1. Functional elements of integrated waste management.

i)Waste generation: waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no
longer being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Wastes are
generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every stage as raw materials are converted
into goods for consumption. For example, wastes are generated from households, commercial areas,
industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services. The most important aspect of this
part of the SWM system is the identification of waste.

(ii) Waste handling, storage, sorting, storage and processing at the source: Waste handling and
sorting involves the activities associated with the management of waste until they are placed in storage
for collection.
• Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded container to the point of collection.
• Sorting of waste components is an important step in handling and storage of solid waste at the
source. For example, the best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source
of generation. Households are becoming more aware of the importance of separating newspaper and
cardboard, bottle/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non ferrous materials.
• Onsite storage is of primary importance because of public concerns and aesthetic consideration.
Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of which are undesirable, are often
seen are any residential and commercial sites.
• Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard waste composting.

(iii) Waste collection: the functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid
waste and recycling materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be materials processing facility, a transfer
station or a landfill disposal site.
iv) Sorting, Processing and transportation of solid waste: The sorting, processing and transformation
of solid waste materials is the fourth of the functional elements. The recovery of sorted materials,
processing of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in the locations away
from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this functional element.

• Sorting of mixed waste usually occurs at a material recovery facility, transfer station combustion
facilities and disposal sites. Sorting often includes the separation of bulky items, separation of waste
components by size using screen, manual separation of waste components and separation of ferrous
and non ferrous metals.

• Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy.

• The solid waste can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal process. The most
commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting. The most commonly used
thermal transformation is incineration. Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume,
weight, size of waste without resources recovery.

(v) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves:

• The transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles to the larger transport equipment.
• The subsequent transport of waste usually over long distances o a processing or disposal site. The
transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.

(vi) Waste disposal: Today the Disposal of waste by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate
fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a
landfill site, residual materials from material recovery facilities, residue from the combustion of solid
wastes. Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and operation
of landfill operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing solid waste without creating
a nuisance and hazard to public health.
2.Aerobic Decomposition and Methods

2. Aerated static pile composting

Aerated static pile composting is a non-proprietary technology that requires the composting mixture
(i.e., a mixture of pre-processed materials and liquids) to be placed in piles that are mechanically
aerated. The piles are placed over a network of pipes connected to a blower, which supplies the air for
composting. Air circulation in the compost piles provides the needed oxygen for the composting
microbes and prevents excessive heat build-up in the pile. Removing excess heat and water vapour
cools the pile to maintain optimum temperature for microbial activity. A controlled air supply enables
construction of large piles, which decreases the need for land. Odours from the exhaust air could be
substantial, but traps or filters can be used to control them. The temperatures in the inner portion of
a pile are usually adequate to destroy a significant number of the pathogens and weed seeds present.
The surface of piles, however, may not reach the desired temperatures for destruction of pathogens
because piles are not turned in the aerated static pile technology. This problem can be overcome by
placing a layer of finished compost of 15 to 30 cms thick over the compost pile.

3.In-vessel composting system

In-vessel composting systems enclose the feedstock in a chamber or vessel that provides adequate
mixing, aeration and moisture. Drums, digester bins and tunnels are some of the common in-vessel
type systems. In-vessel systems vary in their requirements for pre-processing materials. For example,
some require minimal pre-processing, while others require extensive MSW pre-processing. These
vessels can be single- or multi-compartment units. In some cases, the vessel rotates, and in others, it
is stationary and a mixing/agitating mechanism moves the material around. Most in-vessel systems
are continuous-feed systems, although some operate in a batch mode. All in-vessel systems require
further composting (curing) after the material has been discharged from the vessel. A major advantage
of in-vessel systems is that all environmental conditions can be carefully controlled to allow rapid
composting. The material to be composted is frequently turned and mixed to homogenise the compost
and promote rapid oxygen transfer. Retention times range from less than one week to as long as four
weeks. These systems, if properly operated, produce minimal odours and little or no leachate. In-vessel
systems enable exhaust gases from the vessel to be captured and are subjected to odour control and
treatment.
4. Indore Process
5. Vermicomposting

It is the process of decomposing organic waste using earthworms. These worms consume
biodegradable waste and produce vermicast (worm manure), which is rich in nutrients and beneficial
for soil health. It is an eco-friendly and efficient method of composting that enhances soil fertility
while managing organic waste sustainably.

Process of Vermicomposting

Step 1: Setting Up the Vermicompost Bin

• Select a bin with proper ventilation and drainage holes.

• Add bedding material (dry leaves, straw, shredded newspaper, coconut husk) to create a
moist, breathable environment.

Step 2: Introducing Earthworms

• Place earthworms into the prepared bin.

• Let them settle for a few days before adding food waste.

Step 3: Feeding the Worms

• Add organic waste in small quantities to avoid overloading.

• Chop large food scraps into smaller pieces to speed up decomposition.

• Mix food waste with dry bedding to maintain the right balance.

Step 4: Decomposition & Maintenance

• Turn the compost occasionally to ensure oxygen supply.

 • Maintain moisture levels (sprinkle water if too dry, add dry materials if too wet).

• Keep the bin shaded and at room temperature (20-30°C).

Step 5: Harvesting the Vermicompost

• In 4-8 weeks, the compost is ready.

• To separate worms, move the compost to one side of the bin and add fresh food to the other
side. The worms will migrate, making it easy to collect the finished compost.

3. Stages in Anaerobic Digestion with diagram

Stages of Anaerobic Digestion

1.Hydrolysis (Breaking Down Complex Molecules) : Large organic molecules (carbohydrates, proteins,
fats) are broken down into simpler compounds (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids).Enzymes secreted
by hydrolytic bacteria help in this breakdown.

2.Acidogenesis (Formation of Acids & Alcohols): The simpler molecules from hydrolysis are converted
into volatile fatty acids (VFAs), alcohols, hydrogen (H₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) by acidogenic
bacteria.

3.Acetogenesis (Production of Acetic Acid): The volatile fatty acids and alcohols from acidogenesis are
further converted into acetic acid (CH₃COOH), hydrogen (H₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) by acetogenic
bacteria.

4.Methanogenesis (Biogas Production): Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid, hydrogen, and
carbon dioxide into methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). This is the final stage, responsible for
biogas production.

Final Products of Anaerobic Digestion are

(i) Biogas: 60-70% Methane (CH₄) + 30-40% Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) → Used for electricity, heating, and
fuel.
(ii) Digestate: Solid and liquid byproducts → Used as organic fertilizer.

4. Process of aerobic composting and microbiology

Refer 2nd answer

5. Energy recovery from Municipal Solid Waste

Refer mod 3

6. Issues of Integrated solid waste management

Issues of Integrated solid waste management

1.Lack of Public Awareness & Participation

• People often do not segregate waste properly.

• Limited understanding of recycling and composting.

• Poor engagement in waste reduction initiatives.

2.Inefficient Waste Collection & Segregation

• Mixed waste disposal makes recycling and recovery difficult.

• Lack of proper infrastructure for waste sorting.

• Irregular waste collection services, especially in developing areas.

3.Limited Recycling & Recovery Facilities

• High costs of setting up recycling plants.

• Lack of advanced technology for waste processing.

• Some waste types (e.g., e-waste, hazardous waste) require special handling.

4.High Costs & Financial Constraints

• Establishing and maintaining waste management systems is expensive.

• Developing countries may lack funding for waste management programs.

• Private sector investment in waste management is often low.

5.Landfill Overuse & Environmental Impact

• Many areas still rely heavily on landfills, causing land and water pollution.

• Methane emissions from landfills contribute to climate change.

• Illegal dumping and open burning of waste pose environmental and health

risks.

6.policy & Regulatory Challenges

• Weak enforcement of waste management laws.

• Inconsistent waste policies across different regions.

• Limited incentives for industries to adopt sustainable waste practices.

7. Integrated solid waste management Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)

Needs:

The need for maintaining the right cleanliness sanitation and hygiene in any country/community is
very essential. While taking on cleanliness, Mahatma Gandhiji stressed that cleanliness is next to
godliness and said that a clean body cannot reside in an unclean city. It is perhaps the most basic step
for preventing the diseases. According to a study by WHO, lack of cleanliness leads to an annual loss
of over Rs.6500 every year to each Indian. Unhygienic surroundings are the main reasons behind
several diseases that are prevalent in the country. An UN report indicated that currently, nearly 60 per
cent of India's population practice open defecation which puts them at risk of diseases like cholera,
diarrhea, typhoid, tapeworm and other enteric diseases. The water of river Ganga is also unsafe for
bathing because it contains fecal coliform bacteria in large amounts (120 times higher than permitted).
World Bank report (2006) indicated that, India losses 6.4% GDP annually because of poor hygiene and
sanitation. It is, therefore, imperative to have sanitation and hygiene intact both at personal and
community level to improve health of masses.

Objectives:

Eliminate Open Defecation: To make India open defecation-free (ODF) by providing access to sanitary
toilets in rural and urban areas.

Solid Waste Management: To manage solid waste effectively through waste segregation, recycling, and
disposal practices.

Promote Hygiene and Cleanliness: Encouraging cleanliness in public spaces, homes, and workplaces,
along with promoting personal hygiene.

Awareness Generation: Educating citizens about the importance of cleanliness and proper sanitation
practices.

• To eradicate the system of open defecation in India.

 • To convert unsanitary toilets into pour flush toilets.

• 100% collection and scientific processing/disposal/reuse/recycle of solid waste to eradicate

manual scavenging.

• To bring about a behavioral change in the people regarding healthy sanitation practices.

• To link people with the programmes of sanitation and public health in order to generate public
awareness.

• To build up the urban local bodies strong in order to design execute and operate all systems
related to cleanliness.

• To completely start the scientific processing, disposal reuse and recycling of the municipal solid
waste.

• To provide required environment for the private sector to get participated in the capital
expenditure for all the operations and maintenance costs related to the clean campaign

8. Recovery, Reuse and recycle

Recovery from Solid Waste

Recovery from solid waste refers to the process of extracting valuable materials or

energy from waste that would otherwise be discarded. This helps in resource

conservation, reduces landfill dependency, and promotes sustainability.

Types of Waste Recovery:

1. Material Recovery:

• Recycling: Extracting and reprocessing materials like paper, plastic, metals,

and glass for reuse.

• Composting: Organic waste (food scraps, garden waste) is converted into

nutrient-rich compost for soil enhancement.

2. Energy Recovery:

• Incineration with Energy Generation: Burning waste at high temperatures to

generate electricity or heat.

• Biogas Production: Decomposing organic waste in anaerobic digesters to

produce methane gas for energy.

• Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF): Processing non-recyclable waste into fuel for

industrial use.

Benefits of Waste Recovery:

➢ Reduces environmental pollution and landfill waste.

➢ Conserves natural resources by reusing valuable materials.

➢ Generates renewable energy from waste materials.

➢ Supports the circular economy and sustainable waste management.

Reuse of waste

Reusing solid waste means utilizing discarded materials again without significant

processing. This helps reduce waste generation, conserve resources, and minimize

environmental impact.

Examples of Reuse in Solid Waste Management:

1.Household Reuse:

• Using glass jars as storage containers.

• Repurposing old clothes as cleaning rags.

• Reusing plastic bags for shopping.

2.Industrial & Commercial Reuse:

• Refilling glass bottles instead of manufacturing new ones.

• Reusing pallets and packaging materials in warehouses.

• Repairing and refurbishing old furniture.

3.Construction & Demolition Waste Reuse:

• Using reclaimed wood for new building projects.

• Reusing bricks and concrete in construction.

• Repurposing old doors and windows.

4.Electronic Waste (E-Waste) Reuse:

• Refurbishing old computers and mobile phones.

• Reusing parts from discarded electronics.

5.Medical Waste Reuse (Safe & Sterilized):

• Using sterilized glass syringes instead of disposable plastic ones.

• Donating unused medical equipment to healthcare centers.

Recycling of Solid Waste

Recycling of solid waste refers to the process of converting waste materials into new,

reusable products, reducing the need for raw materials and minimizing environmental

pollution.
Steps in the Recycling Process:

1. Collection & Transportation – Waste is collected from households, industries, and

businesses.

2. Sorting & Segregation – Materials like paper, plastics, glass, and metals are

separated.

3. Processing & Cleaning – Waste is cleaned and prepared for recycling.

4. Conversion into New Products – Reprocessed materials are used to create new

products.

5. Selling & Distribution – Recycled products are sold and reintroduced into the

market.

Types of Solid Waste Recycling:

1.Paper Recycling – Used newspapers, magazines, and office paper are turned into

new paper products.

2.Plastic Recycling – PET bottles, containers, and plastic bags are processed into new

plastic goods.

3.Glass Recycling – Broken glass is melted and reshaped into new bottles and

containers.

4.Metal Recycling – Aluminum cans, steel, and copper materials are recycled into

new metal products.

5. E-Waste Recycling – Electronic components are dismantled and valuable metals

are recovered.

6. Organic Waste Recycling – Food and garden waste is composted to create

fertilizers.

Benefits of Recycling:

➢ Reduces landfill waste and environmental pollution.

➢ Conserves natural resources like timber, water, and minerals.

➢ Saves energy by reducing the need for new material production.

➢ Lowers greenhouse gas emissions, helping combat climate change.

➢ Promotes a circular economy, where materials are reused instead of discarded.

Energy from Waste (EfW)

Energy from Waste (EfW) is the process of converting non-recyclable waste materials
into usable energy, such as electricity, heat, or fuel. This reduces landfill waste while

generating renewable energy.

Methods of Energy Recovery from Waste:

1. Incineration (Waste-to-Energy Plants)

• Waste is burned at high temperatures to produce heat.

• Heat is used to generate steam, which drives turbines to produce electricity.

2. Gasification

• Waste is heated in a low-oxygen environment to produce syngas (synthetic

gas).

• Syngas is used to generate electricity or as a fuel for industries.

3. Pyrolysis

• Waste is decomposed at high temperatures without oxygen.

• Produces bio-oil, syngas, and charcoal, which can be used for energy

production.

4.Anaerobic Digestion (Biogas Production)

• Organic waste (food, manure) is broken down by bacteria in the absence of

oxygen.

• Produces biogas (methane & CO₂), which is used for cooking, electricity, or

fuel.

5.Landfill Gas Recovery

➢ Decomposing waste in landfills releases methane gas.

➢ Methane is captured and converted into electricity or heat.

Benefits of Energy from Waste:

✔ Reduces landfill waste, minimizing environmental pollution.

✔ Generates renewable energy, decreasing reliance on fossil fuels.

✔ Cuts greenhouse gas emissions by reducing methane release from landfills.

✔ Contributes to the circular economy, turning waste into a valuable resource.

✔ Provides an alternative fuel source for industries and power plants.

9. Smart city program

Smart City Mission

Smart Cities Mission is to promote cities that provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of
life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment and application of ‘Smart’ Solutions.The Uni
on Ministry of Urban Development is responsible for implementing the mission in collaboration with
the state governments.
The government of India has a vision of developing 100 smart cities by modernizing the existing mid-
sized cities. A "Smart City Program" aims to utilize technology and data-driven approaches to
improve urban infrastructure, services, and citizen quality of life by integrating smart technologies
across various sectors like transportation, energy, waste management, healthcare, and governance,
creating a more efficient and sustainable city environment.

Key aspects of a Smart City Program:

• Smart Governance: Efficient and transparent public administration with online services, citizen
engagement platforms, and data-driven decision making.

• Smart Mobility: Intelligent transportation systems including traffic management, public

transport optimization, and smart parking solutions.

• Smart Infrastructure: Advanced utility networks with energy-efficient buildings, smart grids,
and water management systems.

• Smart Economy: Fostering innovation and entrepreneurship through technology hubs and
digital platforms.

• Smart Environment: Sustainable practices like waste recycling, green spaces, and pollution
monitoring.

• Smart Citizenry: Promoting digital literacy and citizen participation in decision-making

processes.

Key Components of a Smart City Program:

• IoT (Internet of Things) Devices: Sensors and connected devices collecting real-time data on
various aspects like traffic, air quality, and energy consumption.

• Big Data Analytics: Utilizing data analysis to identify patterns and trends for informed decision
making.

• Cloud Computing: Scalable storage and processing power to manage large data volumes.

• Mobile Apps: Citizen-centric applications for accessing services, reporting issues, and receiving
updates.

10. Classification of waste

Source-based classification

(i) Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists of leftover

food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.(ii) Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting

of leftover food, glasses, metals,

ashes, etc., nerated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops,

medical facilities, etc.

(iii) Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated

from educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons,

etc.

(iv) Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant

residual sludge, etc., generated from various municipal activities like construction and

demolition, street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

(v) Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and

construction wastes, hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.

(vi) Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains,

litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.

(vii) Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots,

playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.

Type-based classification

Classification of wastes based on types, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of

wastes, are as follows.

(i) Garbage: This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the handling, sale, storage,

preparation, cooking and serving of food. Garbage comprising these wastes contains putrescible

(rotting) organic matter, which produces an obnoxious odour and attracts rats and other vermin. It,

therefore, requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.

(ii) Ashes and residues: These are substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal,

coke and other combustible materials for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small

industrial establishments. When produced in large

quantities, as in power-generation plants and factories, these are classified as industrial wastes.

Ashes consist of fine powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal

and glass. Since ashes and residues are almost entirely inorganic, they are valuable in landfills.

(iii) Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated from

households, institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly

putrescible material. Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile,

rubber, garden trimmings, etc., non-combustible material consists of such items as glass, crockery,
tin and aluminium cans, ferrous and non-ferrous material and dirt.

(iv) Bulky wastes: These include large household appliances such as refrigerators, washing

machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. Since these household

wastes cannot be accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a special collection

mechanism.

(v) Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks

and vacant plots, and include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, leaves and

other vegetable matter. Littering in public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in

many countries including India, and a solid waste management system must address this menace

appropriately.

(vi) Dead animals: With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die naturally or

are accidentally killed on the road. Note that this category does not include carcasses and animal

parts from slaughter-houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided

into two groups – large and small. Among the large animals are horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs,

etc., and among the small ones are dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, etc.

(vii) Abandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks and trailers

that are abandoned on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have

significant scrap value for their metal, and their value to collectors is highly variable.

(vii)Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of construction,

refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures. They

consist mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating

systems and electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream.

(ix) Farm Wastes: These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as

planting, harvesting, production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation of

feedlots. In many areas, the disposal of animal waste has become a critical problem, especially

from feedlots, poultry farms and dairies.

(x) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial, institutional

or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to

human beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or

radioactive characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some

cases, the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes.

(xi) Sewage wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage wastes.

They are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge separated from both

raw and treated sewage. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells are

separated at the preliminary stage of treatment, as it may entrain putrescible organic matter with

pathogens and must be buried without delay.

11. factors affecting waste generation

1. Geographic location: The influence of geographic location is related primarily to

different climates that can influence both the amount of certain types of solid wastes

generated and the collection operation. For instance, substantial variations in the

amount of yard and garden wastes generated in various parts of India are related to the

climate. To illustrate, in the warmer southern areas, where the growing season is

considerably longer compared to the northern areas, yard wastes are collected in

considerably larger quantities and over a longer period of time.

2. Seasons: Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of

certain types of solid wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and fruits

affect the quantities of food wastes.

3. Collection frequency: A general observation is that in localities, where there are

ultimate collection services, more wastes are collected.

4. Population diversity: The characteristics of the population influence the quantity and

composition of waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more in low-income

areas compared to that in high-income areas. Similarly, the composition differs in terms

of paper and other recyclables, which are typically more in high-income areas as against

low income areas.

5. Extent of salvaging and recycling: The existence of salvaging and recycling

operation within a community definitely affects the quantity of wastes collected.

6. Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if and

when people are willing to change – on their own volition – their habits and lifestyles

to conserve the natural resources and to reduce the economic burden associated with

the management of solid wastes.

7. Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the
use and disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences the

composition and generation of certain types of wastes. The Indian legislation dealing

with packing and beverage container materials is an example.

12. about integrated waste management with diagram

Solid waste management(SWM) generally involves traditional waste collection,

transportation, treatment, and disposal where as integrated solid waste management

(ISWM) is a more comprehensive approach that incorporates waste reduction,

recycling, material recovery, composting, and energy recovery to minimize landfill use.

This figure represents a modern waste management system that integrates different

methods to handle waste sustainably. By reducing waste at the source, recovering

materials, composting organics, generating energy, and minimizing disposal, the

system ensures environmental sustainability and economic efficiency.

A. Waste Generation & Reduction

Waste generation:

waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer

being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Wastes are

generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every stage as raw materials are

converted into goods for consumption. For example, wastes are generated from
households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and other

municipal services. The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the

identification of waste.

Waste Reduction:

Strategies such as minimizing packaging, sustainable product design, and consumer

awareness help reduce waste at the source. Waste reduction is a proactive approach and

is positioned before storage in the diagram.

B. Storage & Collection

Storage: Waste is temporarily stored in bins, dumpsters, or collection points before

transportation.

Proper storage prevents littering and environmental contamination.

Collection:

➢ Waste is collected from households, businesses, and public spaces and transported

to either:

Transfer stations, Processing facilities (materials recovery, composting, combustion),

final disposal sites.

➢ Efficient collection reduces operational costs and environmental impact.

C. Transfer and Transport

Large quantities of waste are transferred from smaller collection vehicles to larger

transport trucks.

This step helps in cost-effective long-distance transport to disposal or recovery facilities.

D. Processing & Recovery Pathways

Once collected, waste follows multiple pathways depending on its composition and

potential for reuse:

1.Materials Recovery:

Waste materials like plastics, metals, glass, and paper are separated and sent for

recycling.These materials are processed and returned to markets, reducing demand for

raw materials.

2.Composting:

Organic waste (food scraps, garden waste) undergoes biological decomposition known

as composting. The resulting compost can be used as fertilizer in agriculture and

landscaping. Composting reduces landfill waste and greenhouse gas emissions.

3.Combustion (Waste-to-Energy):

Waste-to-Energy (WTE) is a process where non-recyclable waste is burned in

incinerators or processed in gasification plants to generate electricity or heat. These

energy products are then supplied to the electric grid or used for district heating system

E. End-of-Life Options: Markets & Disposal

1.Markets:

Recyclables and compost are sent to markets where they are sold as raw materials for

industries.

Waste-to-energy products (electricity/heat) are also supplied to the grid.

2.Disposal (Landfills & Incineration without Energy Recovery):

Any remaining waste that cannot be recycled, composted, or used for energy recovery

is sent for final disposal. This includes landfilling. Landfill is a designated site where

waste is disposed of by burying it under layers of soil.it is the least preferred option due

to space constraints and environmental concerns.