouragement of music. ‘Indeed, so much
was it then studied, that the priests of almost every European nation
travelled to Rome to learn chanting.’
Mr. Hucheson is a strenuous advocate for congregational psalm-
singing. His arguments are incontrovertible, if those who would sing,
could, and if those who could sing, would; but, unhappily, the want
of ability in some, and either the shyness or the pride (we fear the
latter) of others, presents an insurmountable obstacle to so desirable
a practice. The author is of opinion that congregations should be
instructed in psalmody, and that ‘a choir, consisting of their own
members, ought to occupy a situation in the church near the
conductor of the music.’ ... ‘The music of the church would
immediately become a theme of conversation at home, and of
remark abroad; and the subject being frequently discussed, would
lead to just views of its importance, and originate plans for its
improvement, by the influence of judicious criticism.’
As we have said above, if the great length of our morning service
is to continue unabridged, music must remain an essential part of it:
without the intervention of this, attention could hardly for so long a
time, and amidst so many repetitions, be kept alive; and if
introduced, it ought to be good. At all events, whatever in any
degree tends to excite ridiculous ideas should be most scrupulously
avoided; and what can be more ludicrous than the squalling of a
bevy of charity-children—the vocal musicians of most parish
churches? But will congregations be induced to join heart and voice
in the psalm, or any other kind of music? We fear not; for though,
owing to the increased diffusion of musical knowledge, numbers are
qualified, and would soon qualify others, yet absurd aristocratic
feeling is so prevalent in this our country, that where humility should
be most felt—in places of worship,—each class, from the highest to
almost the lowest, considers it a degradation to unite with those
beneath it, and pride, the denounced of religion and bane of society,
is as little suppressed in the church as at Almack’s.
Of the music in this work we cannot say much that will prove
gratifying to the composer. His melodies are not censurable, we
admit, except as being common; but his knowledge of harmony, as
evinced in his accompaniments, is of a very imperfect kind, and he
seems not to have taken the precaution to avail himself of that
assistance which we presume was easily to have been obtained.

PIANO FORTE.
FIFTH CONCERTO, (in C major) with or without Orchestral
Accompaniments, composed by I. MOSCHELES. Op. 87. (Cramer
and Co. and Mori.)
THIS Concerto was produced, for the first time, if we mistake not, at
Mr. Moscheles’ concert in June last; and the impression it made on
us was so strong, that the piano-forte part alone now brings to our
recollection most of the effects produced by an efficient orchestra.
This might almost be considered as a symphony, so full and active
are the instrumental parts; but the present publication, without the
accompaniments, includes all that belongs to the instrument for
which it is principally written, and is so far complete in itself; though,
of course, much of the grandeur of the composition, as well as many
highly important effects, must be lost, if unaccompanied. The very
opening of the concerto leads us to expect a work of great
originality, and we are not disappointed in its progress. The following
are the first dozen bars:—
 LISTEN

The solo part enters thus unceremoniously,—

 LISTEN
The progress of the principal and subordinate subjects is through
nearly all the keys and every variety of passage, and the ingenuity
with which this is managed is, in most instances, rewarded by the
effect produced. Though it must be granted that there are, in this
movement, certain difficulties which can have no other object than
to show the dexterity of the performer. And as to the sestine of
semiquavers, (page 20,) against four of the same notes, we must
say that, even when executed with mathematical precision, which is
nearly impossible, (would it were quite so!) the result is confusion
between the two parts, and, consequently, the effect on the ear
painful.
The second movement is beautiful throughout; the
commencement, in which the violoncello takes the melody, is so
lovely a piece of simple harmony, that we cannot forbear extracting
it:—
 LISTEN

But the most popular part of the present work,—and amongst

much originality we may also mention it as the most original,—is the
finale, or last movement. When performed, on the occasion before
alluded to, the very opening excited a murmur of applause, and
increasing satisfaction was marked on the countenances of the
audience as it proceeded. An examination of this does not lessen our
admiration of it; the invention, consistency, and spirit of the whole,
are manifest from the first to the last bars. We shall add to our
quotations the commencement of this, by which the reader will see
that the movement is not cast in a common mould.
 LISTEN

The three bars, or second subject, from the word dolce, are
afterwards taken, but in the relative minor, as the point of a fugato,
which morsel of science à l’ancienne, coming in so unexpectedly, and
not continuing long enough to puzzle and weary the unlearned, must
be counted among the happiest thoughts in the work.
This concerto, having been written for Mr. Moscheles’ own
performance, therefore for effect of all kinds, including a display of
his powers of execution, is, as will be supposed, abundantly difficult
—we therefore only recommend it to very superior players; to such it
cannot but prove highly valuable.

1. RONDO BRILLANT (à la Russe) with an Introduction, composed by

J. B. CRAMER. (Cramer and Co.)
 2. La Narcisse POLONAISE, composée par CHARLES CZERNY, avec
Introduction, par JEROME PAYER, Op. 175. (Wessel and Co.)

THE opera, 8 of Cramer, long ago taught us to associate agreeably

his name and airs à la Russe; we therefore anticipated much of the
pleasure which the above publication has afforded us, and feel
confident that it will find an admirer in every lover of true piano-forte
music. The Rondo Brillant is in A, 2 time, allegretto scherzando; the
4
subject simple, melodious, and treated in a fanciful, sprightly
manner;—with great taste, it is superfluous to add, for whoever
knew this quality wanting in any of Cramer’s productions? It is also
practicable by all tolerable performers, and comprehensible to every
one with a musical ear, a praise unmerited by many composers of
great name in the present day. We were much struck by a very bold
enharmonic change from E to E and back again (page 3); it will
always rouse the attention of the hearer, however drowsy he may
happen to be. The introduction, adagio, is expressive, energetic, and
just the right length. At page 6, bar 15, is a C , which ought to be D
. As the same error is repeated two bars beyond, it might mislead
the performer, if not pointed out as a misprint.

No. 2 is a Polonaise, which, if played in the time indicated by the

composer,—that is, not quick, for so we are to understand the term
grazioso,—will produce very considerable effect. The subject is
exciting, and well supported, the modulations good, the passages
mostly lie well for the hand, and the whole being included in nine
pages, the interest never flags. But as if M. Payer were resolved that
no one composition by M. Czerny should appear without some
drawback, he has written an introduction to this, in which is a
passage of semitones more ingeniously tormenting to the ear than
any we ever had the ill-fortune to meet with. The whole of this part
is full of pretence, and wretchedly unmeaning. We advise the
performer (who ought to be a skilful one to execute the Polonaise)
to substitute a few chords for M. Payer’s senseless page, begrimmed
as it is with half demi-semiquavers, for so sure as his hideous notes
are played, the auditors will simultaneously take to flight; while the
canine species, if any are within hearing, will proclaim their
sufferings in corresponding sounds.

1. AIR DE BALLET, tiré de l’opera La Tentation, et arrangé en

Rondeau, par J. HERZ, Op. 23. No. 1. (Mori and Lavenu.)
2. L’ORGIE, RONDO sur des thêmes de La Tentation, arrangée par
ADOLPHE ADAM. (Chappell.)

No. 1, from an opera now having a great run in Paris, composed by

Halevy, is an excellent rondo, the air graceful and pleasing, and the
amplification of it exhibiting delicacy of taste and a full knowledge of
the character and capabilities of the instrument. Here we find no
notes sixty-four to a bar,—no leaps of 17ths and 19ths,—no howling
runs of semitones,—all is rational, and worthy of a clever, spirited
writer. Let it, however, be observed, that the author of this is not
Henri Herz, but his brother, who appears to have a soul for music;
while his relative only shows that he has fingers and thumbs for the
art. This air is named La Romeca in the opera; it is by comparison
short, and though it looks easy, requires an experienced player, and
one with a wide hand, the base passages continually embracing ten
notes.

No. 2 is clearly a dance-tune: its rhythm of three and two bars

shows that the measure is made to yield to stage action. The air is
rather pretty—somewhat national in character, and the composer’s
chief aim seems to have been, to make the rondo as easy to the
performer as was possible, short of being rendered fit for a learner
of three months’ standing.

1. ‘Nel cor piu,’ arranged, with variations after the style of PAGANINI,
&c. &c. &c. by JOHN PURKIS. (Purday.)
 2. RONDOLETTO, from the Barcarole of Marie, by HENRY KARR.
(Welsh.)

THE least meritorious part of No. 1 is the title-page, which we have

cut short; not, however, from any disrespect to her Majesty, our
queen, whose name, ‘by special permission,’ appears on it, but
because it contains much nonsense. The five variations on Paisiello’s
air, ‘Nel cor piu non mi sento,’ are rather clever in contrivance, and
pleasing, but let us hope that not above half of these were ever
played on the organ, for semidemisemiquavers on that instrument
would be as much out of character as a bravura from the pulpit.
Indeed, we must say that, however well suited to the piano-forte,
there is hardly a single page of this calculated for that noble piece of
mechanism, the organ. If, nevertheless, the whole were ever
performed on the Apollonicon, and met with the ‘unbounded
applause’ which the composer—reviving a vain, childish, absurd
phrase, which we hoped had been exploded—boasts of, such
applause only proves what a modicum of discrimination his auditors
must have brought with them into the room.

No. 2 has much to recommend it to general notice;—the

barcarolle, by Herold, is a beautiful melody; it is exceedingly well
worked into a rondo, by Mr. Karr; the piece is not long, shews much
taste, and is well adapted to the instrument.

1. SIX VARIATIONS on The Blue Bells of Scotland, composed by J. T.

SURENNE. (Monro and May.)
2. Air, ‘The stilly night,’ with variations, composed byJ. F. LEESON.
(Dublin, Power.)

THE variations on the Blue-bells are very much like numberless other
things of the kind; the composer does not seem to have even made
an effort to strike out of the highway; he has followed the beaten
path, and committed no offence. The only attempt at novelty is to
be found in the title-page—(your title-pages are great tests of
understanding)—where, in dedicating his variations to a friend, in
English, he tells us, in French, that the dedicatee is an ‘élève de
Bochsa!’—as if the words were untranslatable; and also as if the
world cared one straw about such a piece of information.

The delicious air, ‘Oft in the stilly night,’ would, we should have
thought, have spoken for itself, and pointed out an elegant calmness
as the proper character of any variations written on it; but the
composer either has not heard, or has not listened to, the ‘still small
voice’ of reason; he has given us, first, a page of demisemiquavers,
‘brillante’, 2 time; next a crowd of skipping triplets; then poured on
4
us another flood of three-tailed notes, ‘Con Fuoco;’ and afterwards
as many more of the same kind, ‘presto!’—to say nothing of a coda
in a similar style. There is not a single new idea to be found in the
whole piece. If such things as this confer the title of ‘composer,’ we
then can only say that it is a title very easily obtained.

ROBERT LE DIABLE.
1. The OVERTURE and INTRODUCTION to the opera of Robert le Diable,
with flute or violin accompaniment, ad lib., composed by G.
MEYERBEER (Chappell.)
2. The Pas de la Bouquetière, danced by Madlle. Taglioni, in the
same, composed and arranged by MEYERBEER. (Chappell.)
3. BACCHANALIAN CHORUS in the opening scene of the same, arranged
as a BRILLIANT RONDO, by J. HERZ. (Chappell.)
4. The Pilgrim’s Ballad, ‘Jadis regnait en Normandie,’ from the
same, arranged with Variations, by CHARLES CZERNY. (Chappell.)
5. SICILIENNE, ‘L’or est une chimère,’ in the same, arranged by T.
VALENTINE. (Chappell.)

THE Overture to Robert is in two movements; the first an andante

maestoso in C minor, meant as a prologue to the diablerie of the
drama—a very much laboured composition, which does not make a
return equal to the trouble bestowed on it. The second is an
anticipation of the admirable and really popular air, ‘Jadis regnait en
Normandie.’ The introduction wants the voices and stage action to
give due effect to it, but there are some fine musical points in it,
which the pianoforte is quite sufficient to bring forth. The whole of
this is most judiciously arranged.

We never discovered the great merit of the Dance of the Flower-

Girl, No. 2, and suspect that the grace (not, let us hope, the
distortions) of Mademoiselle Taglioni produced more effect than the
music. The coda to this, however, is melodious and enlivening; and
the whole piece is adapted in a manner to have been expected from
so sensible a man as M. Meyerbeer.

No. 3, the Chorus in the introduction, we have spoken of above.

This is also remarkably well arranged by M. Jules (such Christian
name we believe he bears) Herz. Much of this is pleasing, and the
whole showy, without annoying the player and hearer with any
sleight-of-hand tricks.

In No. 4, M. Czerny appears not only in a rational, but almost in

an amiable shape. It would have been unpardonable to slay so good
an air as this under its parent’s eye. The first variation is a little
skittish, but afterwards the composer becomes sober, though very
animated, brilliant, and agreeable. The Introduction is the best thing
of the kind we ever saw from the pen of M. Czerny. The whole
makes a very delightful, and not very difficult, divertimento.

Mr. Valentine, in No. 5, has given us a simple, unaffected, good

arrangement of one of the most original airs in the opera. This is
short, perfectly easy, and is adapted to those whose progress, or
practical skill, may deter them from undertaking any of the foregoing
pieces.

1. GRAND WALTZ, with VARIATIONS and POLONAISE, composed by JAMES

M’CALLA; Op. 10. (Goulding and D’Almaine.)
2. LES BRILLANTES, WALTZER, composée par JAMES T. MAY. (Same)
3. A set of QUADRILLES, composed and published as the preceding.
4. A second set, ditto, ditto.

No. 1 is a pleasing, short waltz, but the grandeur of it, predicated in

the title-page, has not been revealed to us, though, doubtless, very
apparent to the author. The variations are few, moderate in length,
spirited, and though not very novel, are agreeable. The finale, a
Polacca, is exhilarating, well put together, and can never lack
admirers.

No. 2 comprises five well-written waltzes, which will not fail to

please. But of what country is the composer? His title would incline
us to suppose him a Frenchman, but that the grammar is false. The
word waltzer, neither English nor French, tempts us to ask if he is a
native of Germany. Perhaps it is not a matter of very singular
importance, but we abhor remaining in doubt, and like everything to
be in good keeping.

No. 3 and 4 possess a sufficiency of agreeable melody, but not of

that sort which surprises by its novelty. The quadrilles are all strictly
correct, and call for no greater exertion on the part of the performer,
than they seem to have cost the composer.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PIANO-FORTE, &c., including a variety of Fingered

Exercises, favourite Airs, &c. &c., by R. W. KEITH. (Keith, Prowse,
and Co.)
THIS, it appears, is the fifth edition of the work, though the first that
ever fell under our notice. But the word ‘edition’ is not always
construed in the same manner by music publishers as by publishers
of literature. By the former, a second, &c. impression, of perhaps a
hundred copies from the same plates, is sometimes called an
edition, though, in point of fact, two thousand copies are always
taken from one set of plates, if there is a demand for so many.
Correctly speaking, then, an edition of a musical work, printed from
pewter plates, and that has a large sale, is never under two
thousand; and if, in announcing the present as the ‘fifth edition’ is
meant that eight thousand copies have already been sold, we can
only express our surprise at never having met with the work till now.
Comparing it with many other publications of the same nature, it
certainly is entitled to commendation, though far from being perfect;
indeed, as we have more than once hinted, a good elementary
work: a work which, in method, perspicuity, and accuracy of
definition, may rival the didactic publications of the present day in
other arts and sciences, is still a desideratum.
Mr. Keith is correct in his principles: his examples, though not
always judiciously selected, are well fingered, and his annotations
are, for the most part, accurate and useful; but his language is
frequently not sufficiently precise, his punctuation often involves him
in obscurity, and his definitions are sometimes erroneous. For
instance, he tells us (page 16), that a bar ‘determines the place on
which the accent is laid.’ Now, a bar has nothing whatever to do with
determining the accent, it only assists in pointing out the note which
is to be accented. Again, in the same page, it is said, that ‘a
crescendo is effected on the piano-forte, by pressing down the key
immediately after it is struck.’ But the truth is, that loudness, or
softness, wholly depends on the force with which the key is struck;
pressure after the key is down is useful in the legato style, but
cannot, by any possibility, increase or diminish the degree of sound.
At page 19, and in many other parts of the book, we read of a ‘grave
angle!’ The only representative, in our mind, of a grave angle, is the
corner of a tomb-stone. There is but one angle used as a sign in
music, and that is an acute angle.
We protest most strongly against Mr. Keith’s mode of
accompanying the scale, both major and minor: his seventh, on the
rising sub-mediant of the former; his minor third, on the dominant of
the latter, and his change from the perfect chord to that of 42 on the
octave, are opposed to the best authorities, differ from universal
practice, are at variance with theory, and, in our opinion, hostile to
good taste.
In his dictionary of Italian words we likewise find objectionable
points. The orthography of several words stands in need of
amendment, and the explanation of some is incorrect. Here, also, is
a want of that strict definition, which is of so much importance in
education. A child, while even learning music, might, if instructed by
a well-informed, sensible master, incidentally have her mind opened
on many other subjects.
We call the author’s attention to these defects, considering them
remediable. If amended, his book will, we repeat, be found equal to
most of the kind, and superior to many.

VOCAL.—DRAMATIC.
1. AIR, ‘La trompette guerrière,’ dans l’opera Robert le Diable de
MEYERBEER. (Chappell.)
2. AIR, ‘Hark! the trumpet,’ ditto ditto ditto.
3. AIR, ‘Dès qu’une amie,’ in La Bayadère, composed by AUBER.
(Chappell.)
4. BALLAD, ‘I never can forget thee,’ from the Operetta of The Fancy
Ball; the Poetry by EDWARD MORTON, Esq.; composed by ALEX. LEE.
(Dean.)
5. BALLAD, ‘O! where are the joys?’ Ditto ditto ditto.
6. BALLAD, ‘Of love beware.’ Ditto ditto ditto.
THE first and second of the above are one and the same air: it is in
three movements; the two last of the bravura kind, and all requiring
a voice of great compass and flexibility. The opening reminds the
hearer of the most famous of all the Tyrolian airs; and there are
passages in the air which at once father it on the composer of Il
Crociato. The whole is energetic, and full of dramatic effect.

No. 3 was much sung here last season, by Madame Cinti, who
can render almost anything agreeable. It would be thought long in
the hands of singers of the second class, though there is a great
deal of originality in the first movement, and considerable merit in
the whole. But the latter part is certainly too much spun out, the
first stanza being repeated over and over again till it becomes
somewhat fatiguing. The effect of this considerably depends on
action; it is therefore better suited to the stage than to concert or
drawing-rooms.

The three ballads by Mr. Lee all possess a certain degree of

insipid prettiness, which enables them to pass uncensured, for they
exhibit no fault in composition, or in the setting of the words; while
it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to discover a single
original trait in any one of them. Hence they are easily understood
by an audience, and give not the slightest trouble to either singer or
accompanist in private.

1. GLEE, The New-Year’s Welcome, for three voices, the words by

EDWARD MORTON, Esq.; composed by T. COOKE. (Morton, late
Dean.)
2. BALLAD, ‘I’ll ne’er forget that happy hour,’ composed by Mrs. P.
MILLARD. (Chappell.)
3. ‘The little bark goes slowly on,’ the poetry by L. O. CUMMING,
A.M.; the music by Mrs. GEORGE BUBB. (Duff.)
4. SONG, ‘From thy shores, my loved Scotland,’ composed by H. R.
BISHOP. (Chappell.)
 5. BALLAD, ‘Waken, O waken! my bonnie dove,’ composed by FRED.
W. HORNCASTLE. (Hawes.)
6. ODE to the memory of Sir WALTER SCOTT, ‘The Minstrel sleeps,’
written by ROBERT GILFILLAN; composed by FINLAY DUN.
(Edinburgh, Paterson and Ray.)
7. SONG, ‘Come sing to me,’ the words by Miss E. ACTON, the music
by FINLAY DUN. (Paterson and Co.)
8. BALLAD, ‘My own,’ the poetry by CHARLES SWAIN, Esq., composed
by EDWIN J. NIELSON. (Purday.)
9. SCOTCH SONG, ‘What care I for gowd and gear,’ written by WILLIAM
PAUL, the music by JAMES P. CLARKE. (Glasgow, Brown.)
10. SONG, ‘As gentle rains refresh the earth,’ written by C. V.
INCLEDON, composed by T. H. SEVERN. (Hawes.)
11. SONG, ‘You ask me for a pledge, love,’ composed by J. F. LEESON.
(Goulding and Co.)
12. BALLAD, ‘O saftly sleep, my bonnie bairn,’ poetry by LEITCH
RITCHIE, Esq., composed by R. A. ROWE. (Dean.)

No. 1 is as easy to sing as it was to write. The composer certainly

did not rack his brains in search of novelty when he put this glee on
paper; neither, we are equally sure, did he bestow much thought of
any kind on any one line of it.

No. 2 is well set, as regards accentuation, and the melody,

though made up of not any uncommon phrases and cadences, is far
from inelegant, and the whole is quite easy.

No. 3, meant to be descriptive of a calm followed by a storm, is

not very successful. The first part may perhaps pass, but it was a
great mistake to relate the fatal catastrophe in notes which
described stillness and security—in a kind of da capo.
 No. 4 is, we presume, one of those things which the composer
has penned down after dinner, to avert a fit of somnolency; which,
however, will be transferred to all who listen to this song.

No. 5 is a brisk Aubade, or morning-song, which may prove

useful in ordinary cases, but has not sufficient potency to rouse the
nymph who is cast into a very deep slumber. In the opening
symphony, the last bar, the fifth, should be omitted; and in the first
bar of page 2, the F must, of course, be sharp. Being natural a
second time, in the following verse, may raise a doubt as to the
author’s meaning.

To No. 6 no fault can be imputed. But though the music is good,

and the verses set with great propriety, yet we expected more from
so intellectual a composer, the exciting nature of the occasion being
considered.

No. 7 is indebted to Haydn’s Mermaid’s Song for the

commencement. The whole is airy, and quietly but well
accompanied; and there is a good deal of variety in the song, just
indeed such as the words required. We should be better satisfied
with the symphony were the seventh and tenth bars discarded, and
a pause given to the last rest in the ninth. The rhythm, in fact,
requires this, or some such change, for the last bar here counts for
nothing in musical prosody.

No. 8 is not equal to some of Mr. Nielson’s songs; there is nothing

in it to fix attention, either in melody or accompaniment. The
disjunction of the words, bars two and three, page 3, just where
they ought to have been joined, is injudicious; and the error is not
less in making the last syllable long in ‘companionship,’ and the first
so drawlingly slow in ‘apathy.’
 No. 9 is just such a cheerful melody as we can imagine a frank,
independent, right-thinking Scottish lassie would sing to such words.
The song has only the merit of what the schoolmen call congruity.

The composer of No. 10 has produced much better things: he

has failed in this.

No. 11 shows some fancy, much enterprise, but a want of study

and experience.

No. 12 has the appearance of being an imitation of Charles

Smith’s popular song, but exhibits errors not to be found in the
model. Between the sixth and seventh bars of page 2 are fifths
which few ears will tolerate; these occurring again in the second
verse. And in order to have got out of an embarrassment in which
the composer evidently found himself while writing bars eight and
nine, same page, he should have struck out the E and the first D in
the treble staff. There are, nevertheless, symptoms of taste and
feeling in parts of this ballad.

FLUTE AND PIANO-FORTE.

1. First GRAND TRIO Concertante, composed by FRED. KUHLAU (of
Copenhagen). Op. 119. (Wessel and Co.)
2. INTRODUCTION and VARIATIONS, with a POLACCA, on an air in
SEMIRAMIDE, composed by T. BUCHER. (Op. 38.) (Gerock.)

MUSIC for the flute is seldom written in a learned and laborious

manner. With this fact in view, we may venture to say that Kuhlau’s
trio for two flutes and piano-forte is a clever composition; it abounds
in air, not of a common kind, and the harmony is rich, particularly in
the adagio, a short movement in E , full of expression. The first and
last movements are in G; the former melodious and elegant; the
latter, a gay, brilliant rondo. This is not very difficult for the
instruments, though it requires practised performers; and will, we
cannot doubt, be exceedingly well received in any small party of
connoisseurs.

No. 2 is the charming chorus and cavatina, ‘Bel raggio

lusinghiere,’ which M. Bucher, according to the practice of too many
flutists, has twisted into all kinds of unnatural shapes, by means of
variations, in which execution is the only aim of the composer. That
much cleverness, in one sense of the word, is evinced in these, we
do not deny; but cannot allow that what ought to be the chief object
—good and pleasing music, in which the art, not the performer, is
most prominent—has been sufficiently, if at all, taken into
consideration.

1. RONDO FAVORIT de MAYSEDER, arrangé par EUGENE WALCKERS. Op. 5.

(Wessel and Co.)
2. SELECT ITALIAN AIRS, arranged by J. SEDLATZEK and A. DIABELLI. No.
1. (Wessel and Co.)
3. Ditto, No. 2.
4. Ditto, No. 3.

No. 1 is the eternal air in A—

LISTEN

certainly very pleasantly and well arranged, moderate in length, and

calling for only reasonable powers in the flutist. The accompaniment
quite easy.
 Nos. 2, 3, and 4 form a highly useful work, at least to those who
admire modern opera airs. These numbers contain ‘Ah, come rapida!’
from Meyerbeer’s Crociato; ‘Soave e bel contento,’ from Pacini’s
Niobe; and ‘Deh! Calma, o ciel!’ from Rossini’s Otello. The flute part
is difficult; the accompaniment otherwise. Both are printed together,
but the former is also in a detached sheet.

FLUTE.
1. Old Friends with new Faces, a collection of the most popular
National Airs, &c. &c., arranged by T. LINDSAY. Books 2 and 3.
(Cramer and Co.)
2. THE FLUTONICON, or Flute-player’s Monthly Companion. No. IX.
(Sherwood and Co.)

THE ‘old friends’ are Scottish and Irish melodies, the best that could
be chosen, with variations to each; some in character with the airs,
and suited to the instrument; others yielding to fashion, therefore
not remarkable for appropriateness. This little work has an apposite
motto, ‘Should auld acquaintance be forgot?’ and those who say
‘nay,’ will do well to purchase the work.

No. 2 is the first number we have received of this periodical. It

consists of twelve octavo pages, containing short airs, also duets for
two flutes, arranged from popular compositions. We find here the six
airs performed by Paganini; a waltz; a prelude and adagio, by
Gabrielsky, and three other pieces. The work is neatly printed on
good paper.
 EXTRACTS FROM THE DIARY OF A
DILETTANTE.
[Resumed from page 284 of last Volume.]

December 1st.—NOTHING is talked about, or thought of, except the

siege of Antwerp and the general election. Sounds are heard on the
Kent and Essex coasts, which turn out to be only the thundering of
artillery, and the hopes of a dilettante are cast down long before the
walls of the citadel begin to tremble. Bands of music are collecting in
all quarters, but they eschew symphonies, overtures, and even
serenades; their sole purpose is to drown, not accompany, the
voices of rival candidates for parliamentary seats, who, by the way,
are commonly gainers thereby, in having speeches reported which
they could not have made. The autumn has passed away without a
concert in the provinces worth mentioning, and the foreign journals
are as barren of musical matter as our own newspapers. The doer of
small Monday’s articles in the Chronicle, who used at this season to
tell his hebdomadal tales of what great things were to be expected
at the opening of the Italian opera—of Signori and Signore,
surpassing all that had before been heard—of musical dramas, of
which ‘green-room report’ invariably spoke ‘in the highest terms,’—of
some wonderful wonder of wonders, whose fiddle was to reduce
that of Calliope’s son to a mere kit, or to whose voice Stentor’s was
but a gentle whisper,—even this urbane propagator of pleasing
exaggerations is mute! However, a Polish Paganini, it is said, is on
his way hither; but let us hope that he will leave his name behind
him, for, if we have it correctly spelt, every syllable would cost a
tooth in pronouncing. Also the celebrated concerto-drummer, and
the famous guimbardist, with the young lady renowned for her
grindery on the Vielle, are expected shortly; and rumour states,
though I do not believe it, that the King’s theatre is to be the scene
of their astonishing exploits; the whole pit to be converted into stalls
at a guinea each, and the boxes, at ten, to be reserved exclusively
for the Almackites. Query, is this the grand secret which we have
been told Christmas is to divulge?

The Sphinx has now no riddle; but a neighbouring statue has

long puzzled the learned of all nations by its supposed hymn to the
rising sun. A very intelligent traveller, however, who lately visited
Egyptian Thebes, and has published an interesting account of its
antiquities, therein communicates the grand secret of the vocal
stone, which he had from a gentleman who has long lived in its
immediate vicinity. It fairly belongs to musical history, for the
instrument employed by the cunning priestly performers was, it
would appear, decidedly a musical instrument. The following is the
statement:—
‘The famous musical statue of MEMNON is still seated on its
throne, dignified and serene as the plain of Thebes. It is a colossus,
fifty feet in height, and the base of the figure is covered with
inscriptions of the Greek and Roman travellers, vouching that they
had listened to the wild sunrise melody. The learned and ingenious
Mr. Wilkinson, who has resided at Thebes upwards of ten years,
studying the monuments of Egypt, appears to me to have solved the
mystery of this music. He informed me that having ascended the
statue, he discovered that some metallic substance had been
inserted in its breast, which, when struck, emitted a very melodious
sound. From the attitude of the statue a priest might easily have
ascended in the night, and remained completely concealed behind
the mighty arms, while he struck the breast: or, which is not
improbable, there was some secret way to ascend, now blocked up,
for this statue, with its companion, although now isolated, were
once part of an enormous temple, the plan of which may now be
traced.
‘Thanks to the Phonetic system, we now know that this musical
statue is one of AMUNOPH the SECOND, who lived many centuries
before the Trojan war. The truth is, that the Greeks, who have
exercised almost as fatal an influence over modern knowledge as
they have a beneficial one over modern taste, had no conception of
anything more ancient than the Trojan war, except chaos. Chaos is a
poetic legend, and the Trojan war was the squabble of a few
marauding clans.’

3rd. A Manchester paper of a few days ago, relates the following

‘SINGULAR EFFECT OF MUSIC.’ At the Cheetham-hill Glee-club, on Monday
evening, during the performance of “Non nobis, Domine,” which was
sung by about forty voices, a tumbler glass which stood upon a table
in the room, broke into a thousand pieces, as if shattered by an
explosion of gunpowder. When Dragonetti heard this paragraph
read, he exclaimed, in his patois,—‘it vas no maraviglia du tout dat
de canon made great noise, and cassée de glass[6].’
But a Lady’s Magazine for last November relates something much
more marvellous than the foregoing: it tells us that one single man,
by only breathing into a glass, shivered it to pieces! Even this is as
nothing compared to the power ascribed to Lablache in the same
article. The whole is a choice specimen of literary composition, of
appropriate words, and of scientific knowledge.—
‘The voice of Lablache,’ says the writer, ‘has lost the usual extent
of base voices—from sol to mi. With the exception of the two
extreme notes, his voice sounds equally on all points. It rings like a
bell by the force of its vibrations, and not by the action or
contraction of the gullet. The sound escapes as freely from his
breast as from the pipe of an organ of eight feet. Some of our
readers may have heard of the fine voice of Cheron. After Cheron
had been singing, he would, after refreshing himself with sugared
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